European Cities in a Global Era: Urban Identities and Regional Development

MINISTRY OF
THE ENVIRONMENT
SPATIAL PLANNING
DEPARTMENT

As follow-up to the European Spatial
Development Perspective (ESDP), the
Danish Presidency is focusing on the
implications of globalisation and the
role of cities in regional development.
In three main sections, this report deals
in detail with the problems relating to the
role of cities in regional development. A
number of Scandinavian researchers have
contributed to the report.

The report is a contribution by the
Danish Ministry of the Environment,
Spatial Planning Department to the
international conference European Cities
in a Global Era - Urban Identities and
Regional Development. It is intended as a
supplement to the conference, introducing key aspects of the issues discussed
and providing background reading.

URBAN IDENTITIES AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT

The first section includes the
Copenhagen Charter 2002 - the Danish
Presidency’s suggested agenda for a discussion on future urban and regional development - as well as a number of operational recommendations. The second
section deals in general terms with globalisation’s impact on Europe’s cities and
regions. Finally, the last section deals with
different aspects concerning the development of an urban identity concept.

EUROPEAN CITIES IN A GLOBAL ERA

EUROPEAN
CITIES
IN
A
GLOBAL
ERA

EUROPEAN CITIES IN A GLOBAL ERA
URBAN IDENTITIES AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT

EUROPEAN
CITIES
IN
A
GLOBAL
ERA
URBAN
IDENTITIES
AND
REGIONAL
DEVELOPMENT

PAGES 002-003 / FOREWORD BY THE MINISTER

FOREWORD
BY
THE
MINISTER
Cities and regions are facing great challenges as a consequence of globalisation. In many ways, cities are the
driving force of the global economy.
The challenge for the future is to
determine how this force can pull with
it an entire region without compromising our identity. In other words, we
must remain locally anchored in a
changing global world.

At one and the same time, cities are the
bearers of the cultural heritage of Europe
and the clearest illustration of our present: a
present where cities are expressions of
growth, wealth and community, as well as
decay, poverty and loneliness. It is also clear
that globalisation has different effects on
our cities and regions. Large financial
districts and communication centres have
not been established in all cities. Some cities
have instead developed as places for spe-

Initiating a debate on these matters is vital

cialised production. But all cities are part

Hans Chr. Schmidt

in order to meet the challenges in future

of, and are affected by, the global economy.

Minister for the Environment

urban and regional development in Europe.
The following report deals with the rela-

There is a great challenge for Europe’s cities

tionship between the identity of cities,

and authorities here, and it is about looking

globalisation, and regional development as

at the problem of cities and regions in a

part of the forthcoming conference entitled

more functional and integrated light.

European Cities in a Global Era - Urban

Looking at cities and regions holistically.

Identities and Regional Development.

Understanding the important relationships
between urban and rural areas. Supporting

However we do not merely want to initiate

co-operation and development both within

a debate. With the Copenhagen Charter

and between cities and regions. Therefore,

2002, we want to set the agenda for the

the two principal elements in the Charter

debate on urban and regional policy.

are to utilise and improve the identity and

qualities of our cities in global competition

the conference and the report. In partner-

and to ensure balanced and coordinated

ship with the City of Copenhagen and the

development within and between the cities

City of Frederiksberg, Fonden Realdania is

and regions of Europe.

also part of the ten-year urban and housing
exhibition, Copenhagen X.

Urban and regional policy is crucial for
future European cohesion, and this was also

I hope that the conference in Copenhagen

emphasised in the European Spatial

and this report can contribute to inspiration

Development Perspective (ESDP).

and debate and thus comprise a stepping

European cities and authorities must be at

stone for future regional policy as well as

the leading edge of endeavours to promote

urban and environment policy and work for

cohesion and balanced development in

sustainable development in Europe.

Europe. Without active local involvement
from cities, it is impossible to ensure the
goals of sustainability that have been set at
both national and international levels.
I am extremely pleased that we are focusing
on this dimension during the Danish EU
Presidency, and I would like to take this
opportunity to thank all the contributors to
this report.
I would also like to thank Fonden
Realdania, which has contributed to both

PAGES 004-005 / CONTENTS

CONTENTS

PAGES 002-003

FOREWORD BY THE MINISTER

PAGES 006-007

EUROPEAN CITIES IN A GLOBAL ERA - AN INTRODUCTION
/ DANISH MINSTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT, SPATIAL PLANNING DEPARTMENT

PAGES 010-011

COPENHAGEN CHARTER 2002 AND RECOMMENDATIONS

PAGES 012-015

COPENHAGEN CHARTER 2002
A STATEMENT ON THE OCCASION OF THE DANISH PRESIDENCY

PAGES 016-021

URBAN AND REGIONAL IDENTITY CHALLENGED BY GLOBALISATION:
REPORT SUMMARY AND POLICY RESPONSES
/ NIELS BOJE GROTH

PAGES 022-023

GLOBALISATION

PAGES 024-029

CHANGE AND CHOICE: ON GLOBALISATION / HENNING THOMSEN

PAGES 030-035

IS GROWTH IN CITIES CONTAGIOUS?
HOW CITIES AND TOWNS INFLUENCE REGIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
/ SVEN ILLERIS

PAGES 036-041

GLOBALISATION IS AFFECTED BY LOCAL FACTORS:
SHIFTS IN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STATE, REGION AND CITY
/ HANS THOR ANDERSEN

PAGES 042-043

URBAN IDENTITY

PAGES 044-049

IDENTITY AND URBANITY: THE HETEROGENEOUS, DEMOCRATIC CITY
/ PETER MADSEN

PAGES 050-057

RESTRUCTURING AND URBAN IDENTITY / JENS KVORNING

PAGES 058-065

PRESERVATION AND/OR AUTHENTICITY / KARL OTTO ELLEFSEN

PAGES 066-071

THE BICYCLE - AN URBAN MEDIUM / HENRIK REEH

PAGES 072-073

EXAMPLES FROM THE ØRESUND REGION

PAGES 074-079

PLACE AND IDENTITY - MALMÖ / MATS OLSSON

PAGES 080-085

REGIONAL PLANNING, IDENTITY AND URBAN STRUCTURE
- GREATER COPENHAGEN / IB FERDINANDSEN

PAGES 086-087

ILLUSTRATIONS AND AUTHORS

PAGES 006-007 / EUROPEAN CITIES IN A GLOBAL ERA

EUROPEAN
CITIES
IN
A
GLOBAL
ERA
AN
INTRODUCTION

Danish Ministry of the
Environment, Spatial Planning
Department

The need for common efforts towards
balanced urban and regional development has grown in line with European
integration and increasing competition
between cities. With the conference
European Cities in a Global Era Urban Identities and Regional
Development, the Danish Presidency
will focus on the role of the cities in
regional development at a time influenced by globalisation.

ing that future urban and regional policy
contributes to regional development, without comprising the environment and the
identity of our cities - and without creating
large areas that do not share in the benefits
of development. This means that initiatives
at various authority levels must be co-ordinated. It means that we must begin shaping a
regional policy where the role of the cities
as growth centres is supported for the benefit of the region as a whole. Therefore, global development emphasises the need to
revise our knowledge and strategies if we are

Globalisation intensifies the need for an

to ensure balanced urban and regional

integrated perspective on urban and

development. This is also a central objective

regional development. In many ways, cities

of the European Spatial Development

function as the driving force of the global

Perspective (ESDP).

economy and are important actors in
regional development, which puts pressure

At the ministerial conference in Tampere

on the urban environment and leads to cer-

during the Finnish Presidency, Denmark

tain regional disparities in growth opportu-

undertook to take a closer look at experi-

nities. Therefore, the fact that regional and

ence gained from the Interreg Programme.

urban policy is often perceived as two sepa-

A debate on urban and regional develop-

rate entities is a problem. The EU and the

ment should, however, also be viewed in

Member States face a great challenge ensur-

connection with the inevitable conse-

MUSEUM PROJECT # 001, ATTA KIM, PART OF A PHOTO-

quences of the global economy, both the

identity of place. The views of these authors

GRAPHIC WORK SHOWN ON A HOLOGRAPHIC SCREEN AT

positive and the negative. Therefore, it is

are their own contribution to the debate

not enough merely to assess the experience

and therefore do not necessarily represent

gained from one isolated programme. A

the views of the Danish government.

broader debate is needed on how we ensure

Likewise, the articles do not constitute an

that regional policy contributes to a bal-

exhaustive discussion on the subject, but

anced and polycentric development pattern,

attempt rather to provide an interdiscip-

thus creating frameworks for growth in all

linary approach to a complex issue.

THE FESTIVAL “ASIAN COMMENTS” IN COPENHAGEN,
SEPTEMBER 2002.

the regions of Europe.
The report opens with the Copenhagen
The quality and identity of a place are

Charter 2002, a statement from the Danish

becoming increasingly important para-

Presidency, which also provides an agenda

meters in urban and regional development

for the debate on future urban and regional

during globalisation. Therefore, the concept

development in Europe. The Copenhagen

of urban identity is central in this confer-

Charter, the subsequent articles and the

ence report. The objective is not, however,

conference together constitute an invitation

to provide a definitive answer to what

to politicians, planners, researchers and

urban identity is. The objective rather is to

other interested parties to enter the debate

elaborate the diversity of the concept and to

on the future objectives and strategies of

support urban and regional development

European regional policy.

embedded in the place. In this connection,
a number of Nordic researchers and practi-

At the same time, we hope the ten-year

tioners have contributed to examining the

urban and housing exhibition, Copenhagen

relationships between globalisation and

X, being held from 2002 to 2012 will

urban and regional development, and the

inspire future urban development in other

PAGES 008-009 / EUROPEAN CITIES IN A GLOBAL ERA

PART OF KALVEBOD BRYGGE IN THE PORT OF

European cities. We are pleased that the two

tional relations. Smaller towns, however,

COPENHAGEN, 2002

large municipalities of the Danish capital -

often fulfil other functions than those of

Copenhagen and Frederiksberg - along with

larger cities. In general, larger cities repre-

the foundation Fonden Realdania, are

sent centres where knowledge and commu-

working together on Copenhagen X, and as

nication resources are concentrated, whilst

such highlighting the long-term perspective

smaller towns still essentially manufacture

in development of the spatial environment.

specialised goods.
Global competition can, however, have neg-

The significance of globalisation for
urban and regional development

ative consequences for cities and regions if

Globalisation implies a new division of

out a long-term perspective. The result can

labour between countries, regions, and

be a social and spatial separation between

cities. To a much greater extent than before,

cities and regions, as well as between urban

cities and regions are specialising in niche

and rural areas, with only few areas benefit-

areas where they have special expertise. This

ing from global competition.

