Pbl and language

THE USE OF PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING IN AN
ENGLISH FOR OCCUPATIONAL PURPOSES CLASSROOM
AMONG FINAL SEMESTER STUDENTS OF
DIPLOMA IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

JACQUELINE SIM PHEK KIM

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

THE USE OF PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING IN AN
ENGLISH FOR OCCUPATIONAL PURPOSES CLASSROOM
AMONG FINAL SEMESTER STUDENTS OF
DIPLOMA IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

JACQUELINE SIM PHEK KIM

A project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Master of Education (Teaching of English as a Second Language)

Faculty of Education
in collaboration with
the Department of Modern Languages
Faculty of Management and Human Resources Development
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

30 SEPTEMBER 2006

ii

I declare that this project report entitled “The Use of Problem-based Learning in
an English for Occupational Purposes Classroom Among Final Semester
Students of Diploma in Office Management and Technology” is the result of my
own research except as cited in the references. The project report has not been
accepted for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature of any
other degree.

Signature :
Name : JACQUELINE SIM PHEK KIM
Date : 30 SEPTEMBER 2006 ………

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To
Kester my hubby, bestfriend, confidant, soulmate;
Jaomi and Timotheus the apples of my eye;
and the memory of
Linda Chang Ping Tek my Grand Mah.
You have taught me to run with horses.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

From the depths of my heart, I thank the Lord for being my anchor. His
omnipresence, faithfulness and wisdom enabled me to complete my Master and
this dissertation.

I am very grateful to my lecturer and supervisor, Associate Professor Dr.
Salbiah Binti Seliman, for motivating me to look at problems from a different
light, and for patiently guiding, directing and advising me.

I remember with deep appreciation the wind beneath my wings: my
husband, Kester, and my pride and joy, Jaomi and Timotheus, who believed in
me, and loved me and all my idiosyncrasies especially during my most stressful
days, and my mom, and sister, Evelyn, who gave me the much-needed space.

Special mention goes to my friends, especially, Shirley Su, who
encouraged me to climb “walls”, Valerie Chan, who challenged me to think
outside the box, and Euphrasia Lee, who inspired me with her wits. It has been a
privilege solving problems with you. I also thank Cindy Wee, who has always
gone the extra mile, and my colleagues at Universiti Teknologi MARA Kota
Samarahan who have been so supportive.

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ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to investigate the use of PBL in an EOP
classroom by determining, firstly, whether the use of PBL benefited the EOP
respondents’ language skills, and secondly, whether there are any significant
improvements in their language skills. The study also attempted to describe the
respondents’ responses in the use of PBL in learning EOP. The respondents
involved in this study were five final semester students from diverse backgrounds
and different levels of English Language proficiency pursuing Diploma in Office
Management and Technology at a local university in Sarawak. This study was
conducted using the qualitative approach. Observation Checklists were used to
collect data on the respondents’ oral language skills in their group discussions
and presentations to ascertain if the use of PBL had benefited the respondents’
oral skills. Pretest and Posttest were administered at the beginning and the end of
the study to determine if the process of learning EOP using PBL had benefited
the respondents’ written language skills in the area of writing reply letters of
complaints. The Posttest letters were also analysed for significant improvements
in the language used by the respondents. Besides that, various types of
Evaluation Forms were distributed to the respondents to obtain data on their
responses towards the use of PBL in an EOP classroom. The findings from this
study revealed that the respondents had responded positively towards the use of
PBL. Their oral and written language skills had improved significantly. On top
of that, their generic skills had also improved, and this would enhance their rate
of employability upon graduation. All the results of this study pointed towards
the fact that the use of PBL in an EOP classroom had benefited the respondents’
oral and written language skills.

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ABSTRAK

Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk mengkaji kegunaan ‘Pembelajaran
Berasaskan Masalah’ (PBL) dalam kelas ‘Bahasa Inggeris Bagi Tujuan
Pekerjaan’ (EOP). Ini dilakukan dengan menentukan pertamanya, sama ada
pengguna PBL boleh memberi faedah kepada kemahiran bahasa pelajar EOP dan
keduanya, terhadap jenis kemahiran bahasa yang dapat diperbaiki dengan
signifikannya. Kajian ini juga ingin menggambarkan tindak balas pelajar yang
mengguna PBL untuk mempelajari EOP. Pelajar yang terlibat dalam kajian ini
adalah lima orang pelajar semester akhir daripada latar belakang dan tahap
kemahiran Bahasa Inggeris yang berbeza, iaitu pelajar Diploma Pengurusan
Pejabat & Teknologi di sebuah universiti tempatan di Sarawak. Kajian ini
dijalankan dengan menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif. Satu Senarai Semak
Pemerhatian digunakan untuk mengutip data mengenai kemahiran lisan pelajar
dalam sesi perbincangan berkumpulan dan pembentangan. Ujian pra dan pos
dilakukan pada awal dan akhir kajian untuk menentukan keberkesanan proses
pembelajaran EOP menggunakan PBL melalui kebolehan pelajar menjawab
surat. Borang Soalselidik juga digunakan untuk mendapatkan maklum balas
mengenai perkara yang sama. Hasil kajian ini mendapati bahawa tindak balas
terhadap kegunaan PBL dalam EOP adalah positif. Kemahiran bahasa dalam
lisan dan penulisan didapati bertambah baik dengan signifikannya. Kemahiran
generik mereka juga bertambah baik yang seterusnya boleh meningkatkan
peluang mendapatkan pekerjaan setelah tamat pengajian. Oleh itu, semua
keputusan kajian ini menjurus kepada kegunaan PBL dalam bilik darjah EOP
telah dapat memberi faedah kepada kemahiran secara lisan dan penulisan bahasa.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xii
LIST OF FIGURES xiv
LIST OF ACRONYMS xv
LIST OF APPENDICES xvi

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Background of the Study 3
1.3 Statement of Problem 4
1.4 Purpose of the Study 5
1.5 Objectives of the Study 6
1.6 Research Questions 6
1.7 Significance of the Study 7
1.8 Scope of the Study 7
1.9 Conclusion 8

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Current Status of PBL 9

viii

2.3 Approaches to Language Learning
and Teaching 10
2.3.1 Constructivist Approach 11
2.3.2 Learner-Centred Approach 11
2.3.3 Approaches in Language Acquisition and
Learning 13
(a) Behaviourist Approach 13
(b) Innatist Approach 15
(c) Natural Approach 16
(d) Interactionist Approach 18
2.4 What is PBL? 21
2.5 Rationale for Using PBL 22
2.6 Early Success of PBL 23
2.6.1 PBL in Medicine 23
2.6.2 PBL in Pure Sciences 25
2.7 Recent Developments in PBL 25
2.7.1 PBL in Education 26
2.7.2 PBL in Law 27
2.7.3 PBL in Language Teaching and Learning 27
2.7.4 PBL in English for Academic Purposes 28
2.7.5 PBL in English for Occupational Purposes 29
2.7.6 PBL and Generic Skills 30
2.8 Design Process of PBL 33
2.9 Characteristics of PBL 35
2.10 Scaffolds in PBL 36
2.11 Characteristics of a PBL Poorly-Structured Problem 36
2.12 Role of the Facilitator in PBL 37
2.13 Role of the Learners in PBL 38
2.14 Constraints in Implementing PBL 38
(a) Cultural Change 38
(b) Manpower 39
(c) Infrastructure 39

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2.15 Conclusion 39

3 METHODOLOGY 40
3.1 Introduction 40
3.2 Research Design 40
3.3 Population 42
3.4 Sampling Design 43
3.5 Respondents 43
3.6 Instrumentation 44
3.6.1 Instruments used in Data Collection 45
(a) Questionnaire 45
(b) Written Essay 46
(c) Poorly-Structured Problem 46
(d) Poorly-Structured Problem
Reply Letter 46
(e) Tests 47
(f) Evaluation Forms 48
(g) Problem Logs 51
(h) Checklists 53
3.6.2 Instruments used in Data Analysis 55
(a) Assessment of General Language
Skills 55
(b) Assessment of Specific Language
Skills 56
(c) Assessment of Oral Presentation 57
3.7 Research Procedure 59
3.7.1 Preliminary Study 59
3.7.2 Preparation of Instruments 59
3.7.3 Piloting of Instruments 61
3.7.4 Improvement of Instruments 62
3.8 Data Collection 63
3.9 Data Analysis 68
3.9.1 Poorly-Structured Problem Reply Letter
and Pretest 68

x

3.9.2 Tests (Pretest and Posttest) 69
3.9.3 Assessment of Oral Presentation 70
3.9.4 Evaluation Forms 70
3.9.5 Problem Logs 72
3.9.6 Checklists 72
3.10 Conclusion 73

