Does modern Archaeology lend criticism to the narrative laid out in the Old and New Testament?
Is there any good historical evidence that the Biblical characters even existed?
Watch and decide for yourself...
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2. Contents
• Understanding Archaeology
• Archaeologists and Historians
• Ancient Writing
• Reign of the Kings
• Old Testament Archaeology
• Dead Sea Scrolls
• Reliability of the New Testament
• New Testament Archaeology
Click on Titles to View Sections
4. Definition of Archaeology
T he term archaeology
is a compound word from
the
Greek “Archaios” and “Logos,” meaning the “study
of ancient things.” The Greeks, Romans, and Jews
used Archaiologia :
Plato: describes the Lacedaemonians as archaeologists
since they were fond of genealogies and foundations of
cities
Thucydides: used it to summarize the early history of
Greece
Denis of Halicarnassus: used it to describe history of
Rome
Josephus: employed the term to describe history of the
Jews
5. Definition of Archaeology
A rchaiologia was used in English for the first
time:
Bishop Hall of Norwich used it to describe the
Bible narratives (1607)
“ Archaeology” used in early 19th century to
describe the “digging up” of objects
6.
Definition of
Archaeology
John Currid: The study of objects used
by past societies….The aim of
archaeology is to discover, rescue,
observe, and preserve buried fragments
of antiquity and to use them to help
reconstruct ancient life
Roland De Vaux: Archaeology seeks,
describes, and classifies these materials
Stuart Piggott: Archaeology is the
science of rubbish
7.
Definition of
Archaeology
D.J. Wiseman and Edwin Yamauchi:
Archaeology is an auxiliary science of
history, helping its study by revealing
information
Randall Price: Archaeology is
understood as a branch of historical
research that seeks to reveal the past by
a systematic recovery of its surviving
remains
8. Rise of Archaeology
T he earliest systematic interest in archaeology is
found in Nabonidus , the last king of Babylon (6th
century BC). He sought out past inscriptions and
material structural remains most likely to
legitimize
his claim to the Babylonian throne since he was
not a blood heir.
CC-Art.com
Clay Cuneiform Cylinder of Nabonidus
9. I nitially,
Rise of Archaeology
archaeology was associated with grave
robbing and treasure seekers. The images below
depict a looted 2500 BC tomb at Bab-adh-Dhra
cemetery (Sodom, Jordan) at the southeastern end of the
Dead Sea.
Tomb Entrance 2x2 ft
Inside View of 10x6 ft Oblong Cave
Tomb
10. Rise of Archaeology
E ventually, excavations at the Bay of Naples
(below),
Italy, commenced in 1738, officially highlighting
archaeology as a legitimate scientific discipline.
11. Rise of Archaeology
M ajor excavations began at Pompeii , Italy, in
1748 to uncover the ash laden (20 ft) city
destroyed by
the volcanic eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in AD 79 .
Work at this site continues to the present day.
Charred Ruins with Mt. Vesuvius
Burnt Remains of Temple of Apollo
Society of Antiquaries established in London
12.
Rise of Archaeology
N apoleon’s army officer,
Hieroglyphics
Lt. Bouchard, discovers
the trilingual black basalt
Rosetta Stone in Egypt in
1799, which led to the
publication of the
Description de L’Egypte
(1809-13)
Demotic
A rchaeology rises in 19 th /
20th centuries with Paul
Botta and Austen H.
Layard’s excavations at
Khorsabad, Nimrud, and
Nineveh (Iraq)
Greek
Rosetta Stone (1700 lbs)
13. Archaeology as Biblical
Proof
A rchaeology as “Proof” of Historical Narrative:
Minimalist: very little evidence and certainty
Maximalist: overwhelming evidence and
certainty
Moderate: sufficient evidence and certainty,
without contradiction with the biblical narrative
O bjective of Archaeological Research:
To clarify and illumine the Bible record
To discover whether the events of Scripture are
historical
To build confidence (give assurance) in God’s
revealed Scripture
14.
Objections to
Archaeology
History can’t be known (self defeating)
(relies on one’s historical knowledge to say it can’t be known)
Worldview skews the data (self-defeating)
(all employ a worldview to interpret data, including the objector. The real
question is whether one’s worldview is true or not)
Fragmentary evidence (impractical)
(All knowledge, including the objection, is based on less than exhaustive
evidence, e.g. newscasters)
Archaeology is not science (Yes it is!)
(Archaeology is origin science testing unrepeatable singularities much like
crime scene investigation which uses forensic science)
History & faith have no connection (Yes it
does!)
(Can’t separate the historical nature of Christ’s death and resurrection from
the spiritual forgiveness of sin. Cannot have one without the other, Jn 3:12)
15. Limitations of Archaeology
By its very nature archaeological evidence is
fragmentary and is often disconnected
Only a fraction of the evidence has survived, has been
excavated, surveyed, examined, and published
Although archaeology in its descriptive phase
with concrete objects and employs exact
measurements, we cannot claim it is an exact
deals
science
Archaeology’s interpretive aspects involve too many
judgments of probabilities to secure the certainty of
chemical experiments. On the other hand, certain
principles of excavation command general acceptance
Scriptures
~Edwin Yamauchi
The Stones and the
16.
Kinds of Remains
Tel: Earthen debris mound of cities built on top of a
previous city. Each layer containing remains of one
period is known as a “stratum”
Glacis: Sloping fortification running from bottom to
top of defensive walls to slow intruders
Artifacts: Portable objects made by man such as
tools, arrowhead, Jewelry, knife, jar, etc
Feature: Non-portable architectural structures such
as fireplaces, walls, hearths, gates, and
foundations
Ecofacts: Used, but not made by humans such as
bones, seeds, wood, etc
Ostraca: Pottery sherd with writing on it
Locus: Official area of investigation at an
26. Edwin Yamauchi
The Stones and the Scriptures, 36.
“ Until the breakthrough of archaeological
discoveries, the stories about the
biblical patriarchs-Abraham, Isaac, and
Jacob-were subject to considerable
skepticism…. In the last thirty years,
however, a steadily increasing flow of
materials from Mesopotamia and SyriaPalestine-from Mari, from Nuzi, from
Alalakh-has convinced all except a few
holdovers, of the authenticity of the
patriarchal narratives.”
27. Nelson Glueck
Rivers in the Desert: A History of the Negev, 31
“ It may be stated categorically that
no archaeological discovery has ever
controverted a biblical reference.
Scores of archaeological findings
have been made which confirm in
clear outline or exact detail historical
statements in the Bible.”
28. Millar Burrows
What Mean These Stones?, 176
“ The Bible is supported by
archaeological evidence again and
again. On the whole, there can be no
question that the results of excavation
have increased the respect of scholars
as a collection of historical documents.
The confirmation is both general and
specific.”
29. William F. Albright
The Archaeology of Palestine, 248
“ Archaeological discoveries of the
past generation in Egypt, Syria,
and Palestine have gone far to
establish the uniqueness of early
Christianity as an historical
phenomenon.”
31. The Development of
Writing
T he earliest known writing, pictograms , came from Southern Iraq
(Sumer) in the 4 th millennium BC. These simple pictures were
written in vertical columns with a sharpened reed plant stalk
pressed into soft wet clay. This period is known as the
protoliterate age of logographic (pictures stand for words) writing,
rather than phonographic writing (pictures stand for sounds)
which would develop in the 3 rd millennium BC.
4 th millennium BC Pictograms
32. The Development of
Writing
P ictograms eventually led to the development of cuneiform
(from Latin cuneus meaning “wedge”) wedge writing with nearly
300 pictorial signs . By the beginning of the 2 nd millennium BC it
became the standard script in most Mesopotamian regions.
Akkadian Cuneiform
33. The Development of
Writing
I mmediately after pictographic writing was developed in Sumer,
Egyptian pictographic hieroglyphics (lit. “sacred engraving”)
appeared using over 600 pictorial signs. These could be written
vertically or horizontally. Eventually, other script forms of
Egyptian writing would be developed such as hieratic and
demotic . These writing forms would be replaced by the 1 st
millennium BC by the more simple alphabetic signs which gave
rise to Aramaic, Hebrew and Greek.
Egyptian Hieroglyphics
Egyptian Demotic
34. The Development of
Writing
• T he alphabet , which was developed sometime in the 2
nd
millennium BC, would eventually replace pictograms,
hieroglyphics, and cuneiform writing during the 1 st millennium BC
• Aramaic would be received as the official script in Persia, and
used in some surrounding territories by the 6 th century BC.
• Aramaic became the basis of Hebrew and Arabic writing
• By the 4 th century BC, Greek became the universal language
Aramaic
Hebrew
Greek
37. Kings of Assyria
T hough Assyria had limited power from 1300-1000 BC, only the
time period when Assyria had significant contact with Israel will be
listed. The Assyrian Empire fell to Babylon at Nineveh in 612 BC.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Tiglath-pileser III Victory Parade
Tukulti-Ninurta II (890-884 BC)
Ashurnasirpal II (883-859 BC)
Shalmaneser III (858-824 BC)
Shamsi-Adad V (823-811 BC)
Adad-nirari III (810-783 BC)
Shalmaneser IV (782-773 BC)
Ashur-dan III (772-755 BC)
Ashur-nirari V (754-745 BC) 2 Kings 13:5?
