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163 ch 02_lecture_presentation
1.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by Meg Flemming Austin Community College C H A P T E R 2 The Chemical Level of Organization
2.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Chapter 2 Learning Outcomes • 2-1 • Describe an atom and how atomic structure affects interactions between atoms. • 2-2 • Compare the ways in which atoms combine to form molecules and compounds. • 2-3 • Use chemical notation to symbolize chemical reactions, and distinguish among the three major types of chemical reactions that are important for studying physiology. • 2-4 • Describe the crucial role of enzymes in metabolism.
3.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Chapter 2 Learning Outcomes • 2-5 • Distinguish between organic and inorganic compounds. • 2-6 • Explain how the chemical properties of water make life possible. • 2-7 • Describe the pH scale and the role of buffers in body fluids. • 2-8 • Describe the functional roles of inorganic compounds. • 2-9 • Discuss the structures and functions of carbohydrates. • 2-10 • Discuss the structures and functions of lipids.
4.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Chapter 2 Learning Outcomes • 2-11 • Discuss the structures and functions of proteins. • 2-12 • Discuss the structures and functions of nucleic acids. • 2-13 • Discuss the structures and functions of high-energy compounds. • 2-14 • Explain the relationship between chemicals and cells.
5.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Atoms: The Basic Particles of Matter (2-1) • Matter • Anything that takes up space and has mass • Composed of elements (e.g., oxygen, sodium) • Smallest, stable unit of matter is the atom
6.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Atomic Structure (2-1) • Atoms contain three major subatomic particles 1. Protons (p+ ) • Have mass and a positive electrical charge • Found in the atom's nucleus 2. Neutrons (n or n0 ) • Have mass and are electrically neutral • Found in the atom's nucleus • Electrons (e– ) • Have very little mass and have a negative electrical charge • Found orbiting around nucleus at high speed in electron cloud or shell
7.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Helium, He Figure 2-1 A Diagram of Atomic Structure.
8.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Space-filling model. This space-filling model of a hydrogen atom depicts the three-dimensional electron cloud formed by the single orbiting electron. Figure 2-2a Hydrogen Atom Models.
9.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Electron-shell model. In a two-dimensional electron-shell model, it is easier to visualize the atom’s components. Figure 2-2b Hydrogen Atom Models.
10.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Table 2-1 The Principal Elements in the Human Body
11.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Atomic Number (2-1) • The total of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom • Atomic mass not affected by gravity • An estimate of the atomic weight
12.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Isotopes (2-1) • Atoms of an element with different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus • Recognized by their mass number, the total of protons and neutrons in the nucleus • Unstable isotopes are radioactive
13.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Atomic Weight (2-1) • The average mass of an element's atoms • Considers influence of isotopes' differences in mass
14.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Electron Shells (2-1) • Atoms are electrically neutral • Protons balance with electrons • Electrons orbit nucleus in shells • Those in outer shell can interact with other atoms
15.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Electron Shells (2-1) • The number of electrons in an atom's outer shell: • Determines the chemical properties of that element • Shells have finite number of possible electrons • An atom with an outer shell that is "filled" is very stable, inert • An atom with an outer shell that is not filled will react with other atoms
16.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Carbon (C). In a carbon atom, which has six protons and six electrons, the first shell is full, but the second shell contains only four electrons. Neon (Ne). In a neon atom, which has 10 protons and 10 electrons, both the first and second electron shells are filled. Notice that the nuclei of carbon and neon contain neutrons as well as protons. First electron shell Second electron shell Electron Figure 2-3 The Electron Shells of Two Atoms.
17.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Checkpoint (2-1) 1. Define atom. 2. How is it possible for two samples of hydrogen to contain the same number of atoms but have different weights?