4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 74
4.1 Introduction 74
4.2 Benefits of PBL on the Respondents’
Language Skills 74
4.2.1. Ability to Decide To Write
a Reply Letter of Complaint 75
4.2.2 Ability to Write a Reply Letter of
Complaint 76
4.2.3 Improvements in Written Language Skills 76
4.2.4 Discussions of Respondents’
Overall Performance 82
4.3 Aspects of Language Skills the Respondents
Improved Significantly 83
4.3.1 Significant Improvements in Written
Language Skills 84
(a) Grammar 86
(b) Punctuation 87
(c) Vocabulary and Expression 87
(d) Rhetorical Aspects 88
Overall Written Performance 90
4.3.3 Significant Improvements in Oral
Language Skills 93
(a) Language Used When
Communicating With Group
Members 93

xi

(b) Effectiveness in Oral
Language Skills 93
Overall Spoken Performance 97
4.4 Informants Responses to the Use of PBL in
Learning EOP 98
4.4.1 Interpersonal Skills 99
4.4.2 Self-Management Skills 101
4.4.3 Communication Skills 105
4.4.4 Problem-Solving Skills 110
Overall Responses to the Use
of PBL in Learning EOP 114
4.5 Conclusion 114

5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 115
5.1 Conclusion 115
5.2 Recommendations 118
5.3 Pedagogical Implications 119
5.4 Suggestions for Further Research 120
5.5 Limitations of the Study 121

REFERENCES 123

Appendices A-V 132-163

xii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
3.1 Likert Scale used in Evaluation Form 49

3.2 Grading Scale for Evaluation 51

3.3 Assessment of General Language Skills 55

3.4 Assessment of Specific Language Skills 56

3.5 Assessment of Oral Presentation 57

3.6 Grading Scale for Oral Presentation 58

3.7 Types of Improvement in the Posttest Letters 69

4.1 Analysis and Comments of the Respondents’ Letter
from the Pretest and Poorly-Structured Problem Reply 77

4.2 Marks obtained by the Respondents in the Pretest and
Posttest Letters 84

4.3 Types of Improvement Obtained by the Respondents
in the Posttest Letters 85

xiii

4.4 Checklist of Generic Skills: Self-Evaluation of
Interpersonal Skills Before and After the Use of
PBL in Learning EOP 99

Self-Management Skills Before and After the Use of

4.6 Ratings Obtained by the Respondents in the
Group Evaluation 103

Communication Skills Before and After the Use of

4.8 Marks Obtained by the Respondents in the
Oral Presentation 107

Problem-Solving Skills Before and After the Use of

xiv

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Design Process of PBL 34

3.1 Research Design 41

3.2 Process of Data Collection 63

xv

LIST OF ACRONYMS

EOP - English for Occupational Purposes
PBL - Problem-Based Learning
EAP - English for Academic Purposes
ELT - English Language Teaching
FBI - Federal Bureau of Investigation
ALM - Audio-Lingual Method
SLA - Second Language Acquisition
LAD - Language Acquisition Device
L2 - Second Language
NA - Natural Approach
CI - Comprehensive Input
L1 - Native Speaker
Non-L1 - Non-Native Speaker
CO - Comprehensive Output
UBD - University Brunei Darussalam
SPM - Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia
CGPA - Cumulative Grade Point Average
PTPTN - National Higher Education Fund

xvi

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A Questionnaire 132
B Written Essay 135
C Checklist of Generic Skills 136
D Pretest 138
E Poorly-Structured Problem 139
F Checklist of Observation 140
G Scaffolds 1 141
H Problem Log 1 142
I Self-Evaluation Form 1 145
J Group Evaluation Form 1 147
K Scaffolds 2 149
L Problem Log 2 150
M Scaffolds 3 151
N Problem Log 3 152
O Scaffolds 4 154
P Problem Log 4 155
Q Assessment of Oral Presentation 156
R Group Evaluation Form 2 157
S Poorly-Structured Problem
Evaluation Form 158
T Self-Evaluation Form 2 160
U Posttest 162
V Poorly-Structured Problem Reply Letter 163

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

The lecturer entered the EOP class all prepared to deliver the first lecture of
the new semester. Exuberating with enthusiasm and well-prepared with
transparencies and printed notes, she introduced the final semester undergraduates to
the course content. Expecting enthusiastic responses from these undergraduates, she
was certainly not prepared for what was to transpire. Comments such as ‘dry’,
‘boring’, and ‘technical’ were the responses she received. She was taken aback by
this lacklustre attitude of the undergraduates, and on probing further, she discovered
that they were not in the least interested in learning the EOP skills so important for
their career.

There has to be a departure from this approach of learning and teaching to
one that will enable the learners and teachers to see the relevance of learning. It has
to be an approach that views learning as a process that constructs knowledge; one
that is not only concerned with the end product of acquiring that knowledge but
rather the process of constructing that knowledge. This is to run away from the non-
constructivist approach of learning to one that looks at learning from the
constructivist point of view (Brooks and Brooks, 1993). Learning, to a
constructivist, involves a process where knowledge is constructed not transferred.
It is based on the principle that learning takes place when there is construction of

2

knowledge. Brooks and Brooks (1993) explain it well when they say that the focus
in learning is the receipt of knowledge and the learning activity. They add that this
type of learning approach will free the learners from the

“dreariness of fact-driven curriculum and allow them to focus on large
ideas; (they) place in students’ hands the exhilarating power to follow
traits of interests, to make connections, to reformulate ideas, and
to teach unique conclusions”
(Brooks and Brooks, 1993: 22).

Gone were the days where education was seen as a transfer of knowledge
from the teacher to the learners, and as long as learners were given knowledge, they
would be able to use it (Gordon, 1998).

One method which advocates learning by engaging learners in authentic
learning activities is PBL which uses real-life problems as the starting point and
focus of learning (Barrows, 1985; Dunlap, 2005). It is based on the premise that the
place where learning occurs lies not with the head-knowledge of the learners but in
the arena where there is social interaction (Mardziah, 1998), and where the social
participants play a deciding role in the content and amount learnt (Cole and
Engestrom, 1993; Salomon, 1993).

The use of PBL in the science disciplines has been successful in producing
learners who are responsible for their own learning and equipping themselves with
the relevant generic skills for life outside the classroom (Wood, 2003; Oliver and
McLoughlin, 2001). This method of learning and equipping can be adopted in the
EOP language classrooms where PBL is used as an approach to pave the way for this
self-learning to take place.

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1.2 Background of the Study

The present scenario in the classrooms where learners are unable to see the
importance of what they learn as being instrumental in succeeding in the real world
has to undergo a paradigm shift. Traditional education practices are churning out
disinterested and bored learners who go to school and come home with huge amount
of facts to memorise – an activity that does not in the least prepare them for life
outside the classroom. Their attitude towards the learning process is reflected in
their declining attendance rate and poor academic performance (Zhonglei, 2004;
Ahlfeldt, 2004).

Learning in the classrooms cannot be confined to just the content to be taught
for the day, nor the syllabus to be completed in the semester. It will be so unnatural
because acquisition of knowledge comes in a package together with the acquisition
of other skills. In other words, these learners are not just learning and improving on
their language skills, but also simultaneously picking up a variety of generic skills.

Research has unveiled an important role of PBL and its ability to motivate
learners to learn as they would in the real-world (Mardziah, 1998); learning which is
self-directed and encouraged by the learners’ own intellectual curiosity to find
solutions to problems. Through PBL, the learning horizon of the learners is opened
to a wide spectrum of skills and knowledge which they can acquire besides just the
target content.

Wood and Head (2004) in their research on the application of PBL in the
EAP classroom manage to successfully use PBL in their EAP class and in its process
enable their students to gain the necessary skills. The same can be done for the EOP
classrooms by using PBL in the teaching and learning of EOP language skills. In
this case then, the use of real-world problems in the learning process will enable the

4

learners to acquire the end product which is the construction of the target EOP
language skills, and at the same time, develop generic skills relevant for life-long
learning. This learning experience will be a simulation of the real-world.
Instructional sessions will never be boring any more, and learners will be more
enthusiastic towards the learning experience as they take charge of their own
learning.