Tiglath-pileser III (Pul) (744-727 BC) 2 Kings 15:19, 29*+
Shalmaneser V (727-722 BC) 2 Kings 17:3-6*+
Sargon II (722-705 BC) Isaiah 20:1*+
Sennacherib (704-681 BC) 2 Kings 18:13*+
Esarhaddon (680-669 BC)+ 2 Kings 19:37*+
Ashurbanipal/Osnapper (668-627 BC) Ezra 4:10*+
*Those named in the Bible who are mentioned in extra biblical
history or archaeology
+Mentioned in the Bible by name
38. Kings of Babylon
T his list of kings is not exhaustive, it reflects the Neo-
Babylonian Empire of the 11 th Dynasty. Babylon fell to the
Persian Empire in 539 BC (Daniel 7:4). A full list of kings since
the 8 th century BC can be found in Ptolemy’s Canon of Kings.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Nabopolassar (626-605 BC)
Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BC) Daniel 1:1*+
Evil-Merodach (562-560 BC) 2 Kings 25:27*+
Nergal-Shar-usur (560-556) Jeremiah 39:3*+
Labashi-Marduk (556 BC)
Nabonidus (556-539 BC)
Belshazzar (co-regent) Daniel 5:22*+
*Those named in the Bible who are mentioned
in extra biblical history or archaeology
+Mentioned by name in the Bible
Ishtar Gate, Babylon (Iraq)
39. Kings of Persia
T he Persian Empire fell in 330 BC to Alexander the Great’s
much smaller Greek army (Daniel 7; 8:3, 20-21).
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Achaemenes (700-675 BC)
Cyrus I (640-600 BC)
Cyrus II (559-530 BC)*+
Cambyses II (530-522 BC)
Darius I (522-486 BC)*+
Xerxes I (486-465 BC)*+ Limestone
Artaxerxes I (465-424 BC)*+
Darius II (424-404 BC)
Darius III (336-330 BC)
Wall Relief of Darius I and Xerxes
(Persepolis, Iran)
*Those named in the Bible who are mentioned
in extra biblical history or archaeology
+Mentioned by name in the Bible
40. Kings of Egypt
A n exact listing of Egyptian kings is difficult, with the margin of
error being up to 100 years. Only those kings associated with
biblical events/figures beginning with Joseph with be listed.
• Sesostris II (1880-1874 BC) (Joseph)
• Sesostris III (1874-1855 BC)
• Tuthmosis III (1479-1425 BC) (early exodus)
• Amenhotep II (1427-1400 BC)
• Ramesses II (1279-1213 BC) (late exodus)
• Shoshenq I (945-924 BC) 1 Kings 14:25 *+
• Taharqa (690-664 BC) 2 Kings 19:9 *+
• Tantamani (664-656 BC)
• Necho II (610-595 BC) 2 Kings 23:29-35 *+
• Hophra/Apries Jeremiah 44:30 *+
The historian Herodotus (5 th century BC):
"So when Apries [Hophra] leading his foreign
mercenaries…had reached the city of Memphis,
they [Apries and Amasis] engaged in battle.“
~ Histories , 2.161ff
CC-Art.com
Tablet from Abydos depicts
*Those named in the Bible who are mentioned in extra biblical King Hophra/Apries offering
history or archaeology. +Mentioned by name in the Bible
libation to a god
42. Evidence for the
C ritical Exodusdenied the Israelite exodus from
scholars have
Egypt due to lack of direct historical evidence. However,
there are several lines of evidence which make this event
plausible:
• Beni-Hasan Mural: A tomb dating to 1900 BC at the
Egyptian
necropolis at Beni-Hasan (near Cairo) portrays the
migration Features : Weapons, clothing, colors, animals,
• Similar
of bearded Semites (Asiatics) with donkeys and colorful
musical
attire
instruments, and migration direction (see photo below)
CC-Art.com
from Canaan to Egypt, similar in appearance to the
Hebrews.
43. Evidence for the Exodus
S everal other lines of evidence support the
exodus:
• Hebrew language used in the Bible to describe the exodus
and
Egyptian life was written by someone who had intimate
knowledge of Egypt (i.e. Moses)
• Ipuwer papyrus is a 13 th century BC copy of an earlier
period
which describes conditions in Egypt that resemble the
biblical
account of the plagues including river is blood, trees are
destroyed, no light in the land, people everywhere burying
the
dead (Exodus 7-12 cf. Ipuwer 2:2, 6, 13; 4:14; 9:11)
• Foreigners have been enslaved throughout Egypt’s history
• Evidence of settlements and encampments in the Sinai and
at
44. Jericho
E xcavations at Jericho and the analysis of
Canaanite
pottery samples by archaeologist, Bryant Wood, have
demonstratedfortified city in 15 th century BC (Joshua 2:5• Jericho was a that Jericho was conquered c. 1400
BC .
7,15)
• The city was destroyed by fire (Joshua 6:24)
• The fortification walls collapsed (Joshua 6:20)
• The destruction was in the
spring due to grain storage
(Joshua 2:6, 3:15, 5:10)
• The grain stored in the city
was not consumed indicating
a short siege (Joshua 6:15,20)
• The grain was never used
by the inhabitants or invaders
(Joshua 6:17-18)
Jericho Brick from Wall
45. Temptation Seal
D iscovered in Sumer, this chlorite seal (drawing) shows two
figures seated on thrones reaching towards the tree with a
serpent behind each figure. Some view the seal as an
ordinary banquet scene, others suggest it is depicting the
Genesis temptation story with Adam and Eve. If it is, the
temptation and fall was known almost 800 years prior to the
writing of Genesis, implying the great significance and
widespread knowledge of the temptation story.
46. Amarna Tablets
1400 BC
D iscovered in 1887 by peasant woman in Egypt, the
Amarna Tablets written in cuneiform describe the “Hapiru,”
which many understand as a distinct reference to the
Hebrews, as the early conquerors of Canaan . This shows
that the Hapiru were well known in Mesopotamia by early
2nd millennium BC which is consistent with the Bible’s
patriarchal narrative.
47. Lachish Letters
D iscovered at Lachish (Tell ed-Duweir) in 1935, 18 hastily
written letters dating to 587 BC describes the terrifying final
days of Judah under King Zedekiah before its final overthrow
by
the Babylonians in 586 BC. These confirm the fulfillment of
prophecies describing Judah’s Babylonian captivity and
conquest (Jeremiah 25:8-9; 34:7; Daniel 9:2; 2 Chron 36:15This note was written by
21).
a Jewish military officer
to his superior: 'To my
lord Ya'osh. May Yahweh
cause my lord to hear
the news of peace, even
now, even now. Who is
your servant but a dog
that my lord should
remember his servant?'
48. Babylonian Chronicles
600 BC
D escribes Nebuchadnezzar’s
first
decade as king along with
his political & military exploits,
including his invasion of Israel
in late 7th and early 6th cent
B.C.
(Isaiah 39).
T hese activities correspond to
prophecies and histories
recorded in Jeremiah, 2 Chron
36, and 2 Kings 24, and
confirm the historicity of the
biblical figure
“Nebuchadnezzar II” described
in the book of Daniel.
49. Ishtar Gate
A ccording to archaeologists, the
Ishtar Gate was the eighth gate,
located on the north side of the city,
which lead to the inner city of
Babylon (near Baghdad, Iraq). It
was constructed by order of King
Nebuchadnezzar II and to be
dedicated to the godess Ishtar. The
gate contained a dedication
inscription which confirms
Nebuchadnezzar’s title as king,
Babylon as his place of reign (605562 BC), and his historical
existence.
It reads in part: “Nebuchadnezzar,
King of Babylon, faithful prince and
appointed by the will of Marduk,…
the firstborn son of Nabopolasser,
575 BC
50. Nebuchadnezzar Brick
6 century BC
th
I mmediately after defeating the Assyrians at Nineveh (612 BC)
Nebuchadnezzar II began large scale building projects at
Babylon. It is estimated that more than 14 million baked bricks
such as this were made and stamped with cuneiform
inscriptions identifying the biblical king and his engineering and
architectural exploits which are also confirmed in the 6 th century
BC Cylinder of Nebuchadnezzar II.
'Nebuchadnezzar, King
of Babylon, … eldest
son of Nabopolassar,
king of Babylon'.
“ Is not this great Babylon, that I
have built for a royal dwelling by my
mighty power and for the honor of
my majesty” (Daniel 4:30)
51. Cylinder of Nabonidus
T his mid 6
century BC cuneiform cylinder was discovered in
the temple of Shamash at Sippar (Iraq). It tells of Babylonian
King Nabonidus’ reconstruction of pagan temples and the
discovery of ancient inscriptions of former kings. More
importantly, however, it offers historical
confirmation of Belshazzar , who was
previously either considered legendary or
the Bible was mistaken to identify him
as “king” (Daniel 5:1) since he was
absent from any official kings list.
th
• Confirms historical figure of
Belshazzar (Daniel 5)
• Belshazzar was Nabonidus’ son and
co-regent (King, Daniel 5:1)
•
Explains why Daniel could
higher than 3 rd ruler in the
(Daniel 5:29)
rise no
kingdom
52. Cyrus the Great
B elow is the 6
century BC tomb at Pasargadae (Iran) of the
biblical figure “Cyrus” prophesied by Isaiah (45:1) 150 years
before his birth. He would eventually bring liberation to the
Jewish captives in Babylon before his death in 529 BC.
According to 1 st century BC Greek historian, Strabo, Alexander
the Great visited the tomb before his death. The tomb
inscription reads:
th
“ Oh man, I am Cyrus,
who founded the
empire of the Persians
and was king of Asia.
Grudge me not
therefore this
monument."
53. Cyrus Cylinder
P ersian clay cylinder (6
century BC) written in Babylonian
cuneiform describes King Cyrus’s victory over Babylon and his
permission of free worship. The cylinder declares that:
th
• Cyrus allowed the return of foreign gods to their own land
•“ I The rebuilding of destroyed cities and side of the Tigris, the
returned to sacred cities on the other religious buildings
sanctuaries of which have been in45:1-13; Ezra 1:1-3; 6:1-5)
(2 Chronicles 36:22-23; Isaiah ruins for a long time, the
•images which to live therein and “first charterfor…
The cylinder is considered the established of human rights. ”
them permanent
sanctuaries. I
gathered all their
inhabitants and
returned them to
habitations.”
their
54. Cyrus the Great
T his clay brick (6
century BC) was discovered in the biblical
city of Ur and was written in Babylonian cuneiform (Ezra 6:14).
