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Stress in compound words
Contents
•   Introduction
•   Rules of compound stress
•   Hypotheses on compound stress
•   Conclusion
Introduction
• Compound vs. phrases
e.g.
Family tree, doctor’s dilemma, black board
Family affairs, doctor’s office, blackboard
• Two main criteria for classification
a) Whether the combination of words is
    functioning as a compound or a phrase e.g
    gentleman ,gentle man
Jesperson (1942)
Criticism : the word unit is vague
b) Whether the combination has primary stress on
    the first element or second.
Bloomfield: Ice- cream , ice cream
Bloch and Trager
 formal distinction between compound and
  phrase
 English has formal distinction
• phonemic modification of their components
• kind of juncture
• Stress pattern
Or the combination of above factors
Trager and Smith
 rules out “stress pattern”
 “simply two different dialects”
E.g. Long Island , long island
Levi
 explored complex nominals
 distinguished it from other compound constructions
 Divided complex nominals into three types
• nominal compounds
e.G apple cake (forestressed N+N)
• nominalizations
e.G presidential refusal (afterstressed Adj+N)
    metal detection (forestressed N+N)
• non-predicate adjectives
e.G musical clock, electrical engineering (afterstressed Adj+N)
Schmerling
 It does seem to be the case that in some instances
stress assignment is governed by the choice of head or
attribute, in others by syntactic characteristics(whether
the attitude has the superficial form of an adjective or
a noun).There ought to be rules that captures these
generalizations. In other cases stress assignment is an
idiosyncratic property of individual compounds and
ought to be indicated in the lexicon as such. The fact
that stress placement is sometimes predictable should
not make us try to predict it always.
Chomsky/Halle analysis
 “relative prominence tends to be preserved
 under embedding both for compounds and
 phrases”.
 both combinations occur as constituents of
 larger construction and the relative stress levels
 are maintained.
E.g whale oil , whale oil lamp
American history, American history teacher,
 teach American history.
• Chomsky/Halle analysis is not applicable at a
  large scale.
• Liberman and Prince: Nuclear Stress rule, The
  compound stress rule, Rhythm rule
The Nuclear Stress Rule


• The Nuclear Stress Rule specifies that
  the strongest stress in a phrase will fall
  as far back, i.e., as close to the end as
  possible.
. .   *     . . . *     . . line 2
__________    ____________
(* .   *)    (* . . *) . . line 1

Jesus wept   Madison Avenue
Metrical Boundaries
(to (the (people (of Judea))))
            ××××××

  to the (people of Judea)
           √√√√√√
Larger Constituents
 .        .               .          *
----------------------------------------------------
(.         .               .         *       )
        --------------------------------------------
  .     ( .                .         *        )
                        ----------------------------
  *         *             (*           * )
[Jesus[preached[to[the[people[of[Judea]]]]]]]
Stress Equalization
                       Convention

• When two or more constituents are
  conjoined into a single higher level
  constituent, the asterisk columns of the
  heads of the constituents are equalized
  by adding asterisk to the lesser
  column(s).
Line 4 . .                    .        *
       ____________________________________
Line 3 {*} .                    .        *
        -----------------------------------------
Line 2 {*} {*}                    .       *
                          ---------------------
Line 1 *       *                  *        *
    (Jesus(preached to the(people of Judea)))
• JESUS preached to the people of Judea