While substantial research and studies have been carried out in the field of
pure sciences and medicine, there has not been much in language in general and EOP
in particular. Thus, this study looks at the use of PBL in learning EOP language
skills where learners are themselves responsible for solving a problem that mirrors
real-world problems which are not well-phrased, have many solutions and use a
myriad of generic skills, such as those pertaining to oral or written communication,
critical thinking, problem solving, decision making, leadership, and team work
which serve the basis for life-long learning (Peterson, 1997; Murray-Harvey et al.
2004; Ellis et al., 2005).

1.3 Statement of Problem

The trend in language teaching and learning has been one where learners
learn language in a structured, linear fashion using unrealistic examples. Language
has been taught and learnt in isolation with importance placed on the content to be
learnt but not on the learning activity. Many times, these learning activities are not
only few but far from being real. The lessons are reinforced through practice which
learners find hard to grapple with. Products of this type of teaching and learning
process are learners who know all about the rules of the language but do not know
how to use the language proficiently in the real world (Short, Harste and Burke,
1996). In response to this, teachers in the language classrooms can use PBL to close

5

the gap between language used in the real world and language taught in the
classroom. This can be done by embedding into the classroom learning activities
which support the type of thinking process that is synonymous with the real world
(Mardziah, 1998; Brown et al., 1989; Lave and Wenger, 1991).

Studies on PBL in the fields of medicine and pure sciences, such as Physics
and Biology, have generated theories and assumptions that PBL can successfully
create a learning environment where learning is done in context within its target
domain using learning tasks which are as close to real life as possible. Such a
functional approach if used in language learning will ensure that all learners have
practical knowledge of the contextual use of the language and learners are able to use
it in real-life situations. Despite these studies, PBL in language teaching and
learning has not been studied comprehensively. More studies should be undertaken
in this area to shed more light into the role PBL can play in the teaching and learning
of language.

1.4 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to investigate the use of PBL in an EOP
classroom. It is a qualitative investigation that seeks to describe how PBL can
benefit the learners’ language skills in an EOP classroom in the area of writing reply
letters of complaints. It is hoped that through the PBL learning experience, these
learners will experience significant improvements in their language skills in writing
reply letters of complaints.

The study also attempts to describe the responses of the learners towards PBL
approach of teaching and learning. Their responses will be helpful in finding out if
PBL is favourable in facilitating their learning experience.

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1.5 Objectives of the Study

This study aims to:

1.5.1 Determine whether the use of PBL in an EOP classroom benefits the
respondents’ language skills in writing reply letters of complaint;

1.5.2 Find out which aspects of the respondents’ language skills, namely, speaking,
and writing reply letters of complaint, have improved significantly with the use of
PBL; and

1.5.3 Analyse the informants’ responses to the use of PBL in learning EOP.

1.6 Research Questions

1.6.1 Does the use of PBL benefit the respondents’ language skills in an EOP
classroom?

1.6.2 What aspects of language skills do the respondents improve significantly
when using PBL in learning EOP?

1.6.3 How have the informants responded to the use of PBL in learning EOP?

7

1.7 Significance of the Study

The findings on whether PBL improves the learners’ language skills in an
EOP classroom will help pave the way for the introduction of PBL in teaching and
learning language. This will further enhance the use of authentic learning activities
within the target context of language learning in an EOP classroom. Data on the
aspects of language skills that the learners improved significantly when using PBL in
learning EOP will give teachers an indication of the language skills that can benefit
the most through the use of PBL.

Gaining an insight into the responses of the learners towards this approach of
teaching and learning is invaluable in assisting the teachers and the management in
planning ways to maximise the benefits of PBL. An awareness of the problems that
hinder the learners from benefiting from this approach will enable the teachers and
curriculum planners to minimise the problems they face.

The findings of this study will be of great significance especially to teachers
who are considering using different and more novel ways of making learning more
student-centred and meaningful. With the results, these teachers will be able to
know how to insert more meaningful learning tasks based on real-world problems
into their target context. It is hoped that the findings of this research will lead to
PBL playing a more prominent role in the language classroom.

1.8 Scope of the Study

This study investigated the use of PBL in an EOP classroom. It focused on
the language used by the respondents in writing formal reply letters of complaints,
and oral communication. This study involved five final semester respondents who

8

were pursuing Diploma in Office Management and Technology in a local university
in Sarawak. It used a qualitative approach with different types of instruments, such
as, Questionnaire, Tests, Observations and Evaluations to obtain data on the benefits
and significant improvements in the language skills of the respondents after the use
of PBL in their EOP classroom.

1.9 Conclusion

Therefore, it is hoped that this study will provide invaluable information
pertaining to the use of PBL in helping the learners find the learning experience
relevant to them in the EOP classroom.

This first chapter on the Introduction of the study is followed by four other
chapters. Chapter 2 discusses the Review of Literature while the Methodology in
Chapter 3 explains how the study was carried out. Chapter 4 presents the Findings
and Discussion, and the report ends with Chapter 5 on the Conclusion and
Recommendations.

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The literature review synthesizes research and studies on PBL. First, it
describes the current status of PBL. Second, it focuses on the approaches that are
related to language learning and acquisition. Next, the chapter explains what PBL is,
the rationale for using it, and followed by its early success. Then, this is followed
with an explanation on the recent developments in PBL, its design process, and
characteristics and features. These recent developments refer to previous research on
PBL in ELT. The chapter concludes with a summary of the constraints of
implementing PBL.

2.2 Current Status of PBL

PBL has been gaining ground in teaching and learning carrying with it a
mandate for innovative approaches to education. The literature on PBL has
mushroomed at such a fast pace with the sharing of different experiences. Lam
(2004) comments that PBL has already been accepted internationally as an
educational innovation. It has been introduced into the social work curriculum at the
University of Hong Kong where Lam conducted a study on 10 undergraduates from

10

the Bachelor of Social Work programme. She observes that the learners successfully
fill the gap in their knowledge by relating their practical field sessions to the theories
they have learnt in the classroom. She adds that PBL is a promising alternative to
the conventional field that education models.

More recently, PBL has found its way into FBI in training their agents and
making them more competent investigators who are able to do what they are trained
to do, and which is, to work as a team and solve problems (Ahlfedlt, 2003).

PBL has also been introduced into the field of communication where there is
a call for reforms in its curriculum and pedagogy. Ahlfedlt (2003) researches on the
use of PBL in the public speaking classroom by studying 855 students. The findings
from the research show that students from the PBL classes performs better on
speeches than students from the traditional classrooms, and not only are they more
engaged in their learning experience, they also experience less speaking anxiety.
These findings are significant because they reveal PBL to be an effective method of
instruction in the public speaking classroom

2.3 Approaches to Language Learning and Teaching

Approaches make up one of the fundamental factors that determine the
success of language learning and teaching. In this study, the review of literature will
discuss the approaches that can be used in tandem with PBL.

11

2.3.1 Constructivist Approach

The approach to learning in PBL is based on the premise that learning in the
social environment is a process where knowledge is constructed (Brooks and Brooks,
1993). Mardziah (1998) states that it is the knowledge gained and insight obtained
during the process of constructing that knowledge which is more important than the
end product itself. This is further supported by Brown et al. (1989), and Lave and
Wenger (1991) who stress that learning tasks must be present to facilitate the
learning process of the target language. Thus, it is the learning situation that is
instrumental in determining what the learners know and understand.

Savery and Duffy (1995) sum up the three constructivist principles that are
consistent with PBL as social interaction with the environment, and cognitive
conflict that will all work towards fostering understanding and stimulating learning.
This will in turn help the learners experience learning as in the real-world, by
constructing knowledge for themselves. As these learners gain more relevant
experience, they will be able to restructure their knowledge.

Mardziah (1998) points out that according to the constructivist view,
language learners should participate in all types of real life language activity as this
will help them understand how language is used in the real-world. They should not
just learn the rules of language.

2.3.2 Learner-Centred Approach

This approach places the needs and interests of the learners at the forefront of
the learning experience. It ensures that the materials, activities and the whole
process of teaching and learning are subjected to close negotiation between the

12

teachers and the learners in determining that the teaching approach is the most
conducive for the learners. This approach relies heavily on the learners being
actively involved in using their knowledge and generic skills, such as, critical
thinking, communication and problem-solving, to maximise the benefits from the
learning situation.