The inscription reads: “Cyrus king of the world, king of Anshan…
the great gods delivered all the lands into my hands and I made
this land dwell in peace”
th
B iblical names recorded
on other brick
discoveries are:
•
•
•
•
•
Shalmaneser
Sargon
Sennacherib
Esarhaddon
Nebuchadnezzar
55. Behistun Inscription
L ocated near the Zagros mountains (Iran), this 5 century BC
L ocated near the Zagros mountains (Iran), this
5 th century BC
trilingual relief (drawing) written in Persian, Elamite, and
Babylonian, gives extra biblical reference to the Persian victory
over Babylon and the rise of Darius I (522-486 BC) to power
(Dan 5:31; 6:1; Neh 12:22; Ezra 4-6) which is consistent with
the prophecies and persons mentioned in the book of Daniel.
1.1: I (am) Darius, the great
king, the king of kings, the
king in Persia, the king of
countries, the son of
Hystaspes, the grandson of
Arsames, the
Achaemenide….
1.19: Says Darius the king:
Afterwards I went to
Babylon;… there this
Nidintu-Bel who called
himself Nebuchadrezzar …
we engaged in battle;…the
army of Nidintu-Bel I smote
56. T his 5
Darius I and Xerxes
century BC wall relief at Persepolis (Iran)
pictures biblical Persian King Darius I (Ezra 6:14-15)
sitting on the throne and his son, Crown Prince
Xerxes
(Ahasherus, Esther 1:1) facing him with guards
behind.
th
57. Silver Bowlcentury Artaxerxes I
of BC
5
th
T his bowl served as part of the royal table dressing of the
biblical figure Artaxerxes I (464-424 BC) mentioned in Ezra 78. The cuneiform inscription around the rim lists additional
biblical figures such as Xerxes (Ahasuerus, Esther 1:1-19)
and Darius the Great mentioned in the books of Ezra, Haggai
and Zechariah.
Rim inscription translates:
'Artaxerxes, the great
king, king of kings, king of
countries, son of Xerxes
the king, of Xerxes (who
was) son of Darius the
king, the Achaemenian, in
whose house this silver
drinking-cup (was) made.'
*Also discovered was the tomb of
Artaxerxes I near Persepolis (Iran)
58. Winged Bull of Sargon II
T his sculpture (known as an “Iamassu”), weighing over 15
tons was discovered by Paul Botta in 1843 at the palace gates
of the biblical Assyrian king Sargon II (722-705 BC) in
Khorsabad (Iraq).
• Sargon was previously
unmentioned in any
text outside the Bible
(Isaiah 20:1)
• An inscription at the
palace says Sargon
captured Samaria his
first year (Isaiah 20:6)
• Between the legs are
cuneiform inscriptions
identifying Sargon’s
title, ancestry and
achievements
59. The Annals of Sennacherib
A lso known as the “Taylor Prism,”
this six-sided clay prism (701 BC)
was unearthed by Geoffrey Taylor
at Nineveh in 1830.
• Records the campaigns of King
Sennacherib (705-681 BC)
against
Judah and King Hezekiah at
Jerusalem (Isaiah 19; 36-37;
2 Kings 18; 19; 20)
• The annals tell, as does Isaiah 3637, of how Sennacherib enclosed
Hezekiah in Jerusalem ‘like a
caged
bird.’
• Reveals how Sennacherib returned
home after receiving tribute from
60. Hezekiah’s Wall
D uring the Assyrian invasion in
the 8 th century BC , 2 Chronicles
32:5 says King Hezekiah fortified
the broken down areas of the
city walls, building towers and
adding strength to the existing
structures. Excavators digging
in the Jewish quarter have found:
• Stones for the wall were taken
from Jerusalem homes as
described by Isaiah 22:9-10
• Wall was reinforced to over 20
feet thick and 27 feet high to
withstand Sennacherib’s
invasion force
• An “outside wall” as described in
2 Chronicles 32:5
Top of the wall
61. Black Obelisk of
Shalmaneser III
F ound by A.H. Layard in the palace of Nimrud, this 9
th
century
BC obelisk depicts the military victories of Assyrian King
Shalmaneser III (reigned 858-824 BC). The panel below
pictures Jehu (king of Israel) making an alliance, or paying
tribute, by bowing to Shalmaneser (2 Kings 9-10). It reads:
“ Jehu, son [not direct son] of Omri”
62. Code of Hammurabi
T he law code of Babylonian King, Hammurabi,
18th century BC
(sixth king of the first dynasty), found in 1901
at Susa (Iran) offers 282 laws on morality,
commerce and religion . Some believed that
Israel was to primitive to have advanced
Mosaic law codes since it was assumed that
writing was developed much later. However:
• The discovery of the Hammurabi Code
predates the Mosaic law by 300 years
• Answers the objection as to whether writing
or detailed moral laws were possible during
Moses’ time
• We now know the earliest form of writing
(pictograms) appeared in Sumer (southern
Iraq) dating from the 4 th millennium BC and
law codes such as this were well establish
at the time of the exodus
63. Annals of Tiglath-pileser III
T he annals are an 8
century BC account which
describes the Assyrian king’s military campaigns
and mentions the kings of Judah which
corresponds to the events recorded in 2 Kings
15:29; 16:7, 10; 1 Chronicles 5:6, 26; 2 Chronicles
28:20.
T his stone relief at
the king’s palace in
Nimrud depicts
Tiglath-pileser III
in his carriage
during a victory
parade
th
64. Ebla Tablets
T hese 16,000+ clay tablets
were discovered in Aleppo,
Syria, at Tel-Mardikh in the
late 1970’s by Italian
archaeologist Paolo Mathiae .
Epigrapher, Giovanni
Pettinato has discovered:
• Biblical cities such as
Sodom, Zeboim, Admah,
Hazor, Megiddo,
Jerusalem, and Gaza
•
Names such as Nahor,
Israel, Eber, Michael and
Ishmael
• Biblical words thought to
have developed much later
such as Tehom (the deep,
Gen 1:2); Canaan
Ebla Tablet 2300 BC
65. T his 7
Gilgamesh Epic
century BC fragment of the Babylonian version of
the flood was found in Meggido, Israel. It shows remarkable
similarities to Genesis, and most likely reflects a much
earlier record such as the 17 th century BC Atrahasis Epic:
th
• The god Ea warns Utnapishtim
to build a square ship and:
• A week long deluge ensues
• Waters subside in one day
• The gods are saddened and
grant Utnapishtim divine
immortality
T here are over two dozen flood
accounts worldwide by various
people groups, which argues for
historicity and makes the
Genesis flood the most
documented event in the Bible
66. Atrahasis Epic
T he 17
century BC Atrahasis Epic
is one of the most complete flood
accounts coming from
Mesopotamian sources. The
Babylonian story parallels the
biblical account (Genesis 6-9) at
several points:
th
• Humans have displeased the gods
• The gods give Atrahasis seven
days warning before the flood
• The gods instruct him how to
survive the coming deluge
• Atrahasis builds a boat and
gathers animals and birds
• All mankind is destroyed except
Atrahasis, makes an offering to
god
• The offering is accepted and
67. Gath Inscription
D iscovered in 2005 at Tel es-Safi (Gath), also known as
the “Goliath Inscription,” this 9 th century BC ostraca is the
earliest deciphered Philistine inscription ever found. It
demonstrates that names similar to “Goliath” were being
used around the time (and after) David slew Goliath in 1
Samuel 17.
• Two names inscribed on
the shard were written
with Semitic letters ( TWLA
and WLT ; read right to left)
left
• They are Philistine names
etymologically equivalent
to “Goliath”
Proto-Canaanite Goliath Inscription
• Because Semitic letters
are used to identify IndoEuropean names related
to Goliath, it suggests the
reliability of the Philistine
name “Goliath”
68. Hittite Seal Ring
T hough previously unmentioned in extra biblical literature,
scholars believed the Hittites (from the Indo-European region)
were legendary people. However, in 1905 the Hittite library
(10,000 tablets) was discovered by Hugo Winckler in Turkey . The
tablets consist of law codes, legends, covenants and myths,
giving scholars ample evidence for the belief that the Hittites
were a real people as mentioned in Genesis 15:20 (1Kings 10:29;
23). This dome shaped Hittite stamp seal (1400-1200 BC) is with
silver ring, decorated with Hittite hieroglyphic characters, a script
which remains elusive to the epigrapher’s understanding to this
day (Joshua 1:4).
69. House of God Inscription
T his clay shard (7
th
century BC) was used as a
receipt for silver donated
to Solomon’s temple . It is
the earliest evidence
outside the biblical text
referencing the first temple
as “Beth Yahw’h” or
“House of God.”
70. Merneptah Stele
Line 27: “Israel is laid waste; its seed is not”
E gyptian hieroglyphic slab discovered in
Pharaoh Merneptah’s funery temple in
western Thebes. It contains Merneptah’s
exploits and the earliest mention of “Israel”
from any official documents outside the
Bible.
S ome have said Israel did not enter
Canaan until the 9 th century BC, however,
this stele recognizes Israel as a social
entity in Canaan by 1209 BC , they must
have entered the land by early 13 th century.
71. Mesha Stela
O ften called the “Moabite Stone,”
the 9 th century slab was found
east of Dead Sea in 1868 at
Dibon (Jordan) by F.A. Klein. It
records:
• Conflict between Moab’s King
Mesha and King Omri of Israel,
and Omri’s son (Ahab; 2 Kings
3),
• Mesha’s successful liberation
and rule of the land
• Appears consistent with the
political and military climate that
existed in the 9 th century BC
according to 2 Kings 1-3
• Biblical figures Mesha, Omri,
Yahweh, and epigrapher, Andre’
72. Nuzi Tablets
1500-1400 BC
E xcavated in Nuzi (Iraq), these
cuneiform tablets (drawing)
describe society, laws and
customs, that parallel biblical
patriarchs as late as 1 st mill B.C.