it depends on development strategies with-

means that cities and regional networks will
increasingly become central players in glo-

These trends provide some specific chal-

bal competition.

lenges for urban and regional policy. If we
are to promote balanced regional develop-

Many believe that development of the new

ment throughout Europe, then it is essential

knowledge economy will, in many ways,

that we strengthen co-operation and co-

lead to larger cities experiencing a greater

ordination as well as initiate long-term and

level of growth than smaller towns. Yet

holistic strategies. Both the role of the larger

smaller towns are also experiencing increas-

cities and smaller towns must be encour-

ing growth on the basis of more interna-

aged, allowing development to contribute

to growth for the whole region. There is

means involving all urban areas in develop-

towns in all regions for the benefit of

continued need for us to ensure regional

ment. It means that the different identities

regional development as a whole. Holistic

development whereby cities complement

of a place, including those affiliated to

development of our cities and regions must

one another, and where conditions of life in

social and cultural environments, urban and

be based upon local diversity, as also empha-

weaker cities and regions are safeguarded so

regional knowledge competencies, and the

sised in Local Agenda 21 work.

that everybody shares in the benefits of

various spatial features of a city and region,

development.

etc., are considered when the spatial envi-

The key words are integration, involvement,

ronment is to be developed and renewed.

and participation, if we are to ensure wellfunctioning urban and regional policies. The

Urban identity as a potential
in spatial development

The basis for development of our regions

citizens of city and region must co-operate

therefore should be a broad understanding

with public and private actors as equal part-

The value of cultural and spatial symbols, or

of European urban history, qualities and

ners. We must support co-operation and co-

the identity of the place, is an important

identities. It is also necessary to acknowl-

ordination internally between urban and

competitive parameter. At the same time, the

edge the less positive features of a given city

regional actors and promote co-operation

identity of the place provides a feeling of

or region and assess how these features can

between different cities and regions.

belonging and meaning for local inhabitants.

be applied constructively in development.

Cities evolve constantly as a consequence of

In the future, it will be a challenge to commit

Copenhagen Charter 2002

both big-city competition and development

to long-term and holistic strategies for urban

We will face great challenges in the future,

of the global economy, as well as mass-

development that do not differentiate

but also great opportunities. Everyone

media proliferation of cultural values and

between centre and periphery, but rather, are

responsible for urban and regional develop-

the global flows of businesspeople and

based on a more varied picture of the identi-

ment at all authority levels must work

tourists. The result is that cities are becom-

ties of the place. Strategies that take into con-

together to perform these tasks. It is

ing more and more uniform, thereby losing

sideration both the negative and constructive

through debate and the joint formulation of

their local character, but also that central

aspects associated with urban identity.

action strategies that we can ensure balanced and sustainable development. There

urban areas and buildings are allocated

is no secret formula for how we can ensure

higher priority at the expense of less spec-

such development. However, it is possible

rural areas. This development reflects an

Sustainable urban
and regional development

unconstructive relationship between local

It is important that development strategies

which is important to debate in order to

preservation and globally inspired renewal.

be rooted in the culture, nature and com-

ensure frameworks for regional develop-

mercial structure of an area in order to

ment based on growth and sustainability.

tacular buildings and peripheral urban and

to sum up a number of factors; an agenda

Yet the dynamics of the identity of the place

ensure sustainable development. Urban

resulting from globalisation can also be used

policies and regional strategies should be

The Copenhagen Charter is a suggestion

constructively. By making the scenery,

structured so they are based on the place

for such an agenda. The aim of the Charter

architecture, history, local lifestyle, and cul-

and the life led there, both in respect to

is to function as a stepping-stone on the

ture the basis for development, and at the

transport, environmental planning and

path towards improved urban and regional

same time drawing on new trends, it is pos-

other aspects relevant to everyday life.

development in Europe. Firstly, the Charter

sible to see both local and global character-

Development must counteract social exclu-

addresses the need to acknowledge the con-

istics reflected in one another. In this way, it

sion. The city and region must be accessible

nection between urban policy and regional

is possible to preserve local character for the

to all. This concerns physical access as well

development. Secondly, the Charter also

benefit of both local and global actors.

as social and cultural accessibility.

addresses the need to focus on urban and
regional conditions of life in a global era,

The spatial environment is fundamental if

Everyone must share in the benefits of

where the identity of the place is an impor-

the identity of the place is to be created,

development, not just within urban areas,

tant aspect. In other words, strategies devel-

developed, and promoted. Highlighting

but throughout Europe, as well as in the

oped on the basis of an integrated perspec-

local identities in relation to the spatial

individual Member States and regions. The

tive of urban and regional development can

environment means being aware of how

central message of the ESDP was that,

support identities of place and thereby con-

global and international flows are assimil-

because of this, we should create the frame-

tribute to creating growth in all regions of

ated into local construction, so develop-

work for a polycentric development pattern.

Europe. An aspect that should underlie

ment is based on neither rigid traditional-

We must ensure sustainable and balanced

future European debate on regional policy.

ism nor uncritical internationalism. It also

development in larger cities and smaller

PAGES 010-011 / COPENHAGEN CHARTER 2002

COPENHAGEN CHARTER 2002
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The dynamics and consequences of
globalisation are extremely important
for future developments in European
cities and regions. But how can these
global dynamics be exploited without
compromising the local qualities in
European cities? And how can global
dynamics be used to promote urban
and regional development?

Drawing attention to the issue of cohesion
between the challenges of globalisation and
the development potential of urban identity
is the first step. However, the individual
authorities responsible for urban and
regional development must take the decisive
leap from words to action.
The problems and issues in the different
articles are illustrated with differing perspec-

The Copenhagen Charter contains ten

tives and summarised in this chapter with an

principles on how the challenges of global-

article on challenges and policy recommen-

isation can be managed in urban and

dations. The article shows how the abstract

regional strategies in order to secure cohe-

discussions in the report can be offered spe-

sion and continued sustainable develop-

cific relevance in strategy and policy devel-

ment. Through the Charter, the Danish

opment, and thus become a useful tool for

Presidency wants to inspire decision-makers,

planners and decision-makers.

researchers, and other stakeholders in
regional and urban development in Europe
to take part in the debate on urban and
regional development. The Charter also
emphasises the necessity of an integrated
approach to spatial development, if we are
to promote balanced regional development.

PAGES 012-013 / COPENHAGEN CHARTER 2002 / COPENHAGEN CHARTER 2002

COPENHAGEN
CHARTER
2002
A
STATEMENT
ON
THE
OCCASION
OF
THE
DANISH
PRESIDENCY

The challenges

The global changes promote standardisation

Globalisation generates new challenges in

in many ways, including architecture, images

preparing strategies for urban and regional

and culture. Diversity, identity and locally

development. The Copenhagen Charter

anchored development can protect against

2002 aims to recommend how to manage

this conformity. In addition, the special char-

the challenges of the global era, in which

acteristics of specific urban areas and regions

maintaining growth and sustainability as

provide the driving force for social and econ-

well as identity and diversity has become

omic development. The location-specific

increasingly difficult.

qualities and identity give meaning to the
sense of place by making it unique.

The global competition between cities and
regions has shaped a new global division of

Cities comprise a paradox. They embody

labour. National borders and cultures do not

the leading centres of development, but

limit the chains of production and consump-

they are also fertile soil for social exclusion

tion. Companies can choose where they

and environmental problems. Many city

want to locate, and people where they want

residents have poor access to transport,

to work and live, on a global market. These

housing, education, social services, jobs and

changes influence the cities and regions of

other services. Most European towns and

Europe. The disparities between European

cities have old industrial and harbour

cities and between cities and the countryside

districts that need to be regenerated.

are increasing. Rural areas with small and

Determining how to regenerate balanced

medium-sized towns often have limited

and polycentric development in cities and

opportunities for development.

regions using the special local and regional
qualities, competencies, identities and creativity is therefore a major challenge.

Meeting the challenges

region, to improve the territorial balance in

An integrated approach to urban and

European development.

regional policies is needed. Urban development and regional development are interre-

Local, regional, national and European

lated. All strategies and programmes with

authorities need to take responsibility for

spatial effects at the local, regional, national

ensuring sustainable and balanced urban and

and European levels influence urban and

regional policy. Urban and regional author-

regional development. In the future, author-

ities should assess their potential role in the

ities need to take responsibility for enhanc-

global economy and convert this assessment

ing co-operation and co-ordination to pro-

into specific strategies for their territory. The

mote cohesion, sustainability and growth in

foundation for this could be the principles of

all of Europe. Meanwhile, policy-makers

the Copenhagen Charter 2002. The 10

must consider how globalisation affects

points of the Charter are not the final

regions and cities, to prevent imbalanced

answers, but they outline main principles.

development. If an integrated approach is

Strategies for urban and regional develop-

not implemented, the lack of co-ordination

ment and implementation thereof need to be

between different levels of authority will not

carefully tailored to individual circumstances

only result in greater disparity between dif-

to develop and enhance the characteristic

ferent areas in the same region but also

identities of cities and regions. Interreg,

increase the gaps between the regions of

URBAN and other EU programmes support

Europe. In the end, this will lead to devel-

regional and urban development and regen-

opment that is extremely unsustainable.

eration, but progressive strategies for urban

Future regional policies in Europe can con-

and regional development should make use

tribute to reinforcing the role of cities and

of these programmes in relation to national

towns as growth centres that benefit a whole

and regional initiatives.

PAGES 014-015 / COPENHAGEN CHARTER 2002 / COPENHAGEN CHARTER 2002

GLOBAL
EFFECTS

REGIONAL
IDENTITY

Regional development
in global competition

1. Use the forces of globalisation construc-

3. Develop an integrated perspective on

tively by assessing the local potential in

urban and regional policy by promoting

the global economy and integrating this

awareness of the role of towns and cities

into strategies for urban and regional

in regional development, to promote

development.

regional cohesion and a polycentric
urban pattern.

2. Use regional and urban identities as the
starting-point in adapting to global

4. Co-ordinate strategies for urban and

changes and dynamics by interpreting

regional development and support

and registering the characteristics of the

partnerships between public and pri-

physical environment, architecture and

vate actors.

the social and cultural capital in the
region and its cities.

5. Develop innovative and sustainable
long-term perspectives in which
regional identity and cities’ potential
strengths are linked to regional competencies, creativity and culture.

REGIONAL
BALANCE

IDENTITY AND
QUALITY

CO-OPERATION AND
CO-ORDINATION

Urban identity and balanced regional
development

6. Use the architectural history of the city

8. Create diverse and creative living and

and global trends to shape the urban

working environments in all urban

and regional environment, to protect

districts by including all cultures and

diversity and local identity and to coun-

potential factors in the development

teract the monotony of the global archi-

process.

tectural expression.