The theory of situated learning encompasses knowing and understanding as a
product of the learning situation and the learning activity. In other words, learning
activities should be carried out in a target domain supported by thinking processes
which are similar to those in real life (Brown et al., 1989; Lave and Wenger, 1991).
Learning will hence be based on real life situations drawing examples and lessons
from the real world scenarios instead of learning out of context.

Learners adapt differently to different language learning styles, and learners
who are unfamiliar with the learning style used, might not be able to fully gain from
the learning environment. Therefore, teachers need to help their learners adjust
slowly to the new learning style, and gain confidence. Group members who are
familiar with the learning environment also play a crucial role in helping the learners
enjoy the learning experience. A functional approach to language learning places
importance on helping the learners to use language in the right context for real-world
situations. PBL is one learning approach that allows the teachers to adjust the
language level of the learning environment to suit the needs and learning styles of
the learners. However, since learners come with diverse needs and language
behaviour is very broad, linguists around the world are interested in understanding
and explaining the various processes learners go through in language learning. This
has resulted in many approaches and hypotheses being put forward to further
understand how languages are acquired and learnt.

13

2.3.3 Approaches in Language Acquisition and Learning

There is as yet no definite approach that can be used to describe or explain
the language acquisition and learning process. On one extreme of the continuum is
the behaviourist approach that focuses on observed aspects of linguistic behaviour.
On the other end is the nativist approach that believes that learners are born with an
innate knowledge to the nature of language. Meanwhile, the interactionist approach
views the acquisition of language as collaborative efforts of the learners and teachers
set in the midst of a host of different external and internal factors.

(a) Behaviorist Approach

Bohannon III and Bonvillian (1997) base this approach on the observable and
measurable aspects of language behaviour. It is an approach that recognizes the
difficulties involved in defining and measuring mental processes, and as such, it
looks for environmental conditions or stimuli that can be observed and co-occur, and
can predict specific verbal behaviours or responses. In doing so, Zimmerman (1979)
explains that it has disregarded mentalistic explanations of language behaviour that
rest upon the implicit knowledge of grammatical rules.

This behaviourist psychology has led to the development of the ALM in the
1950s. It is a method which emphasizes oral discussion at the expense of grammar
rules, and it is a process of habit-formation involving lots of oral repetition until a
pattern is formed. The ALM assumes that all language learning is the same
regardless of whether they are verbal or non-verbal, and since they are similar to
other types of behaviour, they can be learnt through imitation and reinforcement. In
this learning process, Bohannon III and Bonvillian (1997) see the learners as
“passive recipients of environmental pressures” similar to that of a tabula rasa.
They have no preconceived notions of the world but through a series of various
scheduled reinforcement, they undergo a series of conditioning. Skinner (1957), a

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leading behaviourist in the United States in his book which is aptly titled ‘Verbal
Behaviour’, refers to this type of learners as mere spectators who play a passive role
in their own language development. He sees language as a special case of behaviour.

In addition to that, Littlewood (1984) says this process has no mental or
cognitive implications but only a set of mechanical habits formed through imitation
and repetition. He proposes a framework for teaching where he advocates pre-
communicative and communicative activities. He views the former activities as a
type of skill training where learners use habit-forming and cognitive techniques such
as explanations, to master certain aspects of the language like sound patterns. In the
latter type of communicative activities, whole-task practice is introduced in the
learning process. Here the learners’ different sub-skills will be integrated to
communicate meanings, and the learners can acquire language through the natural
processes. In this case, meanings to be communicated precede the language items to
be learnt.

However, Brown (1994) understands this production of correct responses to
stimuli as training in imitation. During this process of habit-formation, the learners’
attempts that closely resemble adults’ speech will be reinforced with rewards or
some other forms of approval while speech that is meaningless or incorrect will
receive negative reinforcements such as punishments. Over time, the learners will
use imitation more frequently in learning. The duration they take to learn a language
is dependent upon the training techniques used by the teachers rather than the
maturity of the learners. Thus, language development is seen as a link between the
various stimuli in the learners’ environment and their internal responses, and overt
verbal behaviour. This approach places importance on performance instead of
competence, and Bohannon III and Bonvillian (1997) sum it well when they say that
the behaviourist is more concerned with language functions, verbal behaviour and its
stimuli, and the consequences of language performance.

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However, this view on how language is learnt is not shared by the innatists
who use the innatist approach to account for the acquisition of language.

(b) Innatist Approach

This approach to SLA is a reaction to the theory of learning. Chomsky
(1957) claims that learners are biologically programmed for language which
develops in them in just the same way as how other biological functions develop. He
explains that as language is both too complex and the learning occurring too rapidly
for the learners to learn through imitation, linguists should study the underlying
competence and not the performance of humans. He further adds that learners are
endowed with an ability to self-learn the rules governing a language. They have a
special device called the LAD, found only in human species. It is a tool to process
speech, and the samples of language (input) are necessary to trigger the LAD which
then enables the learners to discover for themselves the rules of the language. Due to
the ability of the LAD to be activated immediately on receiving language samples,
the universal features of all languages such as the basic grammatical structures are
found in the device.

Therefore, learners can creatively use their skills of cognition to acquire L2
independently by constructing their own rules, and simultaneously, changing the
rules whenever there are mistakes. So, they are continually playing an active role in
the learning process and finding out how language works no matter how complex the
task may seem.

This leads to another approach called the natural approach which views
learners as playing an equally active role in learning language but the main
distinction lies in the fact that language input can be processed internally without any
output from the learner as explained by Lightbown and Spada (1993).

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(c) Natural Approach

This NA has its bases on Krashen’s work on SLA and Terrell’s classroom
experiences. Krashen’s (1983) principle of ‘comprehension precedes production’
explains that for any speaking or writing abilities to take place, the learner must first
receive input in the form of comprehensible messages or texts. He further adds that
the learners’ productions of the language appear in stages, and so they should not
face any pressure to speak unless they are ready to do so.

The NA theory maintains a distinction between language learning and
language acquisition. It explains that learning involves knowledge of the rules of the
language but it is the acquisition of language that determines the development of the
communicative ability to understand and speak the L2 successfully. Language
learning is useful as an editor for making corrections and changes before or after the
sentences are spoken or written.

In the NA theory, Krashen presents five hypotheses to explain language
acquisition and learning. The first of these is the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis
which draws a distinction between the two processes of language development.
Krashen (1983) explains that in acquisition, the learner’s linguistic ability is sub-
consciously and naturally developed whereas in learning, the learner has an ‘explicit’
knowledge of the rules. He adds that language must be acquired in order for natural
and fluent linguistic interaction to happen, and this acquisition is not a result of
learning. Any errors made in the process has very minimal or no effect at all on this
subconscious way of language development.

In the second hypothesis, which is, the Natural Order hypothesis, the
acquisition of the rules of a language occurs in a sequence that is predictable, and in

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this case, some of these rules are acquired early while others late. Besides, it also
allows for the acquisition of some structures in groups.

In the Monitor hypothesis, Krashen (1987) stresses that acquisition
‘initiates’ the L2 production whereas learning acts as the monitor or editor on what
the acquired system has produced. Learning through the conscious method, and
formal rules of the language play a minor role in the L2 production, and for these
conscious rules to be of use, three conditions must be present, namely, sufficient
time, focus on form and knowledge of the rules.

According to Krashen, there are basically three types of performers: the
monitor over-user who is always using his L2 conscious knowledge to check his
performance, the monitor under-user who is in favour of the acquired system over
the conscious knowledge, and the optimal monitor user who will only use the
monitor appropriately - when it does not hinder communication. He considers his
learned competence as supplementing his acquired competence.

The Input hypothesis, which is considered the most important hypothesis,
emphasizes language acquisition instead of language learning. Here, Krashen (1987)
stresses that the learner acquires language by receiving CI or by understanding the
messages, and focusing on their meaning. He explains that for this to happen, the
language the learner understands consists of structures that is ‘a little beyond’ (1987)
his present competence of the language, which is, i +1 = CI. To move from i to stage
i + 1, a condition must be met. The learner must understand (focus on meaning) the
input that has i +1, and the input must be of i +1 level but the CI does not have to be
fine-tuned

However, the best input should refrain from aiming at i +1 because when
there is sufficient understandable input, i +1 will automatically take place.

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According to Krashen (1985), the success experienced by the immersion language
teaching in the French immersion schools is due to the input of materials which are
comprehensible to the students. He claims that the environment is conducive for the
L2 learners to do well.