It could explain why Abraham
was reluctant to expel Hagar and
Ishmael (Genesis 21:10-11) and
how a man may adopt a slave
(Eliezer), relative or free-born, to
care for an elderly man
(Abraham) and carry on his
family name (Genesis 15:2, 24;
24).
73. Balaam Inscription
F ound at Deir Alla (Jordan) in
1967,
the 119 fragments (50 lines) of
plaster in Aramaic text was written
in black and red ink. Since the
inscription was discovered in the
rubble of a building most likely
destroyed in the great earthquake
of the 8 th century BC during the
reign of King Uzziah, the text itself
must be much older. In addition,
the
faded ink suggests an older date.
The text opens in red ink (for
emphasis) with:
“ Warnings from the Book of Balaam
the son of Beor. He was a seer of
the gods.”
74. Madaba Map
The Madaba Map is a mosaic floor map discovered in 1884
while Greek Orthodox Christians were removing debris from
earlier church in Madaba, Jordan. It is the oldest mosaic map
in
the world describing the Holy Land (Israel, Jordan, Egypt and
Syria), dating to about AD 560 , it describes the locations of
significant cities and landmarks that are consistent with the
biblical narrative . Its current location is the St. George Greek
Orthodox Church in Madaba, Jordan.
75. Siloam Inscription
D iscovered by youths in 1880, this 8
century BC Hebrew
inscription tells of the dramatic construction of Hezekiah’s
1700
foot tunnel the Bible describes was designed to bring water
into
The city from the Gihon Spring. This event corresponds with
what is recorded in 2 Kings 20:20; Isaiah 22:9ff; 36-39;
2 Chronicles 32:30-31
th
76. Tel Dan Stele
9 th -8 th century BC
F or decades many Bible critics believed David was a
mythological
figure due to the lack of historical confirmation. However, this
changed when this Aramaic inscription, which reads “house of
David” (lit. bytdwd ), was discovered by Avraham Biran in 1993
by
accident in the northern Israel territory known as Dan.
Apparently,
it is a victory stele for an Aramaean (Syrian) king (perhaps
Hazael,
D W D T
B
1 Kings 19:15) boasting of his military campaigns overYIsrael.
• First extra biblical mention to
the Davidic line. Mesha Stele
could contain a second Davidi
inscription
“ House of David”
• Mentions biblical figures
Joram, Ahab, Ahaz and Hadad
(1 kings 15:20; 2 Kings 8:16)
77. Royal Steward Inscription
I n 1870, Charles Clermont-Ganneau discovered a
7th century BC
lintel tomb inscription near the Kidron Valley at Silwan (ancient
Siloam), east of the old city of Jerusalem. Nahman Avigad recently
deciphered the inscription which gives a partial name which reads
“ [Shebna]yahu” who was the royal steward over the house of King
Hezekiah . Isaiah prophesies against Shebna for hewing out a tomb
and living above his means (Isaiah 22:15-25; 1 Kings 4:6; 16:9).
Inscription reads: "This is [the sepulcher of . . . ] yahu who is over
the house. There is no silver and no gold here but [his bones] and
the bones of his amah with him. Cursed be the man who will open
this!"
78. Uzziah Plaque
D iscovered in 1931 by E.L. Sukenik on the Mt. of Olives, the
stone tablet (AD 30-70) has an ancient Hebrew funery
inscription
identifying the biblical figure “Uzziah” (Azariah), king of Judah
(2 Chronicles 26; Isaiah 6:1). Uzziah is officeto have
his said by offering
overstepped
incense in the temple. As
a result, Uzziah contracted
leprosy and was isolated
until the day he died
(2 Chronicles 26:21-23).
The plaque was copied
from an earlier 8 th century
BC inscription: “To this
place were brought the
bones of Uzziah, king of
Judah, do not open!”
79. Hezir Family Tomb
T he mausoleum on the left, located in the Kidron valley between
the Mt. of Olives and temple mount, contains a Hebrew inscription
identifying it as the tomb of the six sons of the Hezir family, who are
Jewish priests . This verifies the existence of this priestly family
mentioned in 1 Chronicles 24:15 (first temple period) and Nehemiah
10:20 (second temple period). Though debatable, the tomb on the
right, by tradition is commonly associated with the biblical prophet
Zechariah , or the father of John the Baptist .
80. 1
Beth Shan
Samuel 31:10, 12, describes the fate of Israel’s King Saul,
namely, that his death during his battle with the Philistines
eventuated in the fastening of his deceased body to the walls
of Beth Shan. Later, in New Testament times, the city was
known as Sythopolis, one of the 10 cities of the Decapolis
( deca = 10; polis = city).
81. Gates of Dan
O riginally, the northern city of Dan (Laish shown below)
was a fortified Canaanite settlement until the tribe of Dan
expelled its occupants as described in Judges 18; 20:1.
Known as a center of idolatry under Jeroboam I (1 Kings
12:28-31) several pagan altars (below) have turned up. This
mud brick gate dates to the time of the patriarchs (2 nd
millennium BC).
82. Horned Altar
E xcavations across Israel have turned up stone
horned altars similar to the one below found at
Beersheba. The Lord instructed Moses to make a
horned altar on which to burn sacrificial animals
(Exodus 27:1-2;
1 Kings 1:50).
• God strictly prohibited
the use of stone cut
altars (Exodus 20:25),
making it likely this
particular altar was
used for Pagan
sacrifices
83. Jeroboam II Seal
T his seal was unearthed during excavations at
Meggido by G. Schumacher in the 20 th century .
• It bares the names of King Jeroboam II (787747BC)
(2 Kings 14:23-25), and his minister “Shema”
• Hebrew inscribed seal reads “belonging to Shema,
servant of Jeroboam.”
• Other seals
found for:
• Uzziah
• Hoshea
• Hezekiah
84. Ahaz Bulla
A bulla (singular) is a clay impression of a seal used to
authenticate, like a signature, official documents sent to another.
This late 8 th century BC bulla with three Hebrew lines reads:
“ Belonging to Ahaz [son of] Jehotam, King of Judah.” “Jehotam”
is the correct rendering of
the biblical King Jotham.
I n addition, on the left
side of the photograph a
fingerprint
is discernable
which could be that of
King Ahaz (741-726 BC)
Himself (2 Kings 16;
Isaiah 7).
85. Hezekiah Bulla
B elow is the 8
century BC bulla of King Ahaz’s
son, King Hezekiah. The blackened clay piece,
perhaps due to fire, is no more than .50 inches
wide . It reads: “Belonging to Hezekiah, [son of]
Ahaz, king of Judah.” This impression is only one of
two royal seals known to date (cf. Ahaz).
th
86. Ahab Ring
T his bronze ring bares the Hebrew inscription which
reads “Ahab, king of Israel.” Ahab is mention
elsewhere in Assyrian records (Kurkh Monolith) as
participating in the battle known as Qarqar against
Assyrian king Shalmaneser III. The monolith describes
Ahab’s troop strength as: “2,000 Chariots and 10,000
men of Ahab, king of Israel” (1 Kings 21:25).
87. Pedayahu Seal
D ating from the 6
century BC , the Pedayahu Seal
(drawing) depicts an ionic capital typical of the first
temple architecture, bares the Hebrew inscription
“ Belonging to Pedaiah son
of the king.” Pedaiah is
named in the Bible as one
of the sons of Jehoiachin
(Coniah) , king of Judah
(1 Chronicles 3:18-19)
th
“ And the sons of Jeconiah
were Assir, Shealtiel his
son, and Malchiram,
Pedaiah , Shenazzar,
Jecamiah, Hoshama, and
Nedebiah.”
88. Jezebel Seal
W hile excavating in Samaria,
Israel, the Oriental Institute of
Chicago unearthed building
structures and temples built to
Asherah and Baal, which was
commonly associated with
Jezebel (1 Kings 18:19). Among
these finds was an ornate seal
which reads “JZBL” (Jezebel).
T his seal appears to be
consistent with 1 Kings 21:6-8
which reveals that Jezebel,
wife of Ahab, was accustom to
sealing documents for her
husband (1 Kings 21:25).
89. Gemaryahu Bulla
F ound in the city of David, Jerusalem, this 6
th
century BC
bulla
impression is inscribed with two rows of Hebrew letters
reading:
“ Gemaryahu son of Shaphan,” referring to Jehoiakim’s scribe
named “Gemariah, son of Shaphan” mentioned in Jeremiah
36:10-12, 25 who listened to Jeremiah’s letter that Baruch
had penned and read aloud in the temple
lso discovered during
the temple mount dump
excavations was the 7 th -6 th
century BC bulla belonging
to “Galyahu son of Immer.”
Immer was a priest
associated with the
prophet Jeremiah
(Jeremiah 20:1)
A
90. Solomon Seal
A two-sided seal bearing Hebrew letters that
spell
“ Shlomo” (Solomon) on one side and a dignified
bearded man baring a scepter on the reverse which
may be a depiction of King Solomon. The seals date
from the 9 th to 7 th centuries BC.
91. Brekhyahu Bulla
T his clay bulla was impressed by a Hebrew inscribed seal
that read “Belonging to Barekyahu, son of Neriyahu, the
scribe.” The late bulla specialist, Nahman Avigad of Hebrew
University, identified this late 7 th century BC inscription as
baring the name of Jeremiah’s scribe , Baruch , the son of
Neriah, mentioned in Jeremiah 36:1-32.
A lso discovered was the
bulla of “Jerahmeel, son of
the king,” who was sent by
King Jehoiakim to arrest
Jeremiah and Baruch
(Jeremiah 36:26), and the
bulla “Belonging to Yehuchal
(Jehucal) ben Shelemiyahu
ben Shovi” who was sent by
King Zedekiah to ask Jeremiah
for prayer (Jeremiah 37:3;
38:1).