9. Enhance integration in the entire region
7. View the revitalisation of the city and

to avoid social exclusion by ensuring

region as a dynamic process and make

that everyone has access to sustainable

use of local customs and new initiatives.

transport, jobs, housing, knowledge,
education and social services.

10. Strengthen opportunities for public participation in the discussion on strategies
for urban and regional development
and thereby empower local actors by
making use of their knowledge about
the place and its potential.

PAGES 016-017 / COPENHAGEN CHARTER 2002 / URBAN AND REGIONAL IDENTITY & GLOBALISATION

URBAN
AND
REGIONAL
IDENTITY
CHALLENGED
BY
GLOBALISATION
REPORT
SUMMARY
AND
POLICY
RESPONSES

Niels Boje Groth

Urban and regional identity has
become an issue of great political concern, due to the impacts of globalisation and the restructuring of cities
and regions. Paying due reference to
the other articles in the present report,
this article examines the concept of
identity and discusses how recent
urban and regional strategies deal with
the concept. Conclusions and recommendations for urban strategies and
regional policies are presented.

Globalisation: threats and challenges
Urban as well as regional planners have
always been interested in understanding
how to deal with spatial identity. However,
globalisation has now given spatial identity
a special priority on the planning agenda.
On the one hand, globalisation has caused
changes in the economy of cities and
regions, changes so radical that cities and
regions risk losing their identities. On the
other hand, globalisation forces cities and
regions to become more visible towards new
markets and political arenas.
Cities and regions are thus faced with the
threat of losing identity while at the same
time they are challenged to find new ones.
Therefore, cities and regions have engaged
in a new discourse on spatial identity.
The discourses on identity have exhibited
two strands (Gerner 1997, Staun 2002).
One strand, ethnos, stresses the importance
of heritage. It focuses on community spirit
as formed by intrinsic and coinciding rela-

EUROPE’S VITAL AXIS
ATLANTIC ARC
FINISTERRES

EUROPE’S MAJOR CITIES:
VERY IMPORTANT
IMPORTANT
NOTABLE
MODERATE

ORBITS OF UNDERDEVELOPMENT:
MEDITERRANEAN
FORMER OTTOMAN
EAST EUROPEAN

THE HETEROGENEITY OF EUROPEAN REGIONAL IDENTITIES.

tions of joint ethnic status, language, reli-

when ethnic groups fight for regional devo-

IN HIS HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EUROPEAN REGIONAL

gion and history. The arguments are emo-

lution. Historically, however, urban identi-

BACKDROP FOR UNDERSTANDING THE DISPARITIES OF

tionally-based, binding individuals and com-

ties are closely connected to the demos

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN EUROPE.

munity together in common feelings and

position. Par excellence, European market

inherited cultural values. The other strand,

towns and trade cities were regulated by

demos, stresses the importance of the con-

statutes defining civil rights and obligations.

tract. It focuses on general and mutual rights

Some statutes were national, whereas other

WELL KNOWN. OUTSIDE THIS CORE OF ECON-

and responsibilities of the citizen and soci-

were founded on internationally codified,

OMIC DEVELOPMENT, DUNFORD IDENTIFIES

ety. The arguments are rationalist, binding

e.g. the Magdeburg and Lübeck statutes, by

LARGE REGIONAL ARCS AND ORBITS, THE

citizens and society together in joint agree-

which cities were connected across national

DEVELOPMENT OF WHICH HAS BEEN

ments on civil rights and duties.

boundaries. The city statutes were a breach

DEVELOPMENT, MICHAEL DUNFORD (1998) WEAVES A

THE SUPERIORITY OF THE “VITAL AXIS” FROM
GREATER LONDON VIA THE BENELUX AND
THE RHINELAND TO NORTHERN ITALY IS

FORMED BY COMMON ECONOMIC AND
POLITICAL PROCESSES IRRESPECTIVE OF

with feudal society and were crucial to the
The ethnos position has dominated dis-

forming of the new ruling class, the citizen.

courses on national identity, e.g. as related

When taking the demos strand as a point of

to the forming of European national states

departure, identity is likely to be polycentric

TEXT OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF LARGE

in the 19th century and the current revitali-

rather than monocentric, formed as it is by

EUROPEAN SUB-REGIONS. IT REVEALS THE

sation of nationalism. However, discourses

citizens organising their life in their own

HETEROGENEITY OF REGIONAL IDENTITIES,

on national identity have also shown to be

interests, however within a common legal

HENCE, IT ILLUSTRATES THAT EUROPEAN

strongly influenced by the demos position,

framework of society.

IDENTITY IS MORE ABOUT DIFFERENT FATES

as was the case in post-war and post-Cold

OF CITIES, REGIONS AND NATION-STATES

War Germany (Staun 2002).

NATIONAL BORDERS. DUNFORD’S ANALYSIS
DEMONSTRATES THAT LOCAL REGIONAL
DEVELOPMENT HAS TO BE SEEN IN THE CON-

WITHIN ONE EUROPEAN TERRITORY RATHER
THAN A UNIFORM FATE OF DIFFERENT
EUROPEAN CITIES, REGIONS AND NATIONSTATES.

Closely connected to the idea of identity is
that it has to be authentic. However, mod-

In cities and regions, the ethnos position

ern marketing acts as if identities are artifi-

seems to be present, when urban riots occur

cial. Modern marketing knows that identi-

due to the presence of ethnic minorities and

ties are not visible by themselves. They are


made visible only indirectly by signs and

The problems of the historic strategies

symbols. Accordingly, we can only grasp

become apparent in the former industrial

identities indirectly, via interpretations, and

cities that have lost their economic base.

we can only express identities indirectly, via

They need to identify with new rather than

representations.

historical roles, and they need the entire
city to be part of the new identity. Hence,

Even when we search for authentic identi-

Jens Kvorning, in his article, suggests that

ties by excavating the historical heritage, we

cities should set up strategies for new devel-

find only representations that have to be

opment paradigms which can embrace the

interpreted.

entire city as frameworks for the globalisation forces. He suggests that cities should

These brief introductory remarks on general
aspects of identity stress that urban and

tions that work positively for the realisation

of historical and current processes rather

of new visions for the cities. The most pro-

than one all-embracing cultural spirit of each

nounced example is the Emscher-Park pro-

urban and regional community. Urban and

ject covering the old industrial Ruhr dis-

regional identities are not inherited in any

trict. Other authors of the present volume

authentic manner. Rather, they are artificial

(e.g. Andersen) are close to the same argu-

and have to be made visible by interpretation

ment when they suggest giving priority to

and reinterpretation of local culture, practice

long-term rather than short-term strategies.

and aspirations of the city and region society.

The short-term strategies are usually based

According to these observations, it is not

on spectacular events created in co-opera-

possible or relevant to make joint interpretaELECTOR JOHN THE STEADFAST OF SAXONY, BEFORE 1532.

lead the forces of globalisation into direc-

regional identities owe much to multi-layers

LUCAS CRANACH THE ELDER (1472-1553): PORTRAIT OF

not fight globalisation. Rather, they should

tion with great international architects.

tions of the European city or region.

Such events may be recognised world-wide
for a period, but are often soon forgotten.

SIGNIFYING IDENTITY. THE GERMAN PAINTER
CRANACH WAS FAMILIAR WITH THE IDEA

Urban strategies

THAT PAINTINGS ARE ONLY INDIRECT INTER-

The articles in this report reveal that iden-

gral part of long-term development strategies

PRETATIONS OF THE MOTIF, RATHER THAN A

tity is a matter of great concern to

embracing the whole city rather than focusing on

MIMETIC PRESENTATION - AN IDEA GRASPED

European cities, either because they have

event-architecture or just the historical parts of

ONLY MUCH LATER BY MODERN SEMIOTICS
AND MARKETING (POULSEN 2002). HE SUGGESTED TO LUTHER THAT THE PAINTINGS AND

•

had to reshape lost identities or because
they search for new ones. The rebuilding of

The creation of urban identities should be an inte-

the city.

•

Rather than fighting against globalisation, the

DRAWINGS FROM CATHOLIC TIMES SHOULD

many cities demolished during World War

generative forces of globalisation should be

BE REINTERPRETED IN THE NEW CONTEXT OF

II revealed how intense historical identity is

utilised as part of an integrated strategy for urban

THE REFORMATION RATHER THAN BEING

to the general public. Even though Gdansk,

restructuring.

DESTROYED. LIKEWISE, WHEN TIMES CHANGE,

for example, had become an important

CITIES MAKE NEW INTERPRETATIONS OF THEIR

shipyard town and in many aspects changed

Cities undergoing a restructuring process

IDENTITY. CRANACH’S UNDERSTANDING OF

its social identity, the city was keen to

have experienced that the process in itself

reshape the historical identity of the

rather than the results of the process

medieval merchant town after the war.

endows the city with a new identity.

SYMBOLIC MEANING WAS DEMONSTRATED IN
SOME OF HIS PORTRAITS, WHERE HE DELIBERATELY COMPOSED STIFF REPRESENTATIONS OF

According to Mats Olsson, this was the case

THE OFFICIAL ROLES AND RANKS OF THE PORTRAYED PERSON RATHER THAN SENSITIVE

According to Karl Otto Ellefsen, the idea of

in Malmö. Furthermore, Malmö experi-

PRESENTATIONS OF THE INDIVIDUAL,

preservation became very influential after

enced a pronounced commitment by young

ENDOWED WITH MANY QUALITIES OF THE

the Second World War, an idea promoted

people to the city. The fascination of the

MODERN LOGO. THE FIGURE SHOWS ONE

by the international community of planners

urbanisation process was also at stake when

in several charters, one of which was the

cities were made the icon of modernism in

Venice Charter from 1964. However, the

the 19th and 20th centuries. Haussmann’s

authors of this report recommend avoiding

Paris, praised by Baudelaire and the impres-

the stigmatisation of the old part of the

sionists, Robert Moses’ New York and the

cities as museums, a view so common to

Scandinavian functionalist design are but a

urban planning.

few examples of this modernist fascination.

SUCH PORTRAIT.