In the Affective-filter hypothesis, Lightbown and Spada (1993) look at the
filter as an ‘imaginary barrier’ hindering the usage of input available in the
environment by the learner. These screens or barriers to input can take the form of
motives, needs, attitudes and emotions, and the learner decides on what needs to be
tended to and what is acquired. A learner with low affective filter has low anxiety
level and his motivation and self-confidence are high.

(d) Interactionist Approach

This approach agrees with Krashen’s view that CI is crucial for language
acquisition but Lightbown and Spada (1993) add that the relationship between the
learner’s innate capabilities for language and his linguistic environment is of
importance as well in any language development. According to Brown (1994), the
learner’s knowledge of the world will influence what he learns about language, and
Gleason (1997) reaffirms that since the environment is the place where language
emerges, so the learner’s learning process cannot be explained by innate linguistic
alone but should be coupled with non-linguistic aspects of interaction.

The interactionist also believes that modified interaction will result in CI
(Brown 2000) and it is a necessary condition for language acquisition. Ellis (1984)
elaborates that when the learner encounters a problem with his communication,
changes to the structure of what is communicated will assist him in understanding
the input. Besides, this type of interactional modifications, which takes place in the
process of negotiating a communication problem, will promote comprehensible or

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modified input. There has to be interactional modification on the input structure so
that any linguistic input that is unfamiliar will be made familiar and comprehensible.

Long (1980) also discovers an increase in different types of interactional
features in conversations between an L1 and a non-L1 as compared to conversations
between two native speakers. This increase in interactional restructuring in the first
conversation, which helps in comprehension and language acquisition, is prompted
by the need of the speakers to exchange information. Long continues to add that the
basis for the development of linguistic rules are interactive communication. He
maintains that the L1 speaker will keep on modifying his utterances so that the non-
L1 speaker can understand him. He calls for “information-exchange tasks” where
the L1 and non-L1 speakers are expected to mutually exchange information. This
will cause the language to be interactionally modified (1985) to suit the capability of
the learner, and hence, facilitate comprehension and SLA. Pica, Young and Doughty
(1986) in their study on input modification have discovered that modifications made
on interactions have successfully raised the level of comprehension among the
subjects.

This interaction hypothesis goes one step beyond Krashen’s CI for language
acquisition to include the CO hypothesis which argues that CI alone without CO is
insufficient for language development. Swain cites the French immersion
programme where the focus is on language rather than on its form. Her study reveals
that though the students have a good understanding of the language, they cannot
achieve the proficiency level of the native speakers. Based on the findings from this
study, she concludes that CI alone is insufficient for language acquisition. That input
has to be coupled with opportunities for output such as speaking and writing.

Long (1980) argues that the attempts of the learner to produce CO will enable
him to not only test his own hypothesis about the language but also be aware of any

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of his linguistic problems, and to focus on form. It allows the learner to notice their
linguistic problems and emphasize on the formal properties of the input. Pica (1990)
has successfully demonstrated that even though the non-L1 speaker is more reluctant
to change his original output due to problem with communication, he still modifies
his output and that of his native speaking interactor’s.

The behaviourist, innatist and interactionist explanations can be reconciled by
way of seeing each of them explaining a different aspect of the learner’s language
development. The task of the behaviourist which focuses on the linguistic
environment tries to explain routine aspects, the innatist the acquisition of complex
grammar and the internal processing mechanisms of the learner, and the
interactionist is best explained by how the child relates form and meaning in
language, and how he interacts and uses the language appropriately.

Much has been said about these approaches towards language acquisition and
language learning, and it can be seen that none of them is complete in itself.
However, they are still important for their implications in language learning and
classroom teaching because they are a store house of information on how languages
are acquired and learnt, and how teaching should be.

It is obvious that the learner’s success in language learning is dependent on
not just one but a number of factors which influences him in his attempt at learning
the language. Thus, it can be concluded that all these views share a similar goal,
which is, to provide the language learner the tools he needs to communicate
successfully, and the means to determine the quantity and quality of input he
receives. These approaches are useful for understanding how language is learnt. It
will help provide the conceptual framework for this study which is concerned with
the learning of EOP language skills using the PBL approach.

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2.4 What is PBL?

There are many versions to the definition of PBL. Finucane, Johnson and
Prideaux (1998) define PBL as a learner-centred educational approach that focuses
on independent learning and a deeper understanding of the subject matter by
allowing learners to play an active role in solving problems which mirrors real world
problems. They use problems as a context for learners to learn problem-solving
skills and acquire the target knowledge. This definition is echoed by Mayo et al.
(1993) who define PBL as a pedagogical strategy which uses real-world situations as
the basis for the development of content knowledge and problem-solving skills. This
methodology is in line with Plato’s and Socrates’ way of teaching; they had always
encouraged their students to think critically, source for information and debate it in a
scholastic way. Wood and Head (2004) in their study conducted on the application
of PBL in EAP amongst premedical students at UBD view PBL as a context-based
approach which is ideal for the learning phenomenon to take place in a “holistic
fashion, synthetic rather than analytic” (2004: 5). They argue that PBL is not
content-based instruction, which is concerned with learning the content, nor does it
use the L2 to learn content. They add that PBL is definitely not a type of case
studies as found in business schools.

In PBL, learners work in small groups trying to solve a problem. They
discuss possible causes, develop hypotheses and strategies, search for more
information, refine their solutions and finally reach a conclusion. In the process,
they develop and use different skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving,
decision-making, and communication, and hence, construct the target knowledge.
This is the metacognitive or problem-solving process of finding solutions. In actual
fact, this process paves the way for the pursuit of the learning goals which form the
basis of PBL. It enables the learners to recognise their level of proficiency in the
language and gaps in their knowledge. These gaps will eventually lead to further
independent learning outside the classroom.

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Finucane, Johnson and Prideaux (1998) point out that PBL has been
recognised as the key to effective learning and learners’ pursuit of their learning
goals. In today’s age of information explosion, learning is no longer a solo venture
but a partnership, a joint venture where learners learn about collaboration,
cooperation and responsibility. Rather than just focusing on the acquisition of the
target content, PBL goes one step further by enabling and motivating the learners to
be responsible for their own learning. It is an avenue for growth for them for they
determine their own learning tasks, are responsible for their group learning, and it
ensures they understand more of the target content and are able to transfer the
knowledge to novel situations. Most important of all, PBL makes it possible for the
gap between school or tertiary education and the actual real-world situation to be
narrowed. It prepares the learners for the working world.

Fekete (1987) and Murray-Harvey et al. (2004) explain that PBL, which is
based on the principle that learning has to and must be learner-centered in order for it
to be optimised, sets the platform for the development of generic skills through its
active learner involvement, teamwork, self-directed learning and inquiry-oriented
tasks. Hmelo and Evensen (2000) add that the skills that are enhanced through this
type of PBL learning will in fact enable graduates to apply the knowledge they have
learnt at their work place. This enhances the employability of graduates who are not
only dependent upon what they know but also how to use that knowledge to
complete tasks successfully in the real world.

2.5 Rationale for Using PBL

In using PBL, various disciplines are integrated throughout the curriculum,
and as the learners attempt to solve the problems, they construct knowledge and
apply it to their search for an answer. Thus, learning occurs in the target context and

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builds on the prior knowledge of the learners. Theoretically, this type of approach
can help in retention, motivation and self-directed learning. The learners are
responsible for their learning needs and the learning strategies.

Studies by Ahlfeldt (2003) and Aldred (n.d.) have shown that learners in PBL
must be involved in their learning process by taking charge of their own learning.
Zhonglei (2004) says that instead of waiting for answers to come from their teachers,
these learners will take the initiative to look for answers to problems themselves.
They set the perimeters of what and how much to learn, and this type of self-directed
learning enables the learners to “explore new knowledge for themselves” leading to
“deeper retention of the information” (Ahlfeldt, 2003: 28).

2.6 Early Success of PBL

PBL has been used as an approach to teaching and learning with much
success especially in the domains of medicine and pure sciences.

2.6.1 PBL in Medicine

The history of PBL can be traced to as far back as 1968 at the Faculty of
Medicine at McMaster University in Canada where this pedagogy was officially
adopted. Three other medical schools, namely, the University of Limburg at
Maastricht in the Netherlands, the University of Newcastle in Australia, and the
University of New Mexico in the United States, soon followed suit and adapted this
approach into their curriculum. The University of Delaware incorporated PBL into
its curricula in 1992 (Ahlfeldt, 2003). Thus, Camp says “sprang one of the more

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important educational movements of this century” (n.d.: 1). Slowly but surely, PBL
was gaining ground at other medical schools in the region during the 1970s and
1980s. Today, according to Albanese (2000), PBL is widely used in almost 100
medical schools in the United States and almost every country of the world. It has
now become the basis of medical curricula in Canada, the United Kingdom, the
Middle East and Asia. In Australia, it was estimated that by the year 2000, 50% of
its doctors would have experienced the PBL process of learning (Finucance, Johnson
and Prideaux, 1998).