92. Sarsechim Tablet
D iscovered
595 BC
in Sippar (Iraq) in the late 1800’s, this two
inch cuneiform tablet was deciphered in 2007 at the
British Museum by Assyriologist Michael Jursa of
Vienna. It records King Nebuchadnezzar’s chief officer
“Sarsechim” (i.e. Nabu Sharrussu-ukin) mentioned in
Jeremiah 39:3 as being with the king during the
invasion of Jerusalem in
586 BC.
T he
tablet describes
Sarsechim giving gold
to a Babylonian temple
during the 10 th year of
of Nebuchadnezzar’s
reign (c. 595 BC).
93. Old Testament Figures Cited in
Extra Biblical History and/or
Archaeology King Manasseh
King Evil-Merodach
Ahab
Ahasuerus (Xerxes I) Gedaliah
King Menahem
Ahaz
Gemariah
King Merodach-Balada
Artaxerxes I
King Hazael
King Mesha
Ashurbanipal
King Hezekiah
King Nebuchadnezzar
Baalis
Hezion
Pharaoh Necho
am
Hilkiah
King Nergal-Shar-usur
ch (Scribe)
Pharaoh Hophra
King Omri
Belshazzar
King Hoshea
King Pekah
Ben Hadad I
Jaazaniah
King Tiglath-pileser III
Ben Hadad II
King Jehoahaz
King Rezen
Ben Hadad III
King Jehoiachin
King Sargon II
Cyrus II
King Jehu
King Sennacherib
Darius I
Jerahmeel
King Shalmaneser V
David
King Jeroboam II
Shebna (royal steward)
im
Queen Jezebel
Pharaoh Shishak
ama
King Jehoash
Pharaoh Tirhakah
Esarhaddon
King Jotham
King Uzziah and Yahweh
*This list is not exhaustive, only major figures were represented
95. William F. Albright
” I repeat that
in my opinion you have made
the greatest manuscript discovery of
modern
times ─ certainly the greatest biblical
manuscript find...What an incredible find!“
William F. Albright to John C.
Trevor
(March 1948)
96. Discovery of the Scrolls
T he Dead Sea Scrolls are
ancient manuscripts that
were discovered in 1947
in 11 caves among the
limestone cliffs of Qumran,
overlooking the Dead Sea
Caves of Qumran
T he Scrolls were
Dead Sea near Qumran
discovered by a young
Arab shepherd boy,
Muhammad edh-Dhib, as
he searched for his lost
goat
98. Qumran Excavations
P ere
Roland de Vaux, a Dominican
monk, was the original archaeologist
who conducted excavations at
Qumran from 1951 through 1956.
• He posited that a religious sect of
Judiasm inhabited Qumran known
as the Essenes
• He discovered structural remains
such as aqueducts, ritual purity
Pere Roland de Vaux baths, dinning rooms, cisterns,
meeting halls, scriptorium and
evidence of earthquake damaged
• From 1994 through 2006 Qumran
continued to be excavated
99. Ruins of Qumran - 250
68
NORTH
Wadi Qumran
BC
–
AD
Scroll Caves
Cistern
Storage
Dinning Hall
Pottery/
Kilns
Pool
Meeting Hall
Ritual Bath
Stables
Store
Rooms
Cistern
Scriptorium
Enclosure
Wall
Kitchen
Dead Sea
POPULATION: 200
Massive Tower
Aqueduct
100. Qumran Excavations
T he narrow aqueducts on the right were used to
channel water from the cliffs in the west to the Qumran
community to fill there ten ritual baths and cisterns.
Cistern
Aqueduct
View looking southeast from Qumran toward the Dead Sea
101. Qumran Excavations
V iewing west from Qumran towards the cliffs
which bring spring rain cascading down through
the central mountain crevasse into the Qumran
Wadi and aqueducts.
Limestone Cliff
Water Channel
Scroll Cave 4
Wadi Qumran
102. Qumran Excavations
T he steps into this ritual
bath reveal earth shifting
of approximately 6 to 12
inches that is consistent
with a major earthquake
which struck the area in
about 31 BC .
103. Qumran Excavations
A ccording to the Community Rule , the Essenes would
share
which
a communal meal in this dinning hall (refectory)
seated up to 300 men .
104. Qumran Excavations
T he Qumran community constructed elaborate water
systems to supply their numerous ritual baths
( miqvaot ) and plaster lined cisterns . The aqueduct
channel which runs along the left side of the cistern
was designed to cascade water into the reservoir.
Plaster Lined Water Cistern
Ritual Purification Bath
105. Acquisition of the
Scrolls
B edouin Shepherds
delivered seven scrolls
from cave 1 to Khalil
Sahin (Kando) , a
Christian
Kando
antiquities dealer in
Bethlehem.
• Soon after, E.L. Sukenik of Hebrew University
acquired three of the scrolls
• In 1949, the remaining four scrolls were sold to
Mar
Athanasius Samuel of the Syrian Jacobite
Monastery
106. Acquisition of the Scrolls
S amuel’s advertisement
was brought to the
attention of Yigael Yadin ,
E.L. Sukenik’s son.
• Yadin, with the help of
D.S. Gottesman,
purchased the four scrolls
for approximately $250,0000
Yadin
• The four scrolls were returned to Israel and added
to Sukenik’s three scrolls
• Currently, the seven scrolls from cave 1 are housed
in the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum
(Isaiah A and B, Habakkuk Commentary, Thanksgiving Scroll,
Community Rule, War Rule, and the Genesis Apocryphon)
107. What Scrolls were
O verall, 11 caves Found?
yielded
over 900 biblical and nonbiblical texts, composed
of tens of thousands of
manuscript fragments. *
• Over 220 texts of the
Hebrew Bible except
the book of Esther
Scriptorium: benches & inkwells found
• The scrolls are written in Aramaic, Hebrew and
Greek
dating from 250 BC to AD 68
• Of these texts, over 400 are apocryphal and
pseudepigraphal literature
*Manuscripts are hand written copies of texts in complete or fragment form
108. A
Scrolls of Cave 1
complete book of Isaiah (A) was discovered, which
now is the oldest complete manuscript of any book of
the Bible.
Also found were:
• Incomplete book of Isaiah (B)
• Habakkuk Commentary
• Various non-biblical books
such as the Thanksgiving Scroll
and Manual of Discipline
• Fragments of Genesis, Leviticus,
Deuteronomy, Judges, Samuel,
Ezekiel, Psalms and Daniel 2:4
where the Hebrew language
changes to Aramaic
Portion of Isaiah A
109. Isaiah Scroll
CC-Art.com
I saiah (1QIsa A) was written in Hebrew on
parchment (animal skin) dating to 125 BC and is
approximately 26 feet long . The above scroll is open
to 38:9-40:28 which may indicate that scribes
believed the book was written by only one author
110. Scrolls of Cave 2
T hough cave 2 was not as productive, by 1952 it
produced hundreds of fragments including:
• Two of Exodus
23:38-39
• One of Leviticus
• Four of Numbers
• Two of
Deuteronomy
• One of Jeremiah,
Job, Psalms
• Two of Ruth
23:40-44
24:16-18
The above Fragments of Leviticus 2324 were purchased in 2005; originally
found near the Dead Sea
111. Scrolls of Cave 3
T hough of no biblical
significance, a unique
discovery in cave 3 produced
a Hebrew text in two rolls
written on copper, known as
the Copper Scroll (3Q15).
• Text lists
treasure
the area
60+ sites of buried
(gold, ingots) in
of Judean desert
• No treasure has been found
• After the scroll was X-rayed
to discover its content, it
was opened by cutting the
fragile material into strips
Fragment of the Copper Scroll
112. Scrolls of Cave 4
C ave 4 was perhaps the most productive of all
caves excavated, producing some 100 biblical books
and containing more than 50,000 fragments . Among
them was partial copies/fragments of:
• Genesis
• Daniel 7:28 to
8:1 (Aramaic
changes to Hebrew)
• Commentaries
on Psalms,
Isaiah and
Nahum
40,000 fragments
found beneath the
floor of cave 4
113. Messianic
estimony
Tiscovered in cave 4 in 1952,
D
this 1 st century BC Hebrew
manuscript (aka “Testimonia”)
contains messianic passages
from the Hebrew Bible,
identifying Him as prophet,
priest and king . In order
they are:
• Deuteronomy 5:28-29 (Prophet)
• Deuteronomy 18:18-19
• Numbers 24:15-17 (King)
• Deuteronomy 33:8-11 (Priest)
• Joshua 6:26
4Q175
114. Scrolls of Cave 5-10
•
C ave 5 had produced
fragments of up to 50
biblical and non biblical texts
• Cave 6 yielded fragments
Genesis, Exodus, Daniel,
Deuteronomy, Ecclesiastes
Cave 5 in foreground
• Cave 7 unearthed Greek fragments (7Q3-18) which may be
the earliest portions of nine New Testament books (Mark
6:5253) according to Priest Jose O’Callahan of the University of
Barcelona
• Cave 8 contained fragments of Genesis and Psalms
• Cave 9 and 10 was unproductive yielding only a single
ostraca along with leather materials used for storing and
115. Scrolls of Cave 11
I n 1956, a partial copy of Leviticus and an Aramaic
Targum of Job was found. Including:
• Partial copy of Psalms (above), including 151 st
Psalm
• Scholars now posses nearly 40 canonical Psalms
ranging from Psalm 90 to 150
• Two of the three non-biblical Temple Scrolls , the
116. Reliability: Copy
Accuracy
B efore discovering the Dead Sea Scrolls, scholars translated
the English Old Testament from Hebrew manuscripts
(Masoretic Text) that dated from 900 AD (Aleppo Codex) and
later, 1300 years from the end of the Old Testament (400
BC). How accurate was the copying process during the 1300
Aleppo Codex
year Sea Scrolls
Dead interval?