Thus, one should acknowledge that the

“second order” dialogues with the citizens and

grammes are examples of initiatives follow-

construction of urban identities by means

cultural and social movements.

ing up the ESDP.

of preservation of the historical city is also a
The efforts to market urban identities take

The ESDP launches new ideas to counter-

place in a period of changing planning par-

balance tendencies of economic concentra-

Any efforts to make the city identical to the his-

adigms. To an increasing extent, cities are

tion in core regions of Europe. The general

torical city should be counterbalanced by the fact

elaborating strategies rather than plans.

idea is to support development of regions

that cities are par excellence the locus of modern-

Formerly, development required plans.

via the generative forces of the cities. Thus,

ity. Accordingly, urban identity should not be con-

Today, development is no longer to be

rather than a welfare perspective, the ESDP

sidered to be static. Rather, urban identities

taken for granted, and cities are deeply

is based on a development perspective,

should reflect the changes and development of

involved in stimulating development. They

thereby offering an alternative to the cur-

urban society.

do SWOT analyses, co-operate with other

rent regional policies.

“betrayal” of the city’s modernist heritage.

•

cities, agencies and firms, form new partIt has been argued (Ashworth 1998) that a

nerships, and develop visions. However,

The idea of supporting regional develop-

small elite which dominates urban planning

their strategies can often not cope with the

ment outside the European core areas is a

and preservation efforts is crucial for the

situation because what is needed are

break with former mainstream thinking of

signification of the urban identity. The pref-

changes that can be seen only from the per-

regional development. Formerly, theories of

erence for preservation of historical build-

spective of a new urban identity. Thus, in

regional development were based on the pre-

ings and monuments expresses the norms of

order fully to grasp the range of radical

sumption that economic development dif-

the elite and leaves little room for the citi-

strategic choices open to them, cities should

fuses from the centres. Empirical evidence

zen to feel at home. Taking into account

explore the options from the perspectives of

had shown that growth centres induce a

that cities are the locus of social conflict

imagined alternative urban identities.

convergence of income and welfare (Cavazos

and segregation, it seems obvious that the
story of the city belongs not just to the

2001). According to this theory, the regional

•

In formulating their urban strategies, cities should

policies of the 1950s and 1960s were domi-

elite. The easy response to this problem is

operate from the perspective of alternative urban

nated by supporting the development of

to press for more democratisation of deci-

identities in order fully to cope with the radical

hierarchical urban systems suited for chan-

sion-making. However, it has to be

changes they are facing.

nelling economic development from the

acknowledged that the act of producing an

largest centres to the smaller centres. In the

urban identity does not restrict people’s

1970s, regional development changed drasti-

objects of identification. Rather than being

Regional strategies

cally. One reason was the increasing price

restricted by the symbols of the elite, people

EU regional policies have been dominated

competition for industrial production of

create their own identities in their own

by a concern for a fair regional distribution

standard products due to the opening of

logic of street life, joking relations, slang

of welfare. In order to avoid great disparities

international markets, being facilitated by

and symbols. According to the French soci-

between regions, the EU Structural Funds

new international trade agreements and

ologist and philosopher Michel de Cherteau

are concentrating on regions lagging behind

major declines in transport costs.

(1984), the production of a first order cul-

the EU average. And massive funding by

Meanwhile, the production of service- and

ture by the elite does not restrict ordinary

the European Agricultural Guidance and

knowledge-based products started to develop.

people. Rather, it gives cause for the pro-

Guarantee Fund subsidises current ways of

duction of second order cultural production

living in regions dominated by the primary

These developments radically changed the

by the ordinary people. Thus, rather than

sector. This welfare approach has dominated

economic life of cities and regions. One

just asking for a public dialogue on the first

EU regional policy for many years.

overall conclusion was that the former

order cultural production, one should also

However, strands of the EU regional poli-

growth model was nonviable, since it came

ask for a new dialogue between the first and

cies are also oriented to regional develop-

out in the open that regional development

second order cultural productions. In conse-

ment. Most pronounced is the work carried

was much more dependent on local capabil-

quence, the dialogue should be mediated in

out during the late 1980s and the 1990s by

ities within the regions rather than on exter-

a multitude of current cultural expressions

the Member States on the European Spatial

nal relations. Further, it was envisaged that

of the elite and the people.

Development Perspective (ESDP). Informal

technology and education, and other factors

and non-statutory as it is, it invites govern-

internal to the region, stimulated economic

The construction of urban identities should be

ments, decision-makers, organisations and

development rather than being an achieve-

formed in a broad partnership-dialogue on visions

the European Commission to contribute to

ment of economic development. Finally, it

for the “first order” development of the city while

goal-oriented spatial development of the

was acknowledged that the strongest posi-

at the same time leaving room for a multitude of

EU. Within the EU, the Interreg pro-

tion in international competition was held

•


THE SEARCH FOR NEW IDENTITIES. GLASGOW

by products that were difficult to copy else-

tion is the object of more international

SUFFERS FROM ECONOMIC RESTRUCTURING

where. Thus, the new wisdom is to develop

trade than e.g. the service production of the

DUE TO THE CLOSURE OF ITS SHIPYARD

specialised competencies. The single com-

large cities. This observation may run con-

INDUSTRY. TODAY THE CITY IS TRYING TO

pany may specialise. However, more viable

trary to a general impression that the largest

synergy and strength will be developed if

cities are the most internationalised. At least

FEBRUARY 1999). THE OTHER HEADLINE IS

specialised competencies are developed in

in the case of Denmark, Illeris’ observation

ABOUT BRANDING A NEW SCOTTISH IDENTITY

regional networks of specialists, suppliers,

is supported by the fact that, during the

WORLDWIDE. IN CO-OPERATION WITH THE

specialised education and labour markets,

1970s and 1980s, manual production firms

WALT DISNEY COMPANY LTD., “SCOTLAND

much of which is nested in tacit abilities

have to a large extent have become subcon-

THE BRAND”, IN 1999, ARRANGED AN INTER-

and competencies that are difficult to codify

tractors, integrated in international chains

ACTIVE EXHIBITION IN A FLORIDA THEME

and hence, difficult to copy elsewhere.

of production.

This new wisdom has given rise to a con-

To the extent that towns and smaller cities

TRADE ORGANISATIONS WITH THE OBJECTIVE

cern about searching for regional identities,

become international, they are becoming

OF DEVELOPING A UNIFORM APPROACH TO

since closely related to the economic iden-

generators of local regional development

SELLING SCOTLAND OVERSEAS. A KEY GOAL

tity of a region are competencies that are

rather than just mediators of regional devel-

IS TO REPLACE THE HUMBLE BACKWARD-

especially embedded in the region. This is

opment spreading from the large centres.

LOOKING IMAGE OF KILT-AND-BAGPIPE

why the branding of regional identities has

This new role of the cities lays the ground-

SCOTLAND WITH AN IMAGE FOCUSING ON

become an integral element of current

work for establishing a new urban-rural

regional policy-making.

partnership in which the cities are given

“RISE AS PHOENIX FROM THE ASHES”, I.E. TO
FIND A NEW IDENTITY (THE EXPRESS, 24

PARK TO SHOW RECENT SCOTTISH ACHIEVEMENTS. SCOTLAND THE BRAND WAS FORMED
IN 1994 BY THE SCOTTISH GOVERNMENT AND

SCOTTISH ACHIEVEMENTS IN SCIENCE, MEDICINE AND DESIGN (THE SUNDAY TIMES, 16

responsibilities for regional development.

MAY 1999).

In his critique of the growth centre model,
Sven Illeris suggests that urban systems

Formerly, towns and smaller cities usually

develop in two tiers rather than as one

competed in their role as centres in the

mono-hierarchical system. The one tier

local hierarchies. Now, it seems more rea-

consists of the largest cities. They are the

sonable for cities to co-operate in their role

centres for business service, administration

as “subcontractor” on the world market.

and some special branches of high technol-

Cities embracing complementary urban

ogy. The other tier consists of towns and

functions may co-operate as one larger

smaller cities usually dominated by manual

“city”. And they may co-operate on the

production. Illeris makes the interesting

establishment of labour-market facilities,

observation that, in some respects, the

education, and specialised business services

smaller cities rather than the large cities

in order to build up competencies that are

have become global, since manual produc-

needed in the region but which are too spe-

cialised for each city to establish on its own.

special development programmes to achieve

This strategy for building regional compet-

more radical changes. At EU and national

encies via urban networking has become the

levels, development programmes of this

key model for regional development, as sug-

kind have to be carefully prepared and

gested by the ESDP.

jointly contracted by the regions and the
superior regional policy body.

Following the ideas of the ESDP and the
above-mentioned observations on regional

It is beyond the scope of this article to make

policies, it should be considered:

detailed propositions about the EU regional
policy. However, following the above-men-

•

Cultural Symbol: The Meaning of the Text“. Graham,
B. (ed.), Modern Europe. Place, Culture, Identity.

three strands as mentioned below. Similar
approaches have been introduced into the
research programme of the European Spatial

working.

Planning Observatory Network (ESPON)

Accordingly, special attention and programmes

closely related to the upgrading of EU’s

should be focused on inter-urban development.

•

That crucial development potential is connected

with systems of cities suited for polycentric net-

Ashworth G.J.: ”The Conserved European City as

that regional policies be subdivided into

with cities developing international relations and

reference list.

up, it should be recommended in general

lagging behind.

Articles in the present report are not included in this

for a match between top-down and bottom-

core regions and not just focus on the regions

•

perspective, the role of cities and the need

development potentials outside the European

REFERENCES

tioned ideas of stressing the development

include a broader amount of the regions with

•

That the perspective of regional policies should

regional policy.

Local regional development policies should focus on
the enhancement of regional competencies via goal-

London: Arnold 1998.

oriented learning processes facilitated by networks

Bailey B. & L. de Propris: “EU Structural Funds,

of urban and regional actors and made visible by

Regional Capabilities and Enlargement“, paper presented at the RSA International Conference, Aix-en-

launching interpretations of the regional identity.

At the EU and national levels, regional
policy should be subdivided into three
strands:

Provence, May 2002 (www.regional-studiesassoc.ac.uk).
Cavazos R.J.: Metropolitan Income Growth and

In regional policies, the interplay between

1. The first strand should focus on the

top-down framework conditions and bot-

establishment of framework conditions

de Certeau, M.: The Practice of Everyday Life.

tom-up actions has become an organising

for the development of polycentric

Berkeley: University of California Press 1984.

principle (e.g. the partnership principle).

urban systems in regions with sufficient

Geographies of Development and Underdevelopment

Accordingly, the ability of regions to match

local milieu for urban networking

and Historical Geographies of Modernisation“, B.

regional policy measures has become crucial

(“potential polycentric development

Graham (ed.): Modern Europe. Place, Culture, Identity.

(Bailey and Propris 2002). Only regions

regions”);

Convergence. London: Ashgate 2001.