Camp (n.d.) explains that the distinguishing factors between PBL and the
other approaches in medical schools are the learning goals and objectives of PBL for
the learner that go beyond just acquiring and using the target content. This is what
the traditional medical curricula are all about. PBL, on the other hand, advocates
wholesome learning for the learner where learning takes on another new dimension,
and that is the development of other aspects of the learning experience. With the
introduction of PBL into the medical schools, many of the problems faced while
using the traditional medical curricula have been solved. Lohman and Finkelstein
(2000) study the dental education programme at a university in the Midwest. Their
observations on self-directedness reveal that in small groups as those found in PBL,
self-directedness increases. Learners are able to learn, remember, and apply what
they have learnt, and at the same time, continue on the learning process. They have
also begun to develop more positive attitudes towards learning. Huey (2001)
observes that PBL has successfully enhanced the learning environment.

However, the one thing about PBL that has probably left such a great impact
on the learners, according to Camp, is the process of learning itself. She argues that
success of PBL lies in its emphasis on the learner’s “autonomy, building on previous
knowledge and experiences, and the opportunity for immediate application” (n.d.: 2).

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This approach has also found its way into other disciplines such as dentistry,
pharmacy and veterinary science (Kennedy, 2001), and public health, pure sciences,
and nursing (Biley and Smith, 1998).

2.6.2 PBL in Pure Sciences

PBL has been used with much success in the pure sciences subjects, such as,
biology, chemistry and physics. Duch (1995) observes that in her physics class, her
learners are able to identify gaps in their knowledge and then do the necessary gap
filling. She notices that in the traditional science class, learning takes the form of
abstract to the concrete where concepts are being introduced and then applied to the
problem. In PBL, the reverse is true where the learners are presented with the
problem and then they move to realise the concepts. The known precedes the
unknown to make sense of abstract principles. Albanese and Mitchell (1993)
discover that by doing so, the learners retain the knowledge better.

Allen (1996) observes that success of teaching and learning in her Biology
class is very much dependent upon her ability to use PBL in helping her learners
bridge the gap between learning and expectations, which is, to enable her learners to
learn how to integrate their knowledge of biological principles with their skills of
communication and acquisition in order to make the learning more purposeful.

2.7 Recent Developments in PBL

Although PBL is widely used in the teaching and learning of medicine and
pure sciences, the same cannot be said of PBL in other educational domains.

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However, recently, educationists, such as Duffy and Cunningham (1997), have
realised that the successes of PBL in the medical schools can spill over to other
classrooms.

2.7.1 PBL in Education

According to Norman and Schmidt (1992), there is evidence to show that
PBL learners tend to remember knowledge longer than other learners who are not
taught using PBL, and they also fare better in integrating knowledge to solve
problems. However, they are quick to add that in their review of experimental
evidence of differences in learners’ learning that could be a result of PBL, they
discover that there is as yet no evidence to support the claim that problem-solving
skills can be improved through PBL. Despite this, they conclude that PBL has a
lasting impact on self-directed learning skills and learners’ motivation, and its
learning environment is more stimulating.

This fact is further supported by Mierson (1995) who states that PBL
provides the environment for her learners to be exposed to a diversity of skills. She
discovers that these learners are excited about learning, and they are able to
successfully present their ideas using accurate scientific terminology. Allen (1996)
discovers that her style of lecturing using a combination of lectures and textbook
readings, gives her students the impression that learning is all about memorisation of
facts which have very little importance to their daily lives. However, ever since
using PBL in her classroom, she finds that her students are enthusiastic about
learning, and their eagerness to learn more motivates them to self-direct their own
learning by bringing “together collective skills at acquiring, communicating and
integrating their knowledge of the biological principles and concepts” (1996:1).

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Gordon (1998) states that the ingredient for enthusiasm in real-world learning
will exist when the latter is balanced with the realities of real-world classrooms as
long as the learning experiences are authentic and properly designed. In real-world
situations, problems are never structured properly. Even if learners can solve
problems in school, it does not mean they have acquired critical thinking skills
needed to solve real-life situations unless these problems were not structured
properly and they appeared vague.

2.7.2 PBL in Law

PBL has also made its presence felt in the teaching of law. Bailey (2004)
observes in her 72 law students at the Southampton Institute that using PBL has
allowed them to develop a myriad of skills pertaining to practicing law. Her learners
develop cognitive skills, such as, problem-solving and decision-making in law
practice. On top of that, they are highly motivated for learning and can construct
knowledge on their own after developing their self-directed learning skills.

2.7.3 PBL in Language Teaching and Learning

This is an area that linguists and language educationists alike have started
exploring. Duffy and Cunningham (1997) explain that PBL makes it possible for
learning to be more meaningful when it encourages the learners to behave as they
would in the real-world. They argue that if this can happen in the medical schools
then it can also happen in the domain of language learning. Mardziah (1998) points
out that learners can learn a language in the real-world by using PBL and placing the
learners in problem-solving activities. These problems must not be structured
properly, they must not have any easy answers, and they have to reflect the problems

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in the real-world. While solving the problems, these learners will use the language
to communicate and negotiate, and express opinions. They will document
discussions and decisions, refer to documented materials, and present their findings
and opinions. In the process, all the four language skills, namely, listening,
speaking, reading and writing are learnt and practiced. On top of that, these learners
learn the social conventions of language used for social interactions while
developing the right words to use in the right context. Besides, they also learn to
speak and write grammatically correct sentences as they are expected to use
language in the real-world. This is synonymous with what they will experience in
the occupational domains in the world outside the classroom.

2.7.4 PBL in English for Academic Purposes

This case study on the use of PBL in the EAP classroom is conducted by
Wood and Head (2004) to a class of premedical students at UBD. The present
approach of teaching EAP is unable to meet the needs of these students who, upon
spending three semesters at UBD, will continue into their medical degree programme
in Australia using the PBL approach. Hence, the lecturers have to devise a new
approach to teaching EAP which is motivating, learner-centred and able to meet the
requirements of the EAP course. The lecturers decide to use PBL. This is a
significant decision as the lecturers are well-aware that what they are doing is going
against the traditional approaches in EAP, and they will probably be the very first to
use PBL in EAP.

In this case-study, while the lecturers’ objective is to ensure that at the end of
the learning process they attain the desired level of proficiency in English for pre-
medical students, they are also concerned with the process that will lead them to that
end product. So, the course activities include working in teams in solving a

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simulated medical problem. It must be stressed here that the students are not
required to have any prior medical knowledge in order to solve the problem. Going
through the process of PBL will enable them to gain the necessary generic skills to
arrive at the answers. Learning takes the form of a contextualised integrated manner
instead of memorisation of abstract facts.

Wood and Head (2004) explain that what makes learning EAP using PBL
different from learning EAP the traditional way is that on the onset of the learning
process, minimal language is used, and the tasks assigned to the learners come
naturally from the problem to be solved. The learners are not assigned tasks as
would be in a traditional EAP approach. Besides that, these tasks flow naturally
from one to the other during the process of problem-solving. The presence of the
lecturers was important but not to tell the learners what to do after every task is
completed, but rather to guide and facilitate the learning. The learners are totally
responsible for determining what leaves to be done after the completion of every task
based on the needs analysis they would have carried out from the beginning of the
whole process (Bosher & Smalkosli, 2002). The learners decide the framework for
learning and they set their own pace and momentum. Wood and Head conclude
from this case study that PBL “can be, and has been, applied successfully to the
teaching of medical EAP” (2004: 15).

2.7.5 PBL in English for Occupational Purposes

As yet there have been no studies done in this area. Searches in the Internet
on PBL in EOP have produced no results or links to the use of PBL in teaching
language skills in EOP. However, as reviewed earlier, according to Duffy and
Cunningham (1997), if PBL can be used successfully in the domains of medicine, it
can also be used in other domains, and in this instance, in EOP. Besides that, Wood

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and Head (2004) experimenting PBL in EAP also produced very favourable results
in enhancing learner-centred classroom and self-directed learning. The core feature
of the use of PBL in learning the language skills in an EOP classroom will be
learning the language skills in the context of solving related problems.