Masoretic Text
Closed interval by 1000+ years
95% identical to Masoretic Text
125 BC
900 AD
• 5% difference is due to spelling differences, word order and
minor scribal error which effects no major doctrine
117. Reliability: Copy Accuracy
T he Ketef
Hinnom Silver Scroll was found
by Gabriel Barkay in 1980 while
excavating
several 6 th century BC tombs overlooking
the Valley of Hinnom (Jerusalem).
•
Only 4 inches long , originally was rolled
up and to be worn as an amulet
• Oldest passage containing YHWH
• Oldest passage yet found (6 th century
BC)
• Contains priestly benediction of
Numbers
6:24-26 . It reads:
“ May Yahweh bless you and watch over you! May
118. 10 Rules of the Scribe
• R itual cleansing/bathing before writing God’s
name
M ust ignore all conversation if writing God’s name
• N o copying from memory, must have a manuscript
• S crolls must have equal amounts of columns
• L etters and columns are counted
• P archment/Papyrus must be lined before starting
• E ach column must extend downwards 48 to 60
•
lines
S cribe dressed in full Jewish attire
• O ld/errant copies of Scripture are ritually
•
119. Kinds of Scribal Errors
O f the c. 400,000 variant* readings
CC-Art.com
in the Bible there are at least
four categories of error reflected in
transmission relating to human
limitations such as eyes, ears,
memory, and writing:
• Fussion: Joining words together
when they should be separated
(now here - nowhere)
• Dittography: Writing twice what should only be written once
• Homeoteleuton : The eye skips to the same word on a
different
line, omitting passages
• Transposition: The reversal of position of two letters or
words
(Jesus Christ - Christ Jesus or J se us - Jesus)
•*Vast majority error: Confusing words that sounddo not effect any major
Phonetic of variants are minor scribal error which do not the same but
120. Reliability: Historical
Confirmation
T housands of archaeological and historical finds
have
substantiated the OT narrative.
• Assyrian King Sennacherib’s invasion
of Lachish ( Lachish Reliefs at Nineveh)
(2 Kings 18:14, 17)
• The murder of Sennacherib by his two
sons ( annals of his son Esarhaddon)
(2 Kings 19:37)
Karnak Inscription, Egypt
• Judah’s King Jehoiachin’s taken captive to Babylon
( Babylonian Ration Documents) (2 Kings 24:15-16)
• Karnak Inscription describes Pharaoh Shishak’s ( Shosenq I in
Egyptian records) 10th century BC invasion of Israel, Judah
(1 Kings 14:25-26; 2 Chronicles 12:2-9) and his victory over
Solomon’s son, King Rehoboam
122. Reliability of the New
Testament
W hen asking if the Bible is reliable, we are
attempting
to discover whether we can trust it when it speaks
about 1) historical matters and if scribes 2) copied
the text accurately .
Three Tests are Employed:
• Bibliographical Test (checks quantity, quality and
dating of existing manuscript copies)
• Internal Test (checks what the Bible says for itself)
• External Test (checks archaeological and historical
record for confirmation)
123. Bibliographical Test:
Quantity
G reat numbers of manuscripts enable scholars to
have a more accurate reconstruction of the biblical
text by cross-referencing:
• There are 5700+ Greek partial and complete
manuscripts of the New Testament
• There are 19,000+ non-Greek manuscripts
• Total of 25,000+ manuscripts in all languages
• The NT has the most manuscript support of any
book of ancient history
124. Bibliographical Test:
Quality
• Princeton New Testament scholar, Bruce Metzger ,
estimated the New Testament was copied at
99.5%
accuracy
• Textual scholars Westcott and Hort estimate the NT
text is 98+% accurate to the original
• Ancient manuscript authority, Sir Fredrick Kenyon:
in
“ The number of manuscripts of the New Testament, of early
translations from it, and of quotations from it in the oldest
writers of the Church, is so large that it is practically certain
that the true reading of every doubtful passage is preserved
some one or other of these ancient authorities. This can be
said of no other ancient book in the world.”
125. Bibliographical Test: Early
Dates
• NT manuscripts have the least
time interval between the
original text and the first copies
(30-300 yrs) of any piece of
ancient literature
• Nine fragments found with Dead
Sea Scrolls could be part of six
NT books dating between
AD 30-68 (e.g. Mark 6:52-54)
• Earliest complete copy of NT
dates to AD 350 (i.e. Codex
Sinaiticus and Vaticanus)
• Earliest manuscript of a NT book
John Rylands
(Gospel of John) dates from
Fragment
AD 125
John 18:31-33, 37-38
126. Bibliographical Test: Early
Dates
D iscovered by Constantine Tischendorf in the 19 century at
th
St. Catherine’s Monastery on Mt. Sinai, Codex Sinaiticus (AD 350
35
(facsimile) contains the entire NT in Greek uncials and half the O
CC-Art.com
127. Scripture Quotations
from the Church Fathers
T he numerous patristic quotations
from the New Testament aid
scholars in reconstructing the
biblical text due to their quantity
and early date:
• 36,200+ quotes of the New
Testament
• There are enough quotes to offer Coptic Church Mural
a reconstruction of nearly the entire New
Testament
• All New Testament books were cited , except 2
John
128. Bruce Metzger
The Text of the New Testament, 86
“ I ndeed, so extensive are these citations
[i.e. of the church fathers] that if all other
sources for our knowledge of the text of the
New Testament were destroyed, they would
be sufficient alone for the reconstruction of
practically the entire New Testament.”
129. F.F. Bruce
The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable? 16
“ P erhaps we can appreciate how wealthy
the
New Testament is in manuscript attestation
if we compare the textual material for other
ancient works”
130. New Testament Compared
to other Ancient Literature
Gap from
Ms
Author
Literary Work
Original
Copies
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Plato
Dialogues
1,250 yrs
20
• Homer’s
Illiad
500 yrs 643
• Herodotus
The Histories
1,350 yrs
8
• Aristotle
Assorted Works
1,400 yrs
5
• Thucydides
Pelopennesian Wars 1,300 yrs
8
• Aristophanes Assorted Works
1,300 yrs
10
• Sophocles
Assorted Works
1,400 yrs 193
• Julius Caesar The Gallic Wars
950 yrs 10
• Tacitus
Annals
1,000 yrs
20
• Pliny (Ygr)
History of Rome
750 yrs
7
• Suetonius
The Twelve Caesars
900 yrs
8
•
131. Internal Test
T he Bible contains
unflattering statements about
the followers of Christ which appear to be at odds
with the general purpose of the book, indicating the
writers were reporting historical truth.
These counterproductive features include:
• Testimony of women in an era when it is not valued
• The apparent triumph of the enemies of Christ
• The weakened and helpless appearance of the
Messiah at crucifixion
• The portrayal of the disciples as fearful of their
enemies
• The characterization of failure and denial (Peter)
• The constant admission of the disciples’ slow
understanding
132. Internal Test
• There are eyewitnesses to the biblical accounts
(John 19:35)
• The Bible lacks the mythological tone usually
associated with other Mesopotamian or gnostic
literature (2 Peter 1:16)
• Jesus performed miracles to substantiate His
claims
(Hebrews 2:3-4)
• Jesus fulfilled over 300 Prophecies (Luke 24:27,
44)
• Jesus said the Bible is reliable (Matthew 26:54),
historical (Matthew 12:40; John 3:12), inerrant
(John 17:17), and scientifically accurate
(Matthew
133. •
External Test
T housands of archaeological discoveries have confirmed
aspects
of the Bible either explicitly or implicitly without contradiction
• Over 30 people in the New Testament have been cited by nonChristian writers through historical documents and/or
confirmed
by archaeological research
• Over 60 confirmed historical
details in the Gospel of John
listed in Craig Blomberg,
The Historical Reliability of
John’s Gospel
Widow’s Mite Bronze Coin
Mark 12:42; Luke21:2
• Over 80 confirmed historical details in the book of Acts that
have been enumerated by Colin J. Hemer, The Book of Acts in
the Setting of Hellenistic History , which in some cases have
caused modern historians to revise their perspective
134. Joseph P. Free
Archaeology and Bible History, 1
“ In addition to illuminating the Bible,
archaeology has confirmed countless pages
which have been rejected by critics as
unhistorical or contradictory to known facts.”
136. Roman Emperors
*Mentioned by name in the Bible and confirmed by extra biblical history or archaeology
• Augustus (27 BC-AD14)*
• Tiberius (14-37)*
• Gaius (Caligula) (37-41)
• Claudius (41-54)*
• Nero (54-68)
Birth of Christ (Luke 2:1)
Life and death of Christ (Luke 3:1)
Paul converted
Jews Expelled from Rome (Acts
18:2), severe famine (11:28)
Peter, Paul martyred, Rome bu
• Vespasian (69-79)
Temple destroyed by Titus (AD 70
• Titus (79-81)
Pompeii destroyed by Mt. Vesuviu
eruption, Colosseum comple
• Domitian (81-96)
John exiled to Patmos, persecutio
• Hadrian (117-138)
Builds defensive wall in England
• Septimus Severus (193-211) Persecution of Christians
• Diocletian (284-305)
•
• Constantine (306-337)
Persecution of Christians
Edict of Toleration/Milan and
the Council of Nicea (AD 32
137. James Ossuary
T he James Ossuary
(drawing) is a 1 st
century AD limestone
bone box which
contains a ancient
Hebrew inscription
baring th the names of
James, Joseph, and
Jesus .
“ James, son of Joseph, brother of
*Inscription on drawing not the actual lettering, used for illustrative purposes • Though no one doubts
Jesus.”
the authenticity of the
box itself , scholars
debated whether the inscription is authentic.
have
• If authentic, it becomes the earliest find directly related to
Christ Himself
• German professor and leading geomicrobiologist, Dr. Wolfgang
Krumbein , has offered a scientific challenge to the Israeli
Antiquities Authority decision to pronounce the inscription
inauthentic (Matthew 13:55; Galatians 1:19)
138. Caiaphas Ossuary
T his ornate 1
century AD limestone ossuary was
discovered in 1990 south of Jerusalem.