18.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Chemical Bonds (2-2) • Unstable atoms • React with each other by sharing, gaining, or losing electrons in chemical bonds • Molecules • Contain more than one atom bonded together by shared electrons • Compounds • Are made up of two or more elements bonded together by any one of the kinds of chemical bonds
19.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Ionic Bonds (2-2) • Some atoms will gain or lose electrons in the outer shell to gain stability • Altering the atom's electric charge • An atom that gains more electrons than it has protons: • Will be negatively charged and an anion (–) • An atom that loses more electrons than it has protons: • Will be positively charged and a cation (+)
20.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Ionic Bonds (2-2) • Ionic compounds are formed by ionic bonds • Cations and anions are electrically attracted to each other
21.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 2-4 Ionic Bonding. Formation of ions Sodium atom Attraction between opposite charges Sodium ion (Na+ ) Formation of an ionic compound Chlorine atom Chloride ion (Cl– ) Sodium chloride (NaCl) Chloride ions (Cl– ) Sodium ions (Na+ ) Sodium chloride crystal. Large numbers of sodium and chloride ions form a crystal of sodium chloride (table salt). Formation of an ionic bond. A sodium (Na) atom loses an electron, which is accepted by a chlorine (Cl) atom. Because the sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl– ) ions have opposite charges, they are attracted to one another. The association of sodium and chloride ions forms the ionic compound sodium chloride. 1 2 3
22.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Formation of ions Sodium atom Attraction between opposite charges Sodium ion (Na+ ) Formation of an ionic compound Chlorine atom Chloride ion (Cl– ) Sodium chloride (NaCl) Formation of an ionic bond. A sodium (Na) atom loses an electron, which is accepted by a chlorine (Cl) atom. Because the sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl– ) ions have opposite charges, they are attracted to one another. The association of sodium and chloride ions forms the ionic compound sodium chloride. 1 2 3 Figure 2-4a Ionic Bonding.
23.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Formation of ions Sodium atom Chlorine atom Figure 2-4a Ionic Bonding. (1 of 3)
24.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Attraction between opposite charges Sodium ion (Na+ ) Chloride ion (Cl– ) Figure 2-4a Ionic Bonding. (2 of 3)
25.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Formation of an ionic compound Sodium chloride (NaCl) Figure 2-4a Ionic Bonding. (3 of 3)
26.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Chloride ions (Cl– ) Sodium ions (Na+ ) Sodium chloride crystal. Large numbers of sodium and chloride ions form a crystal of sodium chloride (table salt). Figure 2-4b Ionic Bonding.
27.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Table 2-2 The Most Common Ions in Body Fluids
28.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Covalent Bonds (2-2) • Sharing of electrons between atoms • Single covalent bond • Sharing of one pair of electrons • Double covalent bond • Sharing of two pairs of electrons • Covalent bonds are relatively stable and strong
29.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Molecule Electron Shell Model and Structural Formula Space-filling Model Hydrogen (H2) Oxygen (O2) Carbon dioxide (CO2) Figure 2-5 Covalent Bonds in Three Common Molecules.
30.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Covalent Bonds (2-2) • Nonpolar covalent bonds • Electrons shared equally • Polar covalent bonds • One element holds a shared electron more strongly than the other, or sharing is unequal • They form polar molecules • Polar molecules • Will have a slight negative on one end of the molecule, a slight positive on the other end
31.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Hydrogen Bonds (2-2) • Too weak to create molecules • An attraction between: • A slight positive charge on the hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond • And a slight negative charge on an oxygen or nitrogen atom of another polar covalent bond
32.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Hydrogen bonding KEY Hydrogen Oxygen Hydrogen bond The unequal sharing of electrons in a water molecule causes each of its two hydrogen atoms to have a slight positive charge and its oxygen atom to have a slight negative charge. Attraction between a hydrogen atom of one water molecule and the oxygen atom of another is a hydrogen bond (indicated by dashed lines). KEY Water molecule Hydrogen bonding between water molecules at a free surface creates surface tension and slows evaporation. Figure 2-6 Hydrogen Bonds between Water Molecules.
33.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Checkpoint (2-2) 3. Define chemical bond, and identify several types of chemical bonds. 4. Oxygen and neon are both gases at room temperature. Why does oxygen readily combine with other elements, but neon does not? 5. Which kind of bond holds atoms in a water molecule together? What attracts water molecules to each other?