2.7.6 PBL and Generic Skills

A review of literature on PBL will not be complete without looking at what
literature says about generic skills in PBL for after all it is the presence of generic
skills in the PBL approach that makes problem-solving possible.

Some of the educational objectives for using PBL are the use of PBL in the
classroom which allow for the development of a host of essentials or generic skills
amongst the learners, and these skills being interdisciplinary can be adapted to any
curriculum.

The generic skills are also known as employability skills or skills which will
enhance the employability rate of graduates. Achan, Philip and Gunjew (2003: 10)
explain that “to be employable, a graduate must possess a portfolio of skills so that
they are flexible enough to adapt to any number of positions or situation”. In this
study, the generic skills refer to four different categories of skills, namely,
Interpersonal Skills, Self-Management Skills, Communication Skills and Problem-
Solving or Metacognitive Skills.

Zhonglei (2004) explains clearly the course which she designed for her 40
students at the University of Lanzhou in the People’s Republic of China. Through
this course, she expects her students’ spoken English and listening ability to improve

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significantly. She also expects them to have more freedom to determine their
learning goal which is an important aspect of self-directed learning, and the
environment should present them with ample opportunities to develop their
communication and problem-solving skills.

Murray-Harvey et al. (2004) state that the approach in PBL which is based on
the constructivist’s principles of teaching and learning will ensure a successful
learning outcome of the target content, and a development of the generic skills such
as higher order thinking skills, problem-solving skills, thinking skills, teamwork
skills, communication skills, time management skills, and information skills (Bailey,
2004). They add that these qualities which are fostered through PBL, are much
sought after by employers, and graduates should not be found lacking in any of them.

However, these skills which are characteristic of the real-world are missing in
the classroom. Learners are presented with problems or situations which are well-
defined and with clear parameters leading to only one obvious answer. The learners
are taught problem-solving but not how to solve problems. In problem-solving, the
learners learn and equip themselves with skills to solve problems. They are taught
the hows in problem-solving but this knowledge remains as just head-knowledge.

On the other hand, knowing how to solve problems allows the learners to go
through the process of solving problems and in the midst of this process, they learn
for themselves the skills needed to solve the problems. How to solve problems is a
way of life (Endlex Life Skills, 2006) where learners construct the necessary
knowledge and develop their metacognitive skills relevant to solving problems.
These skills provide insight for the learners and help them analyse the problems,
brainstorm for ideas, reevaluate their strategies, present and implement their
solutions.

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The classroom is very much teacher-centred and learners wait to be spoon-
fed instead of being responsible for their own learning. Skills pertinent to lifelong
and self-directed learning are missing. These generic skills which can later be
integrated into the undergraduates’ work place and used in varying combinations
subject to the nature of their jobs have been sidelined and deemed less important in
the curriculum.

This has prevented graduates from applying the knowledge and skills they
have acquired from their tertiary education at their work place. Many have the
knowledge but are ineffective when it comes to hands-on application of that
knowledge due to a lack of confidence, and absence of skills, such as, in
communication, decision-making, problem-solving and working as a team. Zhonglei
(2004) reiterates that the emphasis in the curriculum has been placed on the pursuit
of the target content using the traditional method which has no place for the
development of generic skills.

However, PBL can help foster generic skills because the genesis of PBL lies
in solving problems, and, hence, self-construct the target knowledge and develop the
relevant generic skills. These generic skills developed through PBL are important as
the basis for lifelong learning, and they assist in the learners’ process of learning
(Zhonglei, 2004; Wright, n.d.). The University of Wollongong Australia has
recognised the significance of these generic skills, and hence they have emphasized
the development of various generic skills in their formal curriculum to compliment
their undergraduates’ construction of professional knowledge (Wright, n.d.).
Macquarie University has also included as part of its teaching and learning plan to
equip their Accountancy undergraduates with generic skills which will help them in
lifelong learning and increase their chances of employability (Macquarie University,
2001).

33

Employers have begun demanding for graduates who are not only
knowledgeable in their respective disciplines but are also competent in meeting their
list of generic skills – skills driven by intellectual curiosity which include the
flexibility to apply their understanding to new and different situations. This ability
of graduates to use the knowledge and skills, which are developed during their
tertiary education, at their work place is of paramount importance. These generic
skills compliment the graduates’ professional knowledge and they support their
lifelong learning process.

In the EAP classroom (Wood & Head, 2004), the premedical students are
able to solve problems and complete tasks because they are able to integrate as many
generic skills as possible into their learning process. In the end, they produce the
right answers to the problem and learnt premedical English; all by way of using the
generic skills within the context of PBL. Likewise, in this study, the development
and role of generic skills will be seen in the same light of being instrumental in the
process of learning the EOP skills of writing formal reply letters of complaints.

2.8 Design Process of PBL

Figure 2.1 on the next page describes the design process of PBL. It starts
with the facilitator presenting the Poorly-Structured Problem to the learners, and then
the learners relate the Problem to their classroom situation. Then, they define,
summarise and analyse the Problem to be solved. This is the first stage of the
metacognitive process of solving the Problem. The facilitator gives the learners their
first set of Scaffolds to guide them in their brainstorming session. Then, they form a
committee within the group and assign each member different roles and
responsibilities. The first stage ends with the learners agreeing on a problem
statement.

34

Figure 2.1 is an adapted model of the problem-solving process by Savery and
Duffy (1995) and Zhonglei (1994).

Stage 1 Presenting the Poorly-Structured Problem
(Encountering and (Facilitator presents Problem to learners)
Defining the Problem)

Relating to Classroom Situation
(Learners relate Problem to classroom situation)

Defining the Problem Scaffolds 1
(Learners summarise and analyse the Problem)

Forming a Committee
(Learners form committee within the group)

Agreeing on a Focused Problem Statement
(Learners agree on a problem statement)

Stage 2 Accessing, Evaluating and Utilizing Information
(Accessing, (Learners work together to solve Problem) Scaffolds 2
Evaluating and Utilising
Information)
Presenting the Proposal
(Learners synthesize and present proposal within group)

Reaching a Consensus
(Learners arrive at a conclusion)

Stage 3 Synthesizing and Presenting Scaffold #3
(Synthesize & the Final Proposal
Performance) (Learners present their solutions)

Evaluating Session
(Peer, self and problem-evaluation)

Figure 2.1: Design Process of PBL

35

The second stage of the process of PBL sees the learners accessing,
evaluating and utilising information to solve the Problem. They received the second
set of Scaffolds to guide them in using the information to arrive at a proposal and
present it in the group. In the third stage, the learners with the third set of Scaffolds
synthesize and present the solutions. The process of PBL ends with a session
evaluating their peers, themselves and the Problem. In this design process, certain
steps may be revisited and repeated. There will be a difference of ideas, learning
issues and solutions between the group members and this can be a point of
discussion for the whole class.

2.9 Characteristics of PBL

According to Tan (2003) and Duch (1996), the following are some
distinguishing characteristics of PBL.

• Problems are the thrust of the curriculum - the problems do not test
language or generic skills, rather, they assist in the development of the
skills themselves.

• The Problems are poorly-structured – there are more than one solution
to the Problems, and as new information is gathered, the perception
and, thus, the solution of the Problems changes.

• Learners solve the Problems while the teachers act as facilitators.

• Learners are given only guidelines as to how to approach the
Problems.

36

• Authentic performance-based assessment, which is, Problems that
mirror real-world Problems.

• Learners share information but they construct their own knowledge.

• Interdisciplinary and integrative.

2.10 Scaffolds in PBL

As shown in Figure 2.1, the facilitator builds Scaffolds into the pedagogy at
different phases of the teaching-learning process. The Scaffolds can take the form of
Wh-questions such as the following:

• What do you know?

• What are your thoughts on this problem?

• What is meant by the sentence …?

• Could you explain what is meant by this term?

2.11 Characteristics of a PBL Poorly-Structured Problem

Duch (1996) views this messy, unorganised, complex and poorly-structured
Problem as the centre of learning. It should be left open-ended so as to allow for
learner-processing besides motivating them to use their reasoning skills to relate the

37

content to their own context and previous knowledge (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993).
The problem acts as a catalyst for learning.

Blumberg, Soloman and Shehata (1994) say that the content to be explored
by the learners should be achievable with regard to time allocation and resources
available. The effectiveness of PBL on these learners is dependent on themselves
developing learning issues that are synonymous with the proposed objectives.