• It contained the bones
of a man approximately
60 years old
st
• Bares an inscription
which reads:
“ Joseph, son of Caiaphas,”
which most likely is the
High Priest mentioned
in the Gospels
(Mt 26:57; Jn 18:13f)
who brought Jesus to
trial
139. Yehohanan Crucifixion
I n 1968, excavators found an
inscribed 1 st century AD
limestone bone box (ossuary)
in Jerusalem containing the
bones of a male crucifixion
victim named “Yehohanan ben
Hagkol.”
• The wrist and right heel bone
still had the Roman seven inch
crucifixion spikes nails in tact
• Confirms the Romans
practiced
crucifixion in the 1 st century
AD
in Jerusalem and legitimizes
the manner of Christ’s death
as
described in the Bible (Psalm
140. Kidron Valley
T he east side of the temple mount, the Kidron (black) Valley,
has distinguished itself for several reasons.
• It has been considered a place of burial by Christians,
Muslims and Jews, since before the Babylonian exile (2
Kings 23:6).
• It is known as the Valley of Jehoshaphat, the traditional site
prophesied by Joel (3:2, 12-21) to be the final place of
God’s judgment of the nations.
• It is the valley both David (2 Sam 15:23) and Jesus (Jn
18:1) crossed as they were being betrayed by their inner
circle
141. Meggido Church
D iscovered in 2005 at Meggido Prison by inmate
Ramil Razilo, this 3 rd century AD church has become
the oldest church in the Holy Land.
Christianity was established
early in the common era
The Greek mosaic floor
(16x32 ft) inscription
confirms Jesus was being
worshipped as “God” in the
early church rather than
being a later development.
It reads:
Meggido Church Inscription
“ The God-Loving Akeptous [name of the female worshipper]
has offered this table to the God Jesus Christ as a
Memorial.”
Apparently, the mosaic floor was financed by a Roman
military officer named “Gaianus,” and laid by “Brutius.”
142. Jacobs Well
L ocated in ancient Samaria
within an unfinished Greek
orthodox church is Jacob’s Well
(Bir Ya’qub) identified by the
Apostle John and the unnamed
Samaritan woman (John 4:5,
6, 12; Genesis 33:18-19; 48:22).
• Over 200 ft deep in 7 th century
AD, today, c. 125 feet deep
(John 4:11)
• Still produces fresh cool water
(“living water”) from an
underground spring
• Short distance from
Mt. Gerazim and the ruins of the
Samaritan temple
143. Prohibition of Temple
Entrycontains a 1 century AD Greek warning to
T his slab
st
Gentiles that certain areas of the temple were off limits with
the possibility of violators being punished by death. This
inscription helps one understand the tumultuous actions
taken against the Apostle Paul in Acts 21:27-29.
enter
own
“ No foreigner shall
within the balustrade of
the temple … and
whosoever shall be
caught shall be
responsible for his
death that will follow in
consequence (of) his
trespassing.”
144. Temple Mount
EAST
Altar
Aerial view looking west
R itmeyer’s
proposed
situation of the Holy of
Holies and Dome of the
Rock in relation to
Herod’s Temple (John
145. Holy of Holies on Temple
Mount
Flat channel for
foundation trench
to
Ritmeyer ,
-------------------------------
West wall of Holy of Holies
Veil/Wooden Partition
-------------------------------
--------------------------------------------
archaeologist
A ccording
Leen
the leading
H o ly P la c e
researching
the temple mount, the Holy of
Holy of Holies
Holies is situated beneath the
Muslim Dome of the Rock
(Mosque of Omar, 691 AD) upon
the exposed rocky tip ( Sakhra ) of
Mt. Moriah. This conclusion was
based on
-------------------------------------------the discovery of foundation
Flat rectangular
ORTH
trenches, historical details
location for the Ark
(Josephus and Mishna Middot ),
during first temple
measurements, biblical data,
period
N
146. Place of Trumpeting
T he Hebrew inscription (replica) was discovered in 1969 by
Benjamin Mazar at the southwest corner of the temple mount.
It
is believed to be from one of the temple towers designating
the
area where the trumpets would be sounded to signal the
beginning and end of the Sabbath (Josephus, Jewish War
4.58283). Some suggest that the inscription is a message to the
temple builders designating where the stone slab should be
placed (2 Chron 5; 13; 15; 20; 23; 29; Ps 81:3; Joel 2:15). It
reads: “…[of]/to the place of trumpeting.”
147. Herod Inscription
D uring renewed excavations in 1996 at Herod’s
hilltop palace, Masada , Israel, archaeologist, Ehud
Netzer, discovered a three line Latin inscription on
a piece of pottery (19 BC) giving the full name, title
and place of rule of Herod the Great (reigned 37-4
BC) (Mt 2:1-18).
“ Herod, King of Judea”
Date Wine Made
Kind of Wine
King Herod
Herod’s Wine Jug (Amphora) 19 BC
148. Lithostratos
L ocated under the modern streets of Jerusalem
near the temple mount, the “Gabbatha” (i.e.
place/seat of judgment) mentioned in John 19:13
and Matthew 27:27 is the location of Christ’s
judgment by Pontius Pilate. It was found at the
Roman military headquarters known as the Tower
of Antonia.
149. Tomb of Lazarus
O n the east side of the Mt. of Olives is the traditionally
recognized tomb of Lazarus. It appears that by the 2 nd
century AD the location had been identified as such. The
church historian, Eusibius (4 th century), says that the city
was renamed the “Place of Lazarus.” Currently, there is a
mosque built over the site preventing access through the
traditional entrance, an alternative entrance was created
(Lk 19:28-29; Jn 11:1-17, 18, 28-44 )
150. Destruction of the Temple
T his massive heap of hewn boulders lay beneath the
southwest corner of the temple mount in Jerusalem upon a
crushed and buckled 1 st century pedestrian pathway . The
stones were tossed from the temple mount during the Roman
invasion in 70 AD and serve as evidence of the total
destruction wrought upon the second temple, just as Jesus
had prophesied (Mt 24:1-2).
151. Jordan River
T he Jordan river is identified in both Old and New
Testaments as the river Joshua crossed into the
land with the children of Israel (Joshua 3-4) and
location of Jesus’ baptism by John (Mt 3:13).
promised
the
152. Tomb of Christ
T here are two Jerusalem locations traditionally held to be
the tomb of Christ, the Garden Tomb and the Edicule at the
Church of the Holy Sepulcher. Both sites were historically
located outside the city walls and previously had churches
built over them signifying the special nature of the locations
(John 19:41).
Church of Holy Sepulcher
Garden Tomb
153. Pontius Pilate Inscription
F ound by Antonio Frova at
Caesarea Martima, this 1 st
century AD slab inscription gives
the name and title of the biblical
figure Pontius Pilate who
condemned Jesus to the cross
(Matthew 27:2; Luke 3:1)
It reads:
…]sTiberievm
…pon]tivsPilatvs
…praef]ectvsIvda[ea]e
“Tiberium Pontius Pilate
Prefect of Judea”
154. Caesar Augustus
C aesar Augustus (Gaius Octavius) is mentioned in the Bible
as
the reigning Roman Emperor (27 BC-AD 14) at the time of
Christ’s Birth (Luke 2:1). Several lines of archaeological
evidence have confirmed
his title, date of reign and
historical existence .
• Numerous coins bearing
his image with inscriptions
• Priene Inscription declares
the birthday celebration of
Caesar Augustus
• Roman/Greek historians
write of Augustus:
Suetonius, Tacitus, Velleius,
Cicero, Dio Cassius and
“ Divine Father Caesar Augustus”
Plutarch
155. Sergius Paulus Inscription
D iscovered near Paphos, Cyprus, the inscription contains the
title and name of Sergius Paulus, one of Paul’s first converts to
Christianity during his first missionary journey (Acts 13:6-12).
A second inscription was found in Rome where Paulus returned
after his term as proconsul expired.
156. T he 1
Gallio Inscription
century AD inscription (drawing) by Claudius, found in
Delphi, Greece, in 1908, describes the biblical figure “Gallio”
(Acts 18:12-17) the “proconsul” of “Achaia” in office from
51-53 AD to whom the Apostle Paul was brought for judgment
by the Jews while in Corinth. “Gallio” is highlighted below.
st
157. Erastus Inscription
U ncovered at Corinth, Greece, in 1929, this piece
of pavement records the name of the biblical
figure “Erastus” mentioned in Acts 19:22,
Romans 16:23 and 2 Timothy 4:2. John McRay
translates the inscription as “Erastus, curator of
public buildings
laid (this pavement) at his own expense.”
158. New Testament Figures Cited by
Extra Biblical History and/or
Archaeology
Agrippa I
Archelaus
Agrippa II
Great
Ananias
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Denarius of Tiberius
Annas
1 st century AD
King Aretas IV
Mt 22:15
Bernice
Ceasar Augustus
Jesus
Caiaphas
Baptist
Claudius
(Galilean)
Pontius Pilate Bronze Coin
Drusilla
AD 29-36
Erastus
Herod
Herod the
Herod Philip I
Herod Philip II
Herodias
Salome
James and
John the
Judas
Lysanias
Pontius Pilate
159. Politarch Inscription
S ome thought Luke was mistaken when he called the “rulers of
the city” at Thessalonica “politarchs” (Acts 17:6). This criticism
was due to the absence of any extra biblical Greek literature
using the term. Recently, several politarch inscriptions were
found in Thessalonica, Greece.