34.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Types of Chemical Reactions (2-3) • Three key chemical reactions in physiology 1. Decomposition reactions 2. Synthesis reactions 3. Exchange reactions • Reactants • Are rearranged to form products • Metabolism • Is the sum of all chemical reactions in the body
35.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Energy (2-3) • The capacity to do work • Kinetic energy • Energy of motion • Potential energy • Stored energy • Energy can be converted from one form to another • Heat is a by-product of this conversion
36.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. SPOTLIGHT FIGURE 2-7 Chemical Notation VISUAL REPRESENTATION CHEMICAL NOTATION Atoms Molecules Ions one atom of hydrogen one atom of oxygen one atom of hydrogen one atom of oxygen two atoms of hydrogen two atoms of oxygen two atoms of hydrogen two atoms of oxygen hydrogen molecule composed of two hydrogen atoms oxygen molecule composed of two oxygen atoms hydrogen molecule oxygen molecule water molecule water molecule composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom Balanced equation Unbalanced equation the sodium atom has lost one electron the chlorine atom has gained one electron the calcium atom has lost two electrons sodium ion chloride ion calcium ion sodium ion chloride ion calcium ion Electron lost A sodium atom becomes a sodium ion Sodium atom (Na) Sodium ion (Na+) Reactions Figure 2-7 Chemical Notation
37.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 2-7 Chemical Notation (1 of 4) VISUAL REPRESENTATION CHEMICAL NOTATION Atoms one atom of hydrogen one atom of oxygen one atom of hydrogen one atom of oxygen two atoms of hydrogen two atoms of oxygen two atoms of hydrogen two atoms of oxygen
38.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 2-7 Chemical Notation (2 of 4) Molecules hydrogen molecule composed of two hydrogen atoms oxygen molecule composed of two oxygen atoms hydrogen molecule oxygen molecule water molecule water molecule composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom VISUAL REPRESENTATION CHEMICAL NOTATION
39.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 2-7 Chemical Notation (3 of 4) Balanced equation Unbalanced equation Reactions VISUAL REPRESENTATION CHEMICAL NOTATION
40.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 2-7 Chemical Notation (4 of 4) Ions the sodium atom has lost one electron the chlorine atom has gained one electron the calcium atom has lost two electrons sodium ion chloride ion calcium ion sodium ion chloride ion calcium ion Electron lost A sodium atom becomes a sodium ion Sodium atom (Na) Sodium ion (Na+) VISUAL REPRESENTATION CHEMICAL NOTATION
41.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Decomposition Reactions (2-3) • Break a molecule into smaller parts • • In the body, these are often hydrolysis reactions • • Catabolism • Decomposition reactions in the body, releasing kinetic energy for work
42.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Synthesis Reactions (2-3) • Make larger molecules from small parts • • Dehydration synthesis • Forms a complex molecule by the removal of water • • Anabolism • Builds storage molecules in body
43.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Exchange Reactions (2-3) • A shuffling of parts of molecules • • A decomposition reaction followed by a synthesis reaction
44.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Reversible Reactions (2-3) • Symbolized by two opposite arrows • • At chemical reaction equilibrium, the rates of the two reactions are in balance
45.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Checkpoint (2-3) 6. Using the rules for chemical notation, write the molecular formula for glucose, a compound composed of 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen atoms. 7. Identify and describe three types of chemical reactions important to human physiology. 8. In living cells, glucose, a six-carbon molecule, is converted into two three-carbon molecules. What type of chemical reaction is this?
46.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Checkpoint (2-3) 9. If the product of a reversible reaction is continuously removed, what will be the effect on the equilibrium?
47.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Enzymes (2-4) • Aid in chemical reactions • Lower the activation energy • The amount of energy required to start a reaction • Act as catalysts to speed the rate of reactions • But are not changed by reactions
48.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 2-8 The Effect of Enzymes on Activation Energy. Energy Reactants Activation energy required Without enzyme With enzyme Stable product Progress of reaction
49.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Exergonic and Endergonic Reactions (2-4) • Exergonic reactions • Release net energy because it took less to activate the reaction than what was released • Endergonic reactions • Absorb net energy because it took more energy to activate the reactions • Most reactions in body are exergonic • Generating heat to keep us warm
50.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Checkpoint (2-4) 11. What is an enzyme? 12. Why are enzymes needed in our cells?
51.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Inorganic and Organic Compounds (2-5) • Nutrients • Essential elements and molecules obtained from the diet • Metabolites • Chemicals that come from catabolism and anabolism in our bodies • Inorganic compounds • Small, usually without carbon and hydrogen • Organic compounds • Generally large and complex, made of carbon and hydrogen
52.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Checkpoint (2-5) 12. Distinguish between inorganic and organic compounds.
53.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Three Properties of Water (2-6) 1. Water is an essential reactant in the chemical reactions of living systems 2. Water has a very high heat capacity 3. Water is an excellent solvent
54.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Water (2-6) • Solutions • A mixture of a fluid solvent and dissolved solutes • Dissociation or ionization • Occurs when ionic compounds break apart into their charged ions in water • An organic molecule is soluble when it contains polar covalent bonds
55.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Negative pole Water molecule. In a water molecule, oxygen forms polar covalent bonds with two hydrogen atoms. Because both hydrogen atoms are at one end of the molecule, it has an uneven distribution of charges, creating positive and negative poles. Positive pole 2– Figure 2-9a The Role of Water Molecules in Aqueous Solutions.