Dunford M.: “Economies in Space and Time: Economic

London: Arnold 1998.
European Commission: The European Spatial

with an institutional milieu above a certain

Development Perspective ESDP. Luxembourg 1999.

threshold capacity are able to take action

Gerner, K.: Centraleuropas Historie. Stockholm: Natur

and to co-ordinate local agents, firms and

“well-fare” type of assistance to regions

Staun J.: Mellem Kantiansk Patriotisme og Politisk

decision-makers in joint strategies and ini-

where the institutional milieu is general-

Romantik, Ph.D. thesis, Copenhagen University,

tiatives. These regions should be in focus

ly too weak to build strategies for

Department of Political Science, Copenhagen 2002.

for strategic investments in framework con-

regional development from below

ditions for establishing polycentric networks

(“peripheral regions”);

och Kultur 1997.

Poulsen H.K.: Cranach, Exhibition catalogue, Statens
Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen 2002.

2. The second strand should focus on the

strong enough to guide the development of
their region.

3. Finally, the third strand should focus on
the provision of development contracts

Left behind are regions with institutional

with regions restructuring their economic

milieus that are below the threshold. Such

base and in which the institutional

regions are in need of more traditional wel-

milieu is part of the restructuring process

fare assistance.

and hence not suited to handle the problems (“restructuring regions in crisis”).

Finally, regions suffering structural crises so
profound that institutions and firms have
become part of the problem might need

GLOBALISATION
The processes of globalisation occur
everywhere. However, what are their
consequences for European cities?
Many people have pointed to the effects
on world cities such as New York and
Tokyo. However, most Europeans live
in cities of quite another character, better described as medium-sized regional
centres. This chapter examines the
dynamics of European cities and the
role of cities in the global age.

What challenges does globalisation create
for spatial planning? What advantages do
European cities have that make it possible
to avoid many of the negative consequences
of globalisation? What role can Europe’s
large and small cities adopt in regional
development? And what does the concept
of globalisation actually mean - and is this
phenomenon new at all?

PAGES 024-025 / GLOBALISATION / CHANGE AND CHOICE: ON GLOBALISATION

CHANGE
AND
CHOICE:
ON
GLOBALISATION
Henning Thomsen

Globalisation is inescapable.
The colossal and continuing economic
integration of the world has repercussions on all aspects of urban life. It is a
force to be reckoned with in the
decades to come. But how did it
develop and what challenges do
European planners face?

Within the last decade or two, the word
globalisation has become one of the most
powerful and pervasive concepts in use in
the English language, or in most languages
for that matter. For true to the very nature
of what the word is describing, it seems to
creep into every language un-translated, in
its original and by now global form.
Globalisation comes from the noun “globe”,
which entered into common usage in the
15th century. Its etymological origin is in the
Latin word “globus” meaning “spherical”, and
globe means “something spherical or rounded” and refers to “spherical representations of
the earth, a celestial body, or the heavens”.
Spherical depictions of the earth in the
form of a globe were used as early as the
time of the ancient Greeks, the earliest in
150 BC. The earliest surviving terrestrial
globe was made in Nuremberg in 1492 by
Martin Behaim, a globe said to have influenced Christopher Columbus to attempt to
sail west to the Orient.

IMPERIAL WAR MUSEUM NORTH, SALFORD, MANCHESTER,

The usage of words like “globalisation”,

that the gap between rich and poor has

ARCHITECT: DANIEL LIBESKIND.

“globalise” and “globalising” in their contem-

never been more evident than today: the

porary meaning, however, is a fairly recent

assets of the world’s top three billionaires

phenomena dating back only to the 1960s.

exceed the GNP of all of the 48 least devel-

THE BUILDING HAS BEEN CREATED OUT OF
THREE “SHARDS” OR PIECES OF A SHATTERED

oped countries (population: 600 million).

GLOBE TO REFLECT THE WAY WAR AND CONFLICT HAVE DEVASTATED OUR WORLD. THE

Globalisation today has primarily come to

But whether poor or rich, it seems beyond

MUSEUM AS SUCH CONSTITUTES AN IMPOR-

mean the colossal economic integration that

doubt that the manifold implications of

TANT CULTURAL ATTRACTION IN THE MIDST

has taken place in the post-World War II

globalisation are going to influence our

OF A VAST URBAN REGENERATION AREA IN

period. But globalisation is also at the heart

everyday lives for decades to come.

THE FORMER DOCKLANDS OF SALFORD,
MANCHESTER.

of a heated global debate about the implications of this increasing economic integradebate is: Has globalisation made the world

Conquering the world
- the development of globalisation

a better place to live?

According to the geographer John Rennie

tion. The fundamental question in this

Short, it is possible to identify at least three
The protagonists of globalisation claim that

major waves of globalisation that brought

progress - economic, technological, politi-

the world closer together. The first, he sug-

cal, etc. - has improved the lives of millions

gests, is the period from 1492 (Christopher

and millions of people, allowing countries

Columbus’ first voyage) until about 1865

and businesses to thrive and further con-

(the end of the American Civil War), the

tribute to the bettering of circumstances.

second is the period between 1865 (the end
of the American Civil War) and 1989 (the

The critics of globalisation maintain that,

end of the Cold War), and the third and

even so, 30,000-35,000 children under five

current period began in 1989.

die every day of preventable diseases, and


The encounter between the Old and the

most globalised period yet in history.

New World in the 15th and 16th century,
resulting from the voyages of explorers like

Mass migration also contributed to this

Christopher Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci,

globalisation. About 60 million Europeans

Francisco Pizarro and others, bridged the

migrated to the New World in the century

hemispheric divide in a series of transac-

after 1820.

tions and exchanges of people, plants, animals and viruses that created a global world.

The period 1914-1945 constitutes a rupture

More probably than technological sophisti-

of world wars and economic depression.

cation, skilful organisation, or religious

But as early as 1944, at the Bretton Woods

devotion, it was the introduction of diseases

Conference, the Allies created the economic

from the Old World for which the indigen-

framework that would shape most of the

ous peoples had no immunity that made it

second half of the 20th century and pave

easy for the Europeans to gain control. The

the way for increasing globalisation. Part of

population of the New World dropped

this agreement was the creation of three

from approximately 54 million around

supranational governing institutions, the

1490, to just over 5 million by 1650. This

International Monetary Fund (IMF), the

demographic catastrophe necessitated the

World Bank, and the General Agreement

import of slaves from Africa to work the

on Trade and Tariffs (GATT), which in

mines and estates. These dramatic popula-

1994 would evolve into the more binding

THE IMPERIAL WAR MUSEUM NORTH IS

tion changes, along with economic exploita-

World Trade Organization (WTO). All of

AMERICAN ARCHITECT DANIEL LIBESKIND’S

tion and cultural domination, characterised

these institutions have been instrumental in

the first period of globalisation.

the development of globalisation as we

IMPERIAL WAR MUSEUM NORTH, SALFORD,
MANCHESTER, 2002. ARCHITECT: DANIEL LIBESKIND.

FIRST BUILDING COMPLETED IN THE UK. BORN
OF SIMPLE YET EMPHATIC IMAGERY, THE
ARCHITECTURE IS GROUNDED IN COMMON

know it today.

HUMAN EXPERIENCE, AND THUS IS TESTI-

The second phase of globalisation, according

MONY TO THE CONTINUING ABILITY OF ARCHI-

to John Rennie Short, began after the

TECTURE TO SHAPE AND CREATE COMMUNITY.

American Civil War. At this time the US
constituted itself as a major world player

Understanding the world
- the challenges of globalisation

along with the Europeans. This period of

Economic integration thus is the prime pre-

globalisation was characterised by growing

requisite of globalisation. But the implica-

political internationalisation and continuing

tions of economic integration are felt in all

and overwhelming economic globalisation.

areas of society. Not least so in the city,
where all of the challenges seem to con-

The expansion of railway transportation

verge. Thus in the future, urban planners

and shipping in the second half of the

must not only understand the structure of

1800s reinforced the economic integration.

economic development, but must become

The invention of the telegraph in the mid-

multi-talented jugglers, able to balance

1800s (simultaneously by Samuel Morse in

social, environmental, cultural, infrastruc-

the US and Fothergill Cooke and

tural, security, legislative, political and econ-

Wheatstone in Great Britain) and the

omic issues and challenges.

adoption of the gold standard by most
major nations by 1870 encouraged capital

The following is an attempt to single out

mobility, a force which has been a trade-

some of the main challenges urban plan-

mark of globalisation ever since. The

ners are currently facing. It should be

wealth and riches of Europe and the US

noted that the four areas singled out below

were further added to by the colonisation

- the environmental, the social, the cul-

of wide areas of Africa and Asia.

tural and the political areas - do not constitute the full list of challenges, and that

Even if the economic globalisation we are

they are, in the true sense of globalisation,

currently experiencing seems overwhelming,

intertwined and strongly interdependent.

many economists profess that the period
from 1870 until 1914 is still by far the

Environmental challenges

Social challenges

Nowhere has humankind altered the envi-

What has been termed as almost an ethic of

ronment more than in cities. The ecological

individual self-fulfilment and achievement is

impact of cities today reaches far beyond

arguably one of the most characteristic fea-

their individual boundaries, and the growth

tures of modern global society. Several schol-

in cities during the last century has been a

ars have outlined the immediate threats

crucial source of environmental change. For

thrown upon us by this individualisation:

centuries before that cities may have domi-

tradition, family, and even democracy - usual

nated political life and high culture, but in

and common strongholds in societies around

the 20th century they became the common

the world - are at risk. The immediate ques-

habitat for the human species, an expansion

tion facing the urban planner in the light of

derived primarily from migration and pop-

individualisation is obvious: should planning

ulation growth.

help individuals in their quest for self-fulfilment and commit itself to increasing indi-

The urban impact extends far beyond the

vidualisation, or should planning maintain

city limits and into hinterlands, to down-

its classical commitment to helping establish

wind and downstream communities, and in

a sense of community, which would mean

some respects to the whole globe. The cru-

countering excessive individualisation?

cial challenges of providing water and energy, of garbage disposal, sewage system main-

Another major trend with severe implica-

tenance, and pollution control will occupy

tions for the urban planner is the continu-

planners for decades to come. And in the

ing force of migration, both within and

light of the massive growth of cities in poor

between countries. This migratory trend has

countries, we would do well, in a global

implications for the make-up of societies

sense, to remember that it took wealthy

around the world and also involves funda-

countries almost a century to organise par-

mental political issues. The initial result of

tially effective responses to the pollution

migration is increasing multi-ethnicity. The

effects of urbanisation.

problems faced by the planner in the wake
of this are to help establish surroundings

The car is a good example of a 20th-centu-

that allow both multiethnic and multicul-

ry technology that has had enormous envi-

tural cohabitation.

ronmental (and social) consequences at
both local and global levels. In 1910 there

Weaving through practically all of the social

were less than a million motor vehicles in

challenges raised by globalisation is the very

the world. By 1995 this number had

obvious and undeniable problem of segrega-

reached 777 million. Today cars are respon-

tion. Segregation both within and between

sible for about a fifth of the carbon dioxide

nations comes in many different guises, but

added to the atmosphere. Worldwide about

poverty and lack of opportunity in most

1 to 2 percent of the land surface is taken

cases constitute the primordial emblem of

up by auto space (roads, parking lots, gas

segregation. However, the scope of causes

stations, etc.) matching (and overlapping)

and the consequences of segregation are

the space taken up by cities. Auto accidents

much larger than this, and the dramatic and

currently kill about 400,000 people annu-

fundamental inequalities in the distribution

ally. And surveys indicate that an American

of wealth and opportunity cannot but raise

adult spends roughly twice as much time

issues concerning safety (personal and local)

behind the wheel every day (72 minutes) as

and security (communal and global). The

average parents spend with their children.

overall challenge inevitably becomes finding

Examples of challenges created by automo-

ways to make the benefits of globalisation

bile technology are countless and will

available to more people (everybody), and

remain on the urban planning agenda for

not only to a privileged few. This is a chal-

decades.

lenge in which planning has a privileged
role to play.


