2. Types of sugars

3. Sucrose – Aglucose + Afrucrose = alpha glycosidic

4. Lactose – Bglucose + Bgalactose = beta glycosidic

5. Maltose – Aglucose + Aglucose = alpha glycosidic

6. Types of bonds

7. DNA/nucleotides – phosphodiester

8. Maltose/disaccharide – glycosidic bond

9. Enzyme/amino acid – peptide bonds

10. Metabolism

11. Catabolic – breakdown – release heat

12. Anabolic – creation of molecules

13. Ana- means “to go back to”

14. Energy

15. G = H -TS

16. Studying Cells

17. Cell-lines

18. Some cells reach confluency – a single layer of cells, stopped growing due to social signals of the cells that there will not be enough resources if the cells keep dividing

19. Primary culture – initial cells placed on slide

20. Secondary culture – ‘immortal’ cells produced from primary cultures after confluency. (some cells die after confluency)

21. Oncogenic transformation – cells not as dependant on substrate and divide on top of one another

22. Terms used in microscopy

23. Magnification – lets you see how large you can view an object while keeping the components as distinct objects. How big can the object be while maintaining objects as distinct?

24. Resolution

25. R= (0.61*lamba)/(n * sin(angular aperture))

26. a factor that measures how close two points can be in a sample and still be distinct.

27. R=194 nm. This means that two objects that are 200nm apart can be seen as distinct objects. If they are closer than this, they will not be seen as distinct structures.

28. Different types of light microscopy

29. Cell often appears transparent when there isn’t manipulation

30. Brightfield stained

31. Contrast for organelles – must be dead

32. Brightfield unstained

33. Fluorescent

34. Stains used but can be alive

35. Tagged proteins for induced expression

36. DIC – differential interference contrast imaging

37. Insertion of nomarski optic - A prism that splits light into two separate waves through specimen. Changes wavelength of light and the interference leads to increased contrast, largest difference is the edges of cells and organelles.

38. Phase contrast

39. Differentiation of organelles and differences between them w/out fixing

40. Good way to see edges of cell

41. Vesicle transport in cells

42. Takes advantage of physics of light and the characteristics of it as a waveform. When two waves are in phase, they are at the same frequ and combine to create a better resolution. If out of phase, reduced intensity of light. When in phase, the unstained cell will disrupt one of the light waves creating a slowed speed for the wave form.

43. Confocal Imaging

44. Thicker samples and image optical layers for 3d images.

45. TEM vs SEM

46. 2d vs 3d

47. Fluorescence Microscopy

48. Lots of dyes to look at parts of cells at the same times.

49. Only limited by number of filters one can place in microscope.

50. Source of light is ultraviolet passed through an excitation filter, which removes wavelengths of light not useful in expressing the fluorescence.

51. Dyes are chemically derived that bind carbohydrates, lipids, DNA.

52. One doesn’t need to use antibodies if the dyes bind directly.

53. Proteins most often identified by fluorescently linked antibodies because few dyes directly link to proteins.

54. Primarily, the fluorescent microscope does not have a condenser like in a light microscope. Must be thin samples.

55. confocal

56. has allowed us to use laser light to image specific layers/regions within a thick sample.

57. Images individual parts and put together to rebuild the picture.

58. Membranes

59. ∆Gc = RTln[in/out] + zFVm

60. F = 23,062

61. Vm = membrane potential in volts

62. R = 1.987

63. Types of ATPases

64. P type (for phsphorylation)

65. Hydrolyze ATP

66. Na+/K+

67. V-type (vacuole)

68. Used to pump H+ across membrane for pH maintenance

69. F-type (factor)

70. ATP synthases

71. ABC-type