56.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Sphere of water molecules Sodium chloride in solution. Ionic compounds, such as sodium chloride, dissociate in water as the polar water molecules break the ionic bonds. Each ion remains in solution because it is surrounded by a sphere of water molecules. Figure 2-9b The Role of Water Molecules in Aqueous Solutions.
57.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Glucose in solution. Water molecules are also attracted to an organic molecule containing polar covalent bonds. If the molecule binds water strongly, as does glucose, it will be carried into solution—in other words, it will dissolve. Note that the molecule does not dissociate, as occurs for ionic compounds. Glucose molecule Figure 2-9c The Role of Water Molecules in Aqueous Solutions.
58.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Checkpoint (2-6) 13. List the chemical properties of water that make life possible. 14. Why does water resist changes in temperature?
59.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. pH of Body Fluids (2-7) • A hydrogen atom that loses its electron becomes a hydrogen ion, H+ • H+ is very reactive and can break important chemical bonds • The concentration of H+ in the body must be narrowly maintained within a normal pH
60.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. pH of Body Fluids (2-7) • pH = 1/log [H+ ] • The higher the concentration of H+ ,the lower the pH • The pH scale runs from 0–14 • 7 is neutral • A solution with a pH below 7 is acidic • A solution with a pH above 7 is alkaline
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 2-10 pH and Hydrogen Ion Concentration. Increasing concentration of H+ ions Decreasing concentration of OH– ions Stomach hydrochloric acid Beer, vinegar, wine, pickles Tomatoes, grapes Urine Saliva, milk Pure water Blood Ocean water Eggs Neutral Household bleach Household ammonia Oven cleaner Increasing concentration of OH– ions Decreasing concentration of H+ ions Extremely acidic Extremely basic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 140pH
62.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Checkpoint (2-7) 15. Define pH, and explain how the pH scale relates to acidity and alkalinity. 16. Why is an extreme change in pH of body fluids undesirable?
63.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Acids, Bases, and Salts (2-8) • Inorganic compounds • Dissociated in water into ionic forms
64.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Acids (2-8) • Dissociate into a cation that is always H+ and an anion that is not OH– • The stronger the acid, the more dissociation occurs • The more free H+ is present, the lower the pH • A strong acid is
65.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Bases (2-8) • Dissociate into a cation that is never H+ and an anion that is OH– • The stronger the base, the more dissociation occurs • The less free H+ is present, the higher the pH • A strong base is
66.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Salts (2-8) • Ionic compound • Dissociate into a cation that is never H+ and an anion that is never OH– • Table salt (NaCl) • In solution dissociates into Na+ and Cl– ions • Dissociation of salts makes a solution: • Slightly acidic or slightly basic • Examples of electrolytes • Inorganic compounds whose ions conduct an electrical current in solution
67.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Buffers and pH (2-8) • Buffer systems • In the body maintain blood pH in a homeostatic range of 7.35–7.45 • Stabilize pH by taking H+ out of solution or dropping H+ into solution
68.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Checkpoint (2-8) 17. Define the following terms: acid, base, and salt. 18. How does an antacid decrease stomach discomfort?
69.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Carbohydrates (2-9) • Organic compounds with carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio near 1:2:1 • Include sugars and starches • A good source of energy • Three major types 1. Monosaccharides 2. Disaccharides 3. Polysaccharides
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Monosaccharides (2-9) • Simple sugars • Building blocks for larger carbohydrates • Dissolve readily in water • Glucose is most important energy source in body
71.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. The structural formula of the straight-chain form of glucose. The structural formula of the ring form, the most common form of glucose. An abbreviated diagram of the ring form of glucose. In such carbon-ring diagrams, atoms attached to the ring are omitted, and only the symbols for elements other than carbon are shown. Figure 2-11 Glucose.
72.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Disaccharides and Polysaccharides (2-9) • Disaccharides • Sucrose, maltose, lactose • Two monosaccharides linked by covalent bonds • Polysaccharides • Starch, glycogen • Multiple monosaccharides and/or disaccharides linked by covalent bonds • Bonds are broken through hydrolysis reactions • Bonds are formed through dehydration synthesis
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Checkpoint (2-9) 19. A food contains organic molecules with the elements C, H, and O in a ratio of 1:2:1. What class of compounds do the molecules represent, and what are their major functions in the body? 20. When two monosaccharides undergo a dehydration synthesis reaction, which type of molecule is formed?