THE BIG PICTURE - WHY WAR?

Cultural challenges

Culture also has a role to play in a continu-

AUDIO-VISUAL EXHIBIT IN THE IMPERIAL WAR MUSEUM

For many, the globalisation of culture is

ing process of empowerment. In our day

identical to the incessant spread of

and age, consumption and culture seem to

THE ATTACK ON THE WORLD TRADE CENTER

American culture, ideas, products, entertain-

be the prime vehicles for self-expression.

IN NEW YORK ON 11 SEPTEMBER 2001 MADE

ment, and politics, resulting in a homogeni-

But whereas consumption favours the well-

THE WESTERN WORLD REALISE WHAT

sation of the cultures of the world. And it is

to-do middle and upper classes, culture in

AFRICAN, ASIAN AND LATIN AMERICAN PEO-

certainly not untrue that the co-modifica-

all its richness, from soccer to sado-

PLE AND POLITICIANS HAVE KNOWN FOR

tion of culture, be it sports, music, art, cine-

masochism, has the ability to become inclu-

YEARS: THAT GLOBALISATION IS INTIMATELY

ma, or dance for that matter, seems to con-

sive and empower both the less well-off and

firm this view, evidenced by the growth and

the marginalised.

NORTH, SALFORD, MANCHESTER.

TIED TO QUESTIONS OF CONFLICT AND SECURITY. IN THE BACKGROUND A DEPICTION OF
THE INTRODUCTORY PAGE FROM THE

power of the largely American run or

ENGLISH-AMERICAN POLITICAL THINKER

Americanised media and entertainment

The identification and involvement of local

THOMAS PAINE’S 1791 BOOK “THE RIGHTS OF

industry of the late 20th century.

cultural milieus in urban planning, the balancing of global trends and local customs,

MAN”.

But this view of culture is contested by

and the involvement of all areas of society in

other developments, in particular the

the planning process will be even more

growth of individualisation, information

important in the future, if planning is to

RIGHT: T-34 TANK. EXHIBITED IN THE IMPERIAL WAR

technology, and communication, which

continue to reflect the cultural richness of

MUSEUM NORTH, SALFORD, MANCHESTER.

together have facilitated the development of

localities and the ideas of the people living

heterogeneous cultural expressions. A look

there.

THE T-34 TANK, AN EXAMPLE OF A TRULY
GLOBALISED PRODUCT, WAS DEVELOPED FOR

at any urban area around the world is evi-

THE SOVIET ARMED FORCES DURING THE

dence of the simultaneous existence of both

SECOND WORLD WAR. 50,000 TANKS WERE

homogeneous (primarily Americanised) and

Political challenges

BUILT DURING THAT WAR AND MORE THAN

heterogeneous cultural trends.

Early on in the present phase of global-

12,000 AFTER, SOME OF WHICH WERE STILL
USED IN THE WAR IN BOSNIA IN THE 1990S.
THE INTERNATIONAL ARMS TRADE HAS BEEN
ANOTHER OF THE CURRENTS SHAPING
GLOBALISATION.

isation, say the 1970s, many scholars
In this light, culture is, it must be said, not

believed that politics, and in particular the

an unchanging, static container holding a

nation-state, would lose its importance in a

certain locality’s past. It is not simply the

globalised world. This observation has been

passive consumption of imported cultural

pursued by most of the media in the last

products. Culture, rather, is an ongoing and

decade or so as well, implying that voters

dynamic process that allows a locality to

are increasingly distrusting of politicians,

engage in a critical and productive exchange

and sickened by politics.

with the world.

But lately many of the more enlightened

Amartya Sen was born in India, and educat-

scholars have stressed the continuing rele-

ed in Calcutta and Cambridge, UK, where

Appadurai, A.: Modernity at Large - Cultural

vance of both the nation-state and of politics.

he is now Master of Trinity College. He has

Dimensions of Globalization. Minneapolis: University

The need for cooperation - locally, regionally,

taught and lectured all over the world.

of Minnesota Press 1996.

and internationally - has possibly never been

Thus, as almost an embodiment of global-

more evident, and the need for strong public

isation, he consistently contributes, as a

participation in the governing of world issues

scholar and as an individual, to the debate

has never been more necessary.

about the future development of global-

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bauman, Z.: Globalisation - The Human Consequences.
Cambridge: Polity Press 1998.
Giddens, A.: Runaway World - How Globalisation is
Reshaping our Lives. London: Profile Books 1999.

isation. It seems fitting to let Professor Sen

Halliday, F.: The World at 2000. Houndmills: Palgrave
2001.

The continuing importance of democratic

describe the penultimate challenge we face

Hirst, P. & G. Thompson: Globalisation in Question -

institutions and of democratic governance

in the light of continuing globalisation:

The International Economy and the Possibilities of

promises to remain one of the major chal-

Governance. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers 1996.

lenges in our age of globalisation, and

“[T]here is a basic need to recognise that

indeed one where urban planning, a funda-

despite the big contributions that a global

London: Penguin Books 2000.

mental form of participation in the public

economy can undoubtedly make to global

O’Rourke, K. H. & J. G. Williamson: Globalization and

affairs of a locality, will have to develop

prosperity, we also have to confront, at the

History - The evolution of a nineteenth-century

new, strong, and democratic habits.

same time, the far-reaching manifestations

McNeill, J.: Something New Under the Sun - an
Environmental History of the Twentieth Century.

of inequality between and within nations.

atlantic economy. Cambridge Mass.: MIT Press 1999.
Sen, A.: Development as Freedom. Oxford: Oxford
University Press 2001.
Short, J. R.: Global Dimensions - Space, Place and the
Contemporary World. London: Reaktion Books 2001.
Stiglitz, J.: Globalization and its Discontents. London:
Allen Lane 2002.

The real debate associated with global-

Postscript

isation is, ultimately, not about the efficien-

In 1998 the Nobel Prize in economics was

cy of markets, nor about the importance of

awarded to Amartya Sen for his contribu-

modern technology. The real debate, rather,

tions to welfare economics. The Swedish

is about inequality of power, for which

Academy of Sciences in particular wanted

there is much less tolerance now than in the

to commend Professor Sen for his clarifica-

world that emerged at the end of the

tions of “the conditions which permit

Second World War.”

aggregation of individual values into collec-

(The Observer Sunday, June 25, 2000)

tive decisions, and the conditions which
permit rules for collective decision making
that are consistent with a sphere of rights
for the individual”. In passing, this is a
proposition that would seem as relevant for
a research program on urban planning as it
has proven to be for economics.

PAGES 030-031 / GLOBALISATION / IS GROWTH IN CITIES CONTAGIOUS?

IS
GROWTH
IN
CITIES
CONTAGIOUS?
HOW
CITIES
AND
TOWNS
INFLUENCE
REGIONAL
ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT

Sven Illeris

The cities of Europe are not tied up in
national hierarchies but are part of
multifarious networks with an infinite
number of cities in different regions.
With globalisation, the cities’ relationships to each other and to regions have
become complex and multifaceted. The
author examines the significance of
cities for regional development. While
many would maintain that economic
growth in larger cities always spreads
to other regions, using European examples, the author demonstrates a more
varied picture; a chequered mosaic
where it can be difficult to find cohesion between various causes. The
author claims that both large cities and
small towns contribute to regional
development significantly, although in
very different ways. He argues that
competition between cities should be
regulated, so that many types of city,
and thus regions, can be secured positive development.

What is the role of cities in regional economic development, primarily in terms of
number of jobs? We shall consider two
aspects: the role of cities in the development
of regions outside the local area, and the
role of cities in the development of their
own region. Before starting, it must be
stressed that the article will only deal with
this question in the Western world, in particular in the European Union. In other
parts of the world, conditions and processes
are different.

The national dynamo?
It is often assumed that it is possible to
improve a region’s economic development
by selecting a city (or “centre”) elsewhere
for promotion. The desired effect is that
growth in the “centre” will spread to the
neighbouring regions. But is this necessarily
so? Can we improve a country’s economic
development by developing its capital (or
main economic centre) and then assume
that it will pull with it the development of

SECTION OF AALBORG SEEN FROM THE AIR, OVERLOOKING

the whole country? Is it true that the only

thus spreading growth impulses. Instead of

THE UNIVERSITY AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

chance of any country - given the increasing

trying to promote growth everywhere, the

global competition - is to allocate all

total impact of a targeted effort will be big-

resources to the development of its capital?

ger if a “strategic” sector is selected, from

COMPANIES.

AN EXAMPLE OF INTERNATIONALLY ORIENTED

where there is a maximum of spread effect.

MANUFACTURING IS THE INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY INDUSTRY IN AALBORG (160,000

This idea seems to be intuitively captivat-

INHABITANTS), NETWORKING CLOSELY WITH

ing. At least, it has often been put forward

This idea was later extended to regional

AALBORG UNIVERSITY AND WITH

as a self-evident truth. But it has also been

development and used to argue in favour of

argued in a more scientific way, based on a

the selection of “growth centres”, cities from

theory suggested by the French economist

where spread effects could increase the econ-

Perroux (1955).

omic development of neighbouring regions.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY FIRMS IN THE
REGION.