• 19 of the 32 “politarch” inscriptions come from Thessalonica,
with 3 of these dating to the 1 st century AD
• Elsewhere in Acts, Luke correctly names officials as Praetors
at
Philippi (Acts 16:20)
160. Luke’s Precise Use of
Vocabulary in the Book of Acts
•
C orrect language spoken at Lystra as
Lycaonian (14:11)
• Proper form of the name Troas (16:8)
• Uses “politarchs” as proper designation
of magistrates in Thessalonica (17:6)
• Correct Athenian slang word for Paul
as spermologos (17:18)
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• Uses areopagites as the proper title for Grammateus at Ephesus
a member of the Athenian court (17:34)
• Proper title of grammateus for the chief executive magistrate
(“clerk”) in Ephesus (19:35)
• Uses correct Roman authorized title of honor neokoros
(19:35)
• Uses the plural anthupatoi which could be referring to two
men
functioning as proconsuls at this time (19:38)
• Uses precise term bolisantes for taking soundings and
records
161. Sir William Ramsay
The Bearing of Recent Discovery on the
Trustworthiness of the New Testament, 222
“ L uke is a historian
of the first rank; not
merely are his
statements of fact
trustworthy . . .
This author should
be placed along with
the very greatest of
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historians.”
Tyrannus Inscription at Ephesus:
shows that the name mentioned
in Acts 19:9,“Tyrannus,” was
used
in Ephesus during 1 st century
162. A.N. Sherwin-White
Roman Law and Roman Society in the New Testament, 189
“ F or
Acts the confirmation of historicity
is overwhelming….But any attempt to
reject its basic historicity even in matters
of detail must now appear absurd. Roman
historians have long taken it for granted.”
163. Corinth
P aul ministered in Corinth for 18 months (Acts 18:11) and
wrote at least two epistles to the church addressing various
theological and moral issues. Below is the ancient city of
Corinth and the temple of Apollo, which displays the oldest
style of Doric columns in the world.
Temple of Apollo
164. Bema Seat
T he Corinthian bema seat was discovered in the early 20
th
century. It served as the place from which the city officials
spoke to its citizens, including the Apostle Paul who was
brought before the proconsul, Gallio , in Acts 18:12-17. It also
may have been used to award competing athletes of the
Isthmian games. Paul uses the Greek term ( bema ) to
describe the “judgment seat” of Christ where Christians will
receive their heavenly rewards in 2 Corinthians 5:10.
165. Arch of Titus
T he Arch of Titus (son of Vespasian) depicts the Roman
victory
associated with the destruction of the temple at Jerusalem in
AD
70 and the carrying away the temple articles such as the
Menorah, Table of Showbread, and Scroll of God’s Law . The
relief
offers a portrayal consistent with Christ’s prophetic words to
His
disciples concerning the temple’s coming destruction
(Matthew
24:1-2; Mk 13:2).
166. Pool of Bethesda
P rior to the pools
discovery in 1888 near
church of St. Anne in
Jerusalem adjacent to
the temple mount, there
had been no extra
biblical
mention of the site .
Subsequent excavations
have found the “five
porches” (colonnades)
located a short distance
from the “Sheep Gate”
P ool was associated with the
as
described in John 5:2. pagan healing god Asclepius (John
5:3-4).
167. Pool of Siloam
T he trapezoid pool (corners greater than 90 degrees), with
three sets of five stairs, was discovered by accident in 2005
as
city workers were digging in the vicinity revealing three series
of
five ancient steps on each level. Coins found at the site
confirm
this location as the 1 st century Pool of Siloam mentioned in
John
9:7 as the place where Jesus healed the man born blind .
168. Macherus
M acherus is the location of Herod’s 1
century AD hill top cas
which overlooks the eastern ridge of Dead Sea (in Jordan) wher
Herod Antipas imprisoned and put to death John the Baptist
(Mt 14:1-12; Lk 9:9). Josephus wrote “…he [John] was sent a
prisoner, out of Herod’s suspicious temper, to Macherus, the
castle,…and was there put to death” ( Antiquities of the Jews 8.5.2)
8.5.2
st
169. Capernaum
(Jn 6:35, 59)
elow are the ruins of Capernaum, Jesus’
headquarters during His Galilean ministry (Mk 1:2128; 3:1-6; Lk 4:31-37; Jn 6:59) and where He
healed and taught many.
B
170. Capernaum
W ords scratched on the
walls indicate early Christians
believed this was Peter’s
house which may have led to
the early octagonal church
built over the site (Mt 8:14;
Mk 1:29; Lk 4:38)
T his 4
century Synagogue
was built over earlier 1 st
century AD black basalt
foundations. Most likely, this
is where Jesus said “I am the
bread of life” (Jn 6:35, 48,
59)
th
171. Cities of the Decapolis
T oday, nearly all the cities of the Decapolis ( deca = 10;
polis = city) mentioned in the gospels (Mt 4:25; Mk 5:20;
7:31) have been identified through archaeological research.
Pliny (1 st century) identified the cities as Gerasa (Jarash),
Gadara (Umm Qais), Scythopolis (Beth Shan), Damascus,
Dion, Hippos, Raphana, Pella, Philadelphia (Amman), and
Abila.
Hadrian’s Arch at Gerasa
Temple of Hercules at Philadelphia
172. Areopagus
T he Areopagus (Mar’s Hill) is a polished rocky outcropping
just below the Acropolis in Athens, Greece, where Paul delivere
his well-known sermon to the ethical court at the invitation of
the Stoic and Epicurean philosophers (Acts 17:16-34). Paul
spoke
and said “for in Him we live and move and have our being”
(Acts 16:28).
173. Caesarea by the Sea
S ince the 1950’s, archaeologists have uncovered Herod’s
harbor, market, streets, aqueducts, hippodrome and homes.
This is the place where Pontius Pilate made his home,
where
the first gentile converts to Christianity (Acts 10) were
made,
Ancient Hippodrome for Events
Amphitheatre going to Rome.
and Paul’s imprisonment (Acts 23-26) before Still Used Today
174. Caesarea Philippi
(Panias)
T his site in Northern Israel is the location where Jesus
asked His disciples “Who do men say that I, the Son of
Man, am?” Peter’s infamous response was “You are the
Christ, the Son of the Living God” (Mathew 16:13-20). It
was also an dedicated to the worship of the god Pan (city
named Panias ), Zeus, and Caesar, as well as the location
of one of the largest water sources feeding the Jordan
River .
175. Philippi
T he Roman colony at Philippi, named after Philip of Macedon
(father of Alexander the Great), was the site of several
memorable events, including Paul’s first European converts to
Christianity (Acts 16:11-15), his imprisonment with Silas
(16:16-24), and the conversion of the jailor (16:25-34). The
church there would eventually be the recipient of one of his
prison epistles (Philippians) praising their generosity (4:10-20).
Below is the amphitheater built by Philip and the city ruins
176. Ephesus
P aul spent at least three years ministering at Ephesus (Acts
18:19-21; 19:1-41), an economic and religious hub during the
1st century AD, only to be abandoned later due to the excess
harbor silting. The city is also well-known as the site where
Paul’s traveling companions Gaius and Aristarchus (19:29) were
brought into the 25,000 seat theater (below) as the rioting
Ephesians were chanting “Great is Diana of the Ephesians”
(19:27-28). The temple of Artemis (Diana) which has been
discovered here is considered a wonder of the ancient world.
Diana of Ephesus
177. Non-Christian Testimony to
Christ
E xtra biblical historians have offered a clear
picture
of the essential elements of Christ’s life which are
consistent with the Gospel accounts:
• Jesus lived during Tiberius Caesar
• He lived a virtuous life
• He was a wonder worker
• He had a brother names James
• He was acclaimed to be the Messiah
Judas’ 30 Silver Tyre Shekels
Matthew 27:3, 9
• He was crucified under Pontius Pilate
• He was crucified on the eve of Passover
• Darkness and Earthquake occurred when He died
• His disciples believed He rose from the dead
• His disciples were willing to die for their belief
• Christianity spread rapidly as far as Rome
• His disciples denied the Roman gods, worshipped Jesus as
God
179. Archaeology: the Intersection Between Faith and History
I n recent times the debate over the historical reliability of the Bible has developed new
importance and momentum in light of the thousands of archaeological discoveries related
either directly or indirectly to the people, places, events, customs, and beliefs recorded in the
Scriptures. As many historians agree, it can no longer be asserted that the Bible is a product
of
human invention or the mythological ramblings of men who had ulterior motives. Because of
this, many modern scholars have revisited the archaeological and historical data. However,
these
discoveries often languish in the halls of academia never seeing the light of day, thus leaving
the
layperson unaware of the immense body of archaeological information at their disposal. C.S.
Lewis once wrote “To be ignorant and simple now, not to be able to meet the enemies on
their
own ground, would be to throw down our weapons, and to betray our uneducated brethren
who
have, under God, no defense but us against the intellectual attacks of the heathen.” This
book
offers a bridge that spans from the classroom to the lay reader, with a view to both educating
and equipping for participation in the reliability debate, which has for too long been relegated
to
journal articles and scholarly discussions. Moreover, this work is intended to fill the gap in
knowledge that exists within the church of the historical events recorded in Scripture, and
their
vital relationship to Christian doctrine. In John 3:12, Jesus asks Nicodemus a question that
reminds us of our need to close the gap between history and faith: “If I have told you earthly
things and you do not believe, how will you believe if I told you heavenly things?” The time
for
compartmentalized thinking that separates history from faith is past, since it would align the
church with the assumptions of negative higher criticism which sees no connection between
the
Jesus of history (who lived in the first-century) and the Christ of Faith worshipped as God in
180. Acknowledgements
S pecial thanks to Sam Capshaw, Technology Administrator at
Calvary Chapel Bible College, for his computer expertise and
assistance in completing this project, Todd Bolen of BiblePlaces.com
, H. Wayne House and Randall Price for their generous contribution
of photographs. Also, gratitude to my talented sister and
archaeological sketch artist, Lorene Rice, for using her unique gifts
to enhance this work with her drawings of key artifacts.