74.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Lipids (2-10) • Contain a carbon-to-hydrogen ratio of 1:2 • May contain a variety of other elements • Include fats, oils, and waxes • Most are insoluble in water, but can be carried in the blood • Used for long-term energy supplies
75.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Fatty Acids (2-10) • Long chains of carbon with a carboxyl group, -COOH, at the end • Carboxyl end can dissolve in water • The carbon chain, or "tail" is fairly insoluble • Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
76.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Lauric acid (C12H24O2) Lauric acid shows the basic structure of a fatty acid: a long chain of carbon atoms and a carboxyl group (—COOH) at one end. Figure 2-13a Fatty Acids.
77.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 2-13b Fatty Acids. Saturated Unsaturated A fatty acid is either saturated (has single covalent bonds only) or unsaturated (has one or more double covalent bonds). The presence of a double bond causes a sharp bend in the molecule.
78.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Fats (2-10) • Use fatty acids attached to glycerol to form triglycerides • Most common fats in the body
79.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Glycerol Fatty acids Fatty Acid 1 Fatty Acid 2 Fatty Acid 3 Saturated Saturated DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS HYDROLYSIS Triglyceride Unsaturated Figure 2-14 Triglyceride Formation.
80.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Steroids (2-10) • Large compounds of four connected rings of carbon • Cholesterol is the most common
81.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 2-15 A Cholesterol Molecule.
82.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Phospholipids (2-10) • Contains glycerol, two fatty acids, a phosphate group, and a nonlipid group • Nonlipid group is soluble in water • Fatty acid tails are fairly insoluble • Most abundant lipid component in cell membranes
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Nonlipid group Phosphate group Glycerol Fatty acids Figure 2-16 A Phospholipid Molecule.
84.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Table 2-4 Representative Lipids and Their Functions in the Body
85.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Checkpoint (2-10) 21. Describe lipids. 22. Which kind of lipid would be found in a sample of fatty tissue taken from beneath the skin? 23. Which lipids would you find in human cell membranes?
86.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Proteins (2-11) • Seven key functions of proteins in the body 1. Support 2. Movement 3. Transport 4. Buffering 5. Metabolic regulation 6. Coordination and control 7. Defense
87.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Protein Structure (2-11) • Long chains of amino acids • 20 different amino acids in the body • Amino acids contain: • A central carbon atom bound to a hydrogen atom • An amino group (—NH2) • A carboxyl group (—COOH) • A side chain of varying lengths • Amino acids are connected with peptide bonds
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Amino group Central carbon Carboxyl group R group (variable side chain of one or more atoms) Each amino acid consists of a central carbon atom to which four different groups are attached: a hydrogen atom, an amino group (– NH2), a carboxyl group (–COOH), and a variable group generally designated R. Structure of an Amino Acid Figure 2-17a Amino Acids and the Formation of Peptide Bonds.
89.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Peptide Bond Formation Glycine (gly) Alanine (ala) DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS HYDROLYSIS Peptide bond Peptides form when a dehydration synthesis reaction creates a peptide bond between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another. In this example, glycine (for which R = H) and alanine (for which R = CH3) are linked to form a dipeptide. Figure 2-17b Amino Acids and the Formation of Peptide Bonds.
90.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Protein Structure (2-11) • Proteins are a function of the specific amino acid sequence • R groups can interact to form a more complex protein • A globular protein • The shape of the protein determines its function • Proteins can undergo denaturation (a change in structure) • By changes in temperature, pH, and ionic composition
91.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Enzyme Function (2-11) • Enzymes • Essential proteins in the body that catalyze reactions • Reactants • Referred to as substrates • When substrates interact with enzymes, a product is formed • Enzymes have an active site • Where substrates bind to undergo their reactions to form products PLAYPLAY ANIMATION Chemical Reactions: Enzymes
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Substrates bind to active site of enzyme. S1 S1 S2 S2 Substrates ENZYME ENZYME ENZYME ENZYME Active site Once bound to the active site, the substrates are held together, aiding their interaction. Enzyme-substrate complex Substrate binding alters the shape of the enzyme, and this change promotes product formation. PRODUCT PRO DUCT Product detaches from enzyme; entire process can now be repeated. Figure 2-19 A Simplified View of Enzyme Structure and Function.