In the 1960s, this notion was widely acceptHe did not originally consider regional

ed, and growth centres were selected to work

questions, but the relationships between the

as dynamos in many countries. But in the

sectors of an economy. If a sector, or even

1970s these policies were largely abandoned.

only a large company, grows, it will buy

Since the 1990s, the growth centre idea has

more inputs (raw materials, semi-manufac-

been revived. It is important to consider the

tured goods, machines, services etc.) from

various arguments behind the changing

other sectors, which then will experience

assessment of growth centre policies.

growth; they, in turn, will buy more from
still other sectors, etc. The originally

First of all, the growth centres of the 1960s

expanding sector will typically be innovative

very rarely lead to the anticipated results in

and demand creative inputs. And its prod-

neighbouring regions. This is not necessar-

ucts - sold elsewhere in the economy - will

ily an argument against the theory, since the

be better or cheaper than previous products,

ineffectual ways in which growth centres


FIGURE 1

TOTAL
CAPITALS
TOURIST REGIONS
OTHER CITIES
(>200,000 POP.)
OTHER REGIONS

FIGURE 1.

were selected in the 1960s constituted a

the capitals have consistently higher growth

ANNUAL POPULATION GROWTH FOR 1955-2000 IN SOUTH-

watering down of the idea. Due to local

rates than the more peripheral regions. But

political pressures, too many centres were

in France, Spain (with 2 main centres),

often selected so that only absurdly few

Norway, and Sweden, the opposite is the

resources could be allocated to each.

case. In Italy (2 main centres), the results

ERN EUROPE AND IRELAND (GREECE, ITALY FROM NAPLES
AND SOUTHWARD, SPAIN, PORTUGAL, IRELAND).

fluctuate within sub-periods. There are good
Perhaps one could verify the theory, not by

reasons for all these findings, but the growth

OF POPULATION FOR 1955-2000 IN THREE

looking at the effect of the too common

centre theory is not really supported.

PARTS OF WESTERN EUROPE FOR VARIOUS

small selected growth centres described

CLASSES OF CITIES AND REGIONS: CAPITALS

above, but by looking at the spread effect

One could also look for empirical support

(AND OTHER MAIN CENTRES) INCLUDING

from national capitals or main economic

of the argument of the importance - in the

THEIR COMMUTING REGIONS; OTHER CITIES

centres? Following the logics of the theory,

context of international competition - of

WITH OVER 200,000 INHABITANTS; OLD INDUS-

this effect should be stronger in the neigh-

large national capitals or main economic

bouring regions with declining effects as one

centres. Do countries with a dominant capi-

moves farther away. Of course, many other

tal city show higher growth rates than coun-

- E.G. FRENCH DÉPARTEMENTS OR DANISH

factors - some of which are impossible to

tries with more polycentric urban systems?

COUNTIES).

measure in a quantitative way - have an

Again, national growth rates depend on

FIGURES 1-3 SHOW ANNUAL GROWTH RATES

TRIAL AREAS; TOURIST AREAS; AND OTHER
AREAS. (THE FOUR LATTER TYPES OF AREAS
ARE ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS AT NUTS 3 LEVEL

impact on regional economic development.

many other factors; we can only look for a

UNTIL ABOUT 1970, BIG CITIES EVERYWHERE

However, a hint may be obtained by meas-

hint. However, there is not the slightest

HAD HIGHER GROWTH RATES THAN SMALLER

uring development in zones 100-250 km

indication that countries with the former

TOWNS AND RURAL AREAS. IN THE 1970S, THE

from the capital and zones over 250 km

type of urban systems - such as the United

away. Of course, this will only be possible in

Kingdom, France, or Denmark - have high-

countries where distances from the capitals

er competitiveness than countries of the lat-

GROWTH IS AGAIN CONCENTRATED IN THE

are large enough. One can try to do this in

ter type, such as the United States,

CAPITALS. OLD INDUSTRIAL AREAS WITH LOW

western European countries (except

Germany, or Switzerland.

GROWTH RATES AND MEDITERRANEAN

Germany, which has several main economic

TOURIST AREAS WITH HIGH GROWTH RATES

centres) over the period 1955-2000, by

Even the theoretical construction of the

ARE ALSO EXCEPTIONS.

measuring changes in the population, as

growth centre notion is questionable. The

these correlate well with employment. The

theory rests on the assumption that the

following results appear: In the United

chain effects between sectors in an economy

Kingdom and Finland, the regions nearer to

are analogous with chain effects between

GROWTH CURVES CONVERGED. SINCE THEN,
ALL CURVES RUN CLOSE TO THE AVERAGE,
EXCEPT IN NORTHERN EUROPE, WHERE

FIGURE 2
CAPITALS
OTHER CITIES
(>200,000 POP.)
OLD INDUSTRIAL REGIONS
TOTAL
OTHER REGIONS

FIGURE 3
CAPITALS
TOTAL
OTHER CITIES
(>200,000 POP.)
OTHER REGIONS

FIGURE 2.

neighbouring regions. It is a fact that a

urbanisation, large cities showed the highest

ANNUAL POPULATION GROWTH FOR 1955-2000 IN CEN-

growing sector buys inputs from certain

rates of growth. There were, and still are,

TRAL EUROPE (ITALY FROM ROME AND NORTHWARD,
FRANCE, SWITZERLAND, AUSTRIA, WESTERN GERMANY,

other sectors, but the beneficial spread of

many reasons for this:

DENMARK, THE NETHERLANDS, BELGIUM, UNITED

growth impulses to adjacent regions is

• A large labour market is an advantage for

KINGDOM).

merely an assumption that seems to be

both supply and demand, so workers and

FIGURE 3.

without much substance. Geographically,

employers prefer to locate where there is a

ANNUAL POPULATION GROWTH FOR 1955-2000 IN NORTH-

the chain effects outside a sector’s own

large labour market. In particular, the size

ERN EUROPE (FINLAND, SWEDEN, NORWAY, ICELAND).

region are so dispersed that they do not pull

of the markets for highly qualified person-

growth in any particular geographical direc-

nel has become more and more important.

tion. In spite of the intuitive attractiveness

• In order to enhance their attractiveness,

of the growth centre theory, it must be con-

especially to highly educated people, big

cluded that neither empirical, nor theoreti-

cities offer amenities such as cultural

cal arguments give much support to it.

services.

• In a big city, the costs of supplying
goods and services are minimized due to

Regional effects

a large local market and good transport

What about the role of cities in the devel-

facilities to distant national and interna-

opment of their own region? Here, we are

tional markets.

on firmer ground: they must contribute to

• It is also cheaper and easier for firms to

it. 1,000 new jobs in a city are 1,000 new

obtain inputs. In particular, this is the

jobs in the region, too.

case with information and knowledge
inputs, which are becoming increasingly

But does this necessarily point to a policy of

important. Though information can

supporting the growth of big cities? Are

increasingly be obtained electronically,

they likely to grow more - and induce more

face-to-face meetings with people in pub-

growth in their region - than medium-sized

lic administration, interest organisations,

or small towns?

media, research institutions, consultancy
firms, etc. remain important - and they

From the beginning of the industrial revo-

are concentrated in capitals and other

lution until the 1960s, there was no doubt

main urban centres.

about the answer. In this period of rapid


1,400,000 INHABITANTS (COPENHAGEN, CONTIGUOUSLY BUILT-UP AREA)
MUNICIPALITIES WITH 150,000 - 300,000 INHABITANTS

14%
15%

MUNICIPALITIES WITH 25,000 - 100,000 INHABITANTS

19%

MUNICIPALITIES WHOSE BIGGEST TOWN HAS 5,000 - 20,000 INHABITANTS

22%

MUNICIPALITIES WHOSE BIGGEST TOWN HAS LESS THAN 5,000 INHABITANTS

22%

DENMARK TOTAL

TABLE 1.
EXPORTS AS A PROPORTION OF TOTAL TURNOVER IN 1998
BY SIZE-CLASSES OF DANISH MUNICIPALITIES.

18%

• Firms also have advantages connected with

So there are forces which now pull in the

a location in the same agglomeration as

opposite direction to the forces mentioned

other firms in the same or related sectors.

above of geographical concentration:

DENMARK HAS RELATIVELY LARGE EXPORTS

Both co-operation networks and inspira-

• Manufacturing has shifted away from big

OF FOOD. BUT EVEN IF AGRICULTURE, FISHING

tion from competition stimulate them to

cities to medium-sized and small towns,

AND MANUFACTURING OF FOOD AND BEVER-

increase their competitiveness. Such clus-

where there are lower costs and more sta-

AGES ARE EXCLUDED FROM THE CALCULA-

ters are often formed in big cities.

TION, THE PROPORTIONS ONLY CHANGE TO
13% IN COPENHAGEN AND 20% IN THE
5,000-20,000 BRACKET.

ble labour.

• Regional and local services - e.g. educaSo overwhelming were the advantages of

tion, health, and social services - have

big-city locations and the associated super-

expanded tremendously, especially in the

ior growth rates that urbanisation theories

1970s. Medium-sized and small towns

bestowed the status of a law of nature to the

benefited relatively more than big cities

notion that firms will naturally move to

(while rural areas often lost their few ser-

urban centres. It was even thought to be
reinforced in the second half of the 20th

vices, shops and primary schools).

• Clusters - like those within big cities -

century, when the importance of qualifica-

also exist in specialized industrial districts

tions and knowledge increased, and when

outside big cities. Strong cultural tradi-

sectors over-represented in big cities, such

tions of entrepreneurship, innovation,

as consultants and high-tech industries,

and networking make some of them very

grew more than any other sectors.

competitive.

• Car ownership, air travel, TV and
Therefore, it came as a shock when, in the

telecommunications have made life in

1970s, it was observed that the real world

small towns less isolated than previously,

did not behave as predicted by the theories

both for firms and for families, and

(see Figures 1-3).

increased their attractiveness, relative to
big cities. This has been especially impor-

The figures describe the overall pattern. The

tant for areas with pleasant climates (“sun

reality behind the pattern is a rather unstable

belts”), beautiful landscapes, and exciting

mosaic (which has also been observed in

urban environments. They have attracted

North America since 1970): Some big cities

qualified people who again attract firms -

grow, while others do not. Some small towns

or set up their own. But dull or even

and rural areas grow, while others do not.

uncomfortable environments are left

And some areas grow in some periods and

behind, and the extremely low population

not in others. Copenhagen stagnated in the

densities in northern Scandinavia seem to

1970s and 1980s, only to recover vigorously

hamper the creation of sufficiently strong

in the 1990s - when, for instance, growth in

local networks and labour markets.

Paris was below the French average.
The move of manufacturing out of the
It may be added that if regional economic

biggest cities means that capitals or main

development is measured in terms of GDP

centres are not particularly important for

per capita, we also observe a convergence

international competition. International

towards the average (Sørensen 1997).

trade primarily deals with agricultural and

manufactured products. Big cities do, of
REFERENCES

problems are - one cannot expect much

course, compete internationally for certain

spread of effort to other regions or the

types of activities and investments, which

whole country.