The Problem presented to the learners should be guided by the following
considerations (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993). The problem should:

• be significant;

• be task oriented;

• be interdisciplinary;

• cover objectives;

• be complex enough to incorporate prior knowledge; and

• have a common issue that can be replicated in another situation.

2.12 Role of the Facilitator in PBL

The role of the teacher is changed to that of a facilitator or coach. He plays
the part of cognitive and metacognitive coach rather than the knowledge-holder and
disseminator. He questions, props, monitors, challenges and manages the group

38

dynamics to keep the process going. By doing so, he is encouraging the learners to
think critically and make wise decisions. Mardziah (1998) likens this person to one
who is responsible for helping the learners to be resourceful in looking for resources
that can help them learn the language more effectively. He does not teach but
facilitates the learning by remaining in the background, and allows the learners to
interact among themselves.

2.13 Role of the Learners in PBL

The learners will participate actively and collaboratively in the problem-
solving process. They should be able to identify what they need to learn and what
resources they are going to use to accomplish that learning. Thus, they design their
own learning to meet their own needs.

2.14 Constraints in Implementing PBL

The following are some constraints in the implementation of PBL.

(a) Cultural Change

For successful PBL implementation, both teachers and students need to
assume new roles. Teachers are no longer the sages on the stage disseminating
information and directing student learning. However, traditional teachers find it
difficult to withhold information when they watch their students struggle with
problems.

39

(b) Manpower

In implementing PBL, a lot of time is spent designing the Problems.
Problems are interdisciplinary, and, thus, a methodology such as PBL will require
more time to carry out. Lectures, on the contrary, are not interdisciplinary.
Albanese & Mitchell (1993) state that lessons conducted using PBL require more
extra time to complete as well.

(c) Infrastructure

The PBL curricula require learners to work in groups of between four to six,
so there must be enough small rooms which are adequately equipped for teaching.
Besides, facilitators also need to ensure that there are enough materials for learners
to source from. As such is its nature, it will naturally incur more costs in its
implementation (Allen et al., 2003).

2.15 Conclusion

Based on the review of literature, it can be concluded that language teaching
and learning has much to gain from the use of PBL in the classroom. Linguists,
educationists and teachers will be moving in the right direction if they strive to use
this approach in making the construction of knowledge more meaningful to their
learners.

In the following chapter on Methodology, the preceding discussions on PBL
as an approach in language teaching and learning will be put into practice.

40

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter provides an overview of the research design in this study. It
gives an explanation of how the respondents of the study were selected, what the
different instruments were, how they were prepared, and how the data was collected
and analysed.

3.2 Research Design

This study took a qualitative approach that attempted to describe the use of
PBL in enhancing the language skills in an EOP classroom. A qualitative study
focuses on providing an explanation for Man’s behaviours through subjective
approaches which are akin to qualitative measures (Mohd Najib, 2003). The
triangulation of the data collected was done using pretest and posttest, evaluations
and observations which assisted in the validation of the data. The research design
took the following format:

41

Research Focus

Theoretical Framework

Pilot Study

Population Questionnaire
Written Essay

Respondents

Data Collection
Checklist of Generic Skills
Pretest
Poorly-Structured Problem
Checklist of Observation
Scaffolds 1
Problem Log 1
Self-Evaluation 1
Group Evaluation 1
Scaffolds 2
Problem Log 2
Scaffolds 3
Problem Log 3
Scaffolds 4
Problem Log 4
Assessment of Oral Presentation
Group Evaluation 2
Poorly-Structured Problem Evaluation
Self-Evaluation 2
Checklist of Generic Skills
Posttest

Data Analysis

Figure 3.1: Research Design

42

Figure 3.1 describes the research design. It explains how the research started
with a research focus leading to the theoretical framework. After that a pilot study
was conducted to test the instruments. Then the population was determined, and
with the use of Questionnaire and a Written Essay, the respondents of the study were
identified. Various instruments were used to collect data. The research design ended
with an analysis of the data gathered. A detailed description of the research design
can be found in the following sections of this chapter.

The data for this study was collected over a period of three weeks between
July and August, and all these thirty-one undergraduates went through the process of
PBL in learning EOP language skills. This study used a Questionnaire and a Written
Essay to collect data on the background of the undergraduates.

3.3 Population

The population of this study was undergraduates from a local university in
Sarawak. There were thirty-one of them pursuing a diploma programme in Office
Management and Technology, and the duration of the programme was a minimum of
six semesters. When this study was carried out, they had spent the first three
semesters doing foundation English courses. In their final semester, they had to
complete an EOP course. The contact hours for the EOP course were six hours per
week. These undergraduates already had prior knowledge of the English tenses, and
they were expected to use English competently in the four language skills
comprising listening, speaking, reading and writing. This EOP course prepared them
for careers directly related to office management.

All the undergraduates were Bumiputeras comprising Malays from Sarawak,
and the indigeneous races from Sabah and Sarawak. Their entrance qualification

43

into the diploma programmes was at least five credits in their SPM including a credit
in either the English Language or Bahasa Malaysia.

3.4 Sampling Design

This study chose its respondents using stratified sampling. This type of
sampling allowed the undergraduates to be grouped according to similar variables
determined by the researcher. Some of these variables included age, gender, race,
hometown, training obtained, financial status, academic and family background, and
the respondents’ level of proficiency. The respondents for this study were chosen
from this group of undergraduates. According to Mohd. Najib (2003), this type of
sampling allowed the researcher to pre-determine the stratified population, and then
choose the sample that best represented the population being investigated.

3.5 Respondents

Five respondents were chosen of which three were female and two male.
Three of them were aged between 21 to 22 years, one was between 23 to 24 years
and another respondent was 25 years and above. The racial composition comprised
two Malays, one Iban, one Bidayuh and one Sikin. All were from Sarawak except
for one respondent from Sabah. Two of those from Sarawak were from the urban
areas and the other two were from the rural areas. The respondent from Sabah came
from an urban area.

The highest academic qualification of the respondents prior to studying at
the university was SPM. All of them were in their final semester, and two of them

44

had failed some subjects in the previous semesters. Their CGPA was between 2.50
to 3.49 but one respondent’s CGPA was between 2.00 and 2.49.

All the respondents had completed their compulsory training at various
organisations during their previous semester except for one respondent who had his
training during the final semester. Thus, the duration of his training was shortened to
only one week compared to his peers who were trained for three months. During
their training, all of them were attached to different departments in their respective
organisations, and their daily job responsibilities were related to office management.

All the respondents came from diverse financial standing, and they received
financial support from the PTPTN. Two respondents’ fathers’ incomes were below
RM 500 while two other respondents’ were between RM 1500 to less than RM 2500.
One respondent’s father received between RM 3500 to less than RM 4500 per
month. Four of the respondents’ mothers were housewives and did not have any
income while another respondent’s mother earned between RM 1500 and RM 2500
per month. The highest academic qualification of the respondents’ fathers was a
bachelor’s degree. All the other four respondents’ fathers did not have any formal
education. The respondents were of different levels of proficiency in the English
language. Based on their Written Essays, two of them were from the basic level,
another two were from the intermediate level, and one respondent was from the
advanced level.

3.6 Instrumentation

There were two types of instruments used in this study. The first type was
used in the data collection, and the second type of instruments was used in the data
analysis. The following were the instruments used in this study.

45

3.6.1 Instruments Used in Data Collection

The instruments used to collect data were the Evaluations forms, Tests,
Observations lists and Checklists. These instruments acted as triangulation to ensure
the validity of the data.

(a) Questionnaire

The aim of the Questionnaire (Appendix A) was to assess the demographic
background of the undergraduates so that the respondents for this study, who were
from different racial, economical and social background, could be identified. It was
an effective way of collecting background information of the undergraduates.

The Questionnaire consisted of both structured and unstructured questions.
Altogether, there were twenty-two questions, and of these, four questions were on
personal particulars such as age, gender, race, and number of siblings in the family.
Six questions were on previous and present academic status while in school and the
university, and three questions were on the respondents’ practical training. There
were also nine questions on the respondents’ financial, social and economic standing,
and these included items on the source of financial support, parents’ academic
qualifications, occupations and salaries, and the location of previous schools and
hometown.

The Questionnaire was distributed to all the thirty-one undergraduates taking
the EOP subject after the pilot study was carried out, and they were given 15 minutes
to complete it. They had to tick the appropriate boxes of the structured questions and
answered in a descriptive manner the open-ended questions.

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