93.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Substrates bind to active site of enzyme. Substrates Active site ENZYME S1 S2 Figure 2-19 A Simplified View of Enzyme Structure and Function. (1 of 4)
94.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 2-19 A Simplified View of Enzyme Structure and Function. (2 of 4) Once bound to the active site, the substrates are held together, aiding their interaction. S1 S2 ENZYME Enzyme-substrate complex
95.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Substrate binding alters the shape of the enzyme, and this change promotes product formation. PRODUCT ENZYME Figure 2-19 A Simplified View of Enzyme Structure and Function. (3 of 4)
96.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 2-19 A Simplified View of Enzyme Structure and Function. (4 of 4) Product detaches from enzyme; entire process can now be repeated. PRO DUCT ENZYME
97.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Checkpoint (2-11) 24. Describe a protein. 25. How does boiling a protein affect its structural and functional properties?
98.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Nucleic Acids (2-12) • Large organic molecules composed of: • Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus • Store and process information inside cells • Two classes 1. DNA—deoxyribonucleic acid 2. RNA—ribonucleic acid
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Structure of Nucleic Acids (2-12) • Composed of strands of nucleotides • Nucleotides composed of: • A sugar • A phosphate group • A nitrogenous base
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© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. DNA (2-12) • Is a double strand • Sugar is deoxyribose • Four nitrogenous bases • Adenine (A) • Guanine (G) • Cytosine (C) • Thymine (T) PLAYPLAY ANIMATION Protein Synthesis: DNA Molecule
101.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. RNA (2-12) • Is a single strand • Sugar is ribose • Four nitrogenous bases • Adenine (A) • Guanine (G) • Cytosine (C) • Uracil (U)
102.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Table 2-5 A Comparison of RNA and DNA
103.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Nucleotide structure Sugar Phosphate group Nitrogenous base Nitrogenous bases in nucleic acids Adenine Guanine Cytosine Thymine (DNAonly) Uracil (RNAonly) Figure 2-20a-b The Structure of Nucleic Acids.
104.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Phosphate group Deoxyribose Adenine Thymine Hydrogen bond DNA strand 1 DNA strand 2 RNA molecule. An RNA mol-ecule has a single nucleotide chain. Its shape is deter- mined by the sequence of nucleotides and by the interactions among them. Cytosine Guanine DNA molecule. A DNA molecule has a pair of nucleotide chains linked by hydrogen bonding between complementary base pairs. Figure 2-20c-d The Structure of Nucleic Acids.
105.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Checkpoint (2-12) 26. Describe a nucleic acid. 27. A large organic molecule composed of ribose sugars, nitrogenous bases, and phosphate groups is which kind of nucleic acid?
106.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. ATP: The Energy Molecule (2-13) • High-energy compounds • Made by attaching a phosphate group to an organic molecule • Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) • Is the most important • ATP is made with adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and two phosphate groups • By attaching a phosphate group to free ADP within the cells, ATP is generated
107.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. ATP: The Energy Molecule (2-13) • Energy is stored by converting ADP to ATP • The reverse releases energy •
108.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Adenine Ribose Phosphate Adenosine Phosphate Phosphate High-energy bonds Adenosine monophosphate (AMP) Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Adenine Ribose Phosphate groups Adenosine Figure 2-21 The Structure of ATP.
109.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Energy from cellular catabolism Energy released for cellular activities Figure 2-22 Energy Flow and the Recycling of ADP and ATP within Cells.
110.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids High-Energy Compounds include include include include Polysaccharides Triglycerides Peptides RNA DNA ATP composed of composed ofcomposed of composed of composed of composed of two Disaccharides Fatty acids Amino acids Nucleotides Nucleotide Monosaccharides Glycerol Phosphate groups and and contain Figure 2-23 An Overview of the Structures of Organic Compounds in the Body.
111.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Checkpoint (2-13) 28. Describe ATP. 29. What are the products of the hydrolysis of ATP?
112.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Chemicals Combine to Make Cells (2-14) • Combinations of: • Lipids, proteins, and some carbohydrates • Form structures that work together for a common purpose • Each cell is a miniature organism • With structures built by biochemical building blocks
113.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Table 2-6 The Structure and Function of Biologically Important Compounds
114.
© 2013 Pearson
Education, Inc. Checkpoint (2-14) 29. Identify the biochemical building blocks that are the components of cells.
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