Ellis, S., Hirmis, A. & Spilsbury, M: How London Works.

require highly qualified staff, good interna-

London: Kogan Page 2002.

tional accessibility, and excellent amenities.

In recent years, it has been broadly recog-

Perspective ESDP. Luxembourg 1999.

But the importance of this competition has

nized that, as far as possible, local and

Hansen, N.: “Are Very Large Cities Successful?”, Inter-

been exaggerated in the public debate.

regional governments should carry out

European Commission: European Spatial Development

national Regional Science Review, 24, 2001, pp. 344-359.

Apart from serving themselves, metropoli-

development policies, as these are better

Roskilde: Roskilde University, Department of Geogra-

tan centres primarily produce services for

than national or European authorities at

phy and International Development Studies 1994.

their own countries. They do export some

taking local problems and potentials into

sance”, Cahiers de l’Institut des Sciences Economiques

services, but services are internationally far

account. The observation of an unstable

Appliquées, Série D, no 8, Paris, 1955.

less traded than manufacturing goods (ser-

mosaic pattern supports this argument.

Sørensen, C. (ed): Empirical Evidence of Regional

vices internationalise primarily through for-

Illeris, S: Essays on Regional Development in Europe.

Perroux, F. : “Note sur la notion de pôle de crois-

Growth: The Centre-Periphery Discussion.
Copenhagen: Ministry of the Interior 1997.

eign direct investment, creating affiliates in

However, the devolution of development

foreign countries or acquiring existing local

policies has led to a reinforcement of the

firms there). Thus, even in London, a sur-

century-old competition between cities.

vey in 1998 found that other countries con-

Previous competition between European

stituted the main market area for only 9%

countries, now regulated by the EU, to

of employment (Ellis et al 2002).

some degree continues, although now dis-

International trade is more important for

guised as competition between cities. There

smaller towns, where the bulk of manufac-

are positive aspects of this competition, and

turing industries are now located. Medium-

it inspires actors to do their best. However,

sized and small towns show a variety of spe-

while we accept that competition between

cialisations, some serving their local sur-

companies is in the general interest, compe-

roundings, others primarily selling manu-

tition between cities is different. Cities are

factured goods or special services to the rest

local societies, whose citizens have lives and

of the world. Accordingly, their compe-

resources that cannot be allowed to be writ-

tences and identities are very different.

ten off in the same way as losing compa-

Table 1 shows an - admittedly crude - cal-

nies. National and EU authorities must

culation of the export share of the produc-

establish rules of the game which ensure

tion of different sizes of Danish towns.

that economically weak cities and regions
have sufficient resources to be able to com-

To conclude: Since the 1970s, the long

pete against strong ones.

term development of all size-classes of big
cities, small towns and rural areas in the

It is also in the general interest that cities

Western world is close to the average,

and towns in the same region cooperate to

though with much individual variation and

complement each other wherever possible,

considerable short-term instability.

in order to reach the best possible results for

Development today is influenced by the

the region as a whole. This is exactly the

high number of factors influencing the loca-

purpose in the proposed EU European

tion of economic activities and pulling

Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP).

development in different directions.

Policy conclusions
The observation of overall average growth
rates in all classes of cities and towns does
not mean that there is no need for policies
to promote regional economic development. There are still cities and regions with
too few jobs and too low incomes.
However, efforts must be made where the

PAGES 036-037 / GLOBALISATION / GLOBALISATION IS AFFECTED BY LOCAL FACTORS

GLOBALISATION
IS
AFFECTED
BY
LOCAL
FACTORS
SHIFTS
IN
THE
RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN
STATE,
REGION,
AND
CITY

Hans Thor Andersen

One of the many changes normally
ascribed to globalisation is that cities
and regions today create still closer
cross-border networks. Even if there is
nothing new about this as such, it is relevant to observe what this means for the
single locality. This article argues that
globalisation must not be understood as
an infringing process leaving us powerless. The meaning of globalisation
depends on local conditions, and
European cities have special conditions
and, therefore, special opportunities.

The cities and regions of Europe constitute
a close-knit system of economic and political relationships built up over more than
one thousand years. Cities and regions are
the nodes of society in terms of economy,
social relationships, culture, and politics.
With the advent of nationalism 300 years
ago, another model was taking shape.
Localities became subordinate to the state,
which was given a centralised and uniform
code of practice. Communication between
the cities of a country was improved, leading to more division of labour and new
opportunities for development. Thus, the
nation-state provides the political and
administrative infrastructure for the development of the national territory and constitutes, therefore, a significant basis for economic growth (Lefebvre 1991).
With the fall of the Iron Curtain, the
European territory changed dramatically.
The importance of the states has diminished in tandem with a growing number of
organisations becoming more important for

INTENSITY OF LIGHT COMBINES POPULATION

European integration. In particular the EU,

Europe, we are still lacking a thorough

DENSITY AND AFFLUENCE; WESTERN EUROPE

with its single market, has become the

debate on the division of labour and

AND NORTH AMERICA, AS WELL AS JAPAN

dominant non-nation-state actor and

responsibilities between the local, regional,

increasingly performs the overall, national

and national levels.

AND EASTERN CHINA, STAND OUT CLEARLY.
THERE IS ALMOST A SURFACE COVERAGE CREATED BY A CLOSE, COHERENT URBAN SYS-

planning and co-ordinating functions

TEM, WHEREAS THE CITIES IN LARGE PARTS

regarding economic and commercial rela-

OF SIBERIA, AFRICA AND CENTRAL ASIA CON-

tionships. At the same time, local and

The cities of globalisation

STITUTE ISOLATED ENCLAVES.

regional authorities have acquired increasing

The cities apparently most affected by

responsibility for commercial and employ-

globalisation are world cities such as Los

ment development and, thus, also for the

Angeles, Mumbay, Mexico City, and Lagos.

welfare of the population.

These cities are inhabited by populations
the size of medium-sized states. And growth

The globalisation debate of the past decade

will continue for the next decades, although

has focused on the reduced possibilities of

not in the large cities of North America

the state to control development. The

(Hall & Pfeiffer 2000). Their significance

impotence of the state is claimed to be the

will also exceed the weight according to the

reason for the increase in economic, social,

size of their populations, as they are busi-

and political differences. In addition, the

ness markets and national or continental

large cities have been singled out as the

centres. These large cities, or world cities

“new”, central commercial and political

(Friedmann & Wolff 1982), are in a league

unit, even though it is intrinsically impossi-

of their own; they constitute the control

ble to distinguish a city from its region on

centres of the global economy but, addi-

the basis of economic or social processes. In

tionally, most often also contain the most

spite of the past decades of marked decen-

important political organisations as well as

tralisation across almost all of western

cultural and educational establishments.

PAGES 038-039 / GLOBALISATION / GLOBALISATION IS AFFECTED BY LOCAL FACTORS

The world cities are today characterised by

parts of the population are some of the

a number of trends that may become reality

methods. Conversely, the socially mar-

also for minor cities and city regions:

ginalised congregate in ghetto-like settlements in the periphery of the city or in

1. New industrial structure. In the world
cities, particularly two kinds of business

run-down neighbourhoods abandoned
by the middle class a long time ago.

sectors have crystallised as being important. On the one hand, this applies to

However, most Europeans do not live in

the finance and insurance sectors, strate-

world cities but in medium-sized and minor

gic corporate management, and the busi-

cities. These minor urban communities will

ness service sector, such as law firms,

not become centres of the global economy

telecommunications or computer ser-

and its hierarchy of decisions. Their poten-

vices, and, on the other hand, an array

tial must be found somewhere else. One

of sectors servicing the former, including

possibility is the service sector and niche

building and construction, restaurants,

industries in which special skills and know-

entertainment and security services.

ledge may ensure competitiveness.

These new industrial structures are

Knowledge industries are regarded as the

replacing manufacturing industries and,

only realistic way of ensuring that welfare

partly, the public sector.

develops steadily in the future. This
demands large, long-term investment in

2. Social polarisation. Global megacities are

education and research. However, money

experiencing a growing gap between a

alone is not sufficient; social structures and

well-educated group of high-wage earn-

cultural relationships must be adapted to

ers and a group of unskilled workers on

the new conditions, e.g. by acceptance of

minimum wages. The well-educated

new norms and attitudes as well as openness

group performs management functions,

towards the new and the different. In par-

MINIATURE FROM THE HAMBURG BY-LAW, HAMBURGER

is employed in transnational corpora-

ticular, this is a challenge to older industrial

STADTRECHT, 1497 (DETAIL).

tions, international organisations,

cities, which have seen de-industrialisation

financing and business services. This

take place over the past decades.

THROUGHOUT HISTORY, CITIES AND REGIONS
HAVE CREATED CROSS-BORDER NETWORKS.

group is “outsourcing” increasing num-

THE TOWNS OF THE HANSEATIC LEAGUE,

bers of household chores - childcare,

WHICH TOTALLY DOMINATED TRADE IN

cleaning, cooking, gardening - which, in

Local politics in a global era

MEDIEVAL NORTHERN EUROPE, ARE A STRIK-

turn, are performed by the other group,

Globalisation is not only an economic

ING EXAMPLE OF URBAN IMPORTANCE

not infrequently immigrants or other

process of change but also entails changes

BEFORE THE AGE OF THE NATION-STATES.

people with a marginal status in the

and restructuring of the political system.

DEPICTED ARE HANSEATIC SHIPS MOORING

labour market.

Again, this has clear consequences at local

ALONGSIDE THE QUAY IN HAMBURG.

level in cities of all sizes. Everywhere, the

3. Physical restructuring. The physical

requirement to increase competitiveness is

environment of the world cities is con-

leading to marked changes of local political

stantly being transformed to be able to

prioritisation, strategies and institutional

match global competition. New office

structures (Mayer 1995).

blocks, shopping centres, hotels and luxury housing are added. In addition, the

In almost all Western countries, local poli-

relatively large social inequalities

tics have become more important to indus-

enhance the spatial division. In the large

trial policy. The reason for this strengthen-

cities of Asia, Latin America, and Africa,

ing of the local level is the competition

social inequalities have created outright

from outside. In many countries, state rela-

physical barriers, which keep unwanted

tionships with regions and cities are what

groups out of the realms of the social

can be termed horizontal. Instead of hierar-

elite. Fences, private security guards, and

chical structures, co-operation between, and

the establishment of secluded neigh-

integration of, local actors now often take

bourhoods intended for the affluent

on the responsibility for economic policies.

European Cities in a Global Era: Urban Identities and Regional Development

European Cities in a Global Era: Urban Identities and Regional Development

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