• Jesus PREACHED to the people of Judea

• Jesus preached to the PEOPLE of Judea


• Jesus preached to the people of JUDAE
The Rhythm Rule
• The Rhythm Rule specifies that the stress on a
  word will be retracted (i.e., moved forward) in
  order to avoid consecutively stressed syllables.
  This rule reflects the tendency in English towards
  alternating stressed and unstressed syllables.
• In a constituent composed of two or more words,
  retract the right boundary of the
  prefinalsubconstituent of constituent to a
  position immediately before the head of
  subconstituent, provided that the head of
  subconstituent is located in the last word of
  subconstituent (with further restrictions if the
  subconstituent consists of a single word).
• “Rhythm rule is universally constrained from
  moving the absolute stress peak of the phrase to
  which it applies”. Prince (1983)
           3 1       2      4
              New York Maine Route
                   3 1       2    4
              Maine New York Route
  Like the nuclear stress rule, the rhythm rule for
          word sequences applies cyclically.
Removing Stress Clashes
• JapaNEse
• INstitute
• Japanese (adjecent) Institute =
• JApanese INstitute
• sixTEEN JapaNEse vs. SIXteen JApanese
  INstitutes
• ANtique NINEteen TWENty MOtor
Cooper and Eady (1986)
• Thirteen corporations/companies submitted
  bids...
• thirTEEN
• THIRteen
                Look ahead???
The Compound Stress Rule

• No new rule is required, for the stress contours of
  compound words result from the interaction of
  the nuclear stress rule and the rhythm rule.
• In particular, the nuclear stress rule freely applies
  to all constituents composed of two or more full
  words (that is, not clitics).
• The rule will apply to compounds as well as to
  noncompounds and will place an extra asterisk
  on the rightmost subconstituent.
Three hypothesis
• Structural hypothesis
• Semantic hypothesis
• Analogical Hypothesis
Plag(2006)Structural hypothesis

• Compounds are regularly left-stressed
• Word combinations with right stress cannot
  be compounds.
• Questions raised and confusions
• Stress is the only distinction between Madison
  street and Madison Avenue
• Giegrich (2004) has proposed a new variant of
  structural hypothesis
Compliment –head: structures like truck driver
  cannot be syntactic phrases hence must be
  compounds i.e left-stressed
Modifier-head: structures such as steel bridge
  display the same word order as corresponding
  modifier-head phrase (wooden bridge) hence are
  syntactic structures and are right-stressed.
• Contradictions:
e.G opera glasses , table cloth
• Giegrich: above is the result of lexicalization.
• Problems with the above idea:
• Lexicalization---- not a categorical process
• It cannot be decided whether an item is
  lexicalized?
Contradictions
• We should not find rightward stress among
  NN constructs that exhibit comliment- head
  order.
Counter example:
Tory leader
• structural hypothesis------Not Valid!
Semantic Hypothesis
   “ stress assignment according to semantic
                   categories”
• rightward stress--- well defined categories
• E.g geologist-astronomer , scholar- activist
• Above are----Copulative compounds
• Other meaning relations :
Temporal: summer night
Locative : Boston marathon
Causative: aluminium foil, silk tie-----(made of)
 Shakespeare sonnet, Mahler
  symphony(created by)
Contradictions
• Summer school, summer camp , day job
• Fudge’s theory: NNs in which N refers to the
  period or point of time are right-stressed----
  REFUTED!
• Common point in both hypothesis?
  Rightward stress is restricted to modifier- head
  compounds.
Analogical hypothesis
• Schmerling:
------ “many compounds choose their stress
   pattern in analogy to combinations that have
   the same head”------
e.G Oxford street, Main street, Fourth Street
      Madison Avenue, Fifth Avenue
• It is however unclear that how far this
   approach can reach.
• Manufactures Rule
  Made-of-Rule - Final stress
  apple 'pie, raspberry 'jam, wooden 'doll
• One word Rule
  Compounds written as one word almost
  always have initial stress
  Blackbird, Greenhouse
• Location Rule - Final stress
• Country, region, town - Final stress
  Russian 'Roulette, Siamese 'Cat
• Place names - Final stress
  King's 'Square, Western 'Avenue
• Parts of a house, building - Final stress
  Garden 'Shed, Church 'clock, School 'Hall
• Positioning - Final stress
  Left 'hand, West 'wing
• Time Location - Final stress
  March 'sales, winter 'sports
• Magazines, Newspapers - Final stress
  Western 'Mail, New York 'Times
• Skills, academic subjects - Initial stress
  'French teacher, 'Russian class, 'swimming
  instructor
• Compound nouns formed from a phrasal verb
  - Initial stress
  'set-up, 'make-up, 'comeback, 'feedback
• Compound nouns with verb + er/ing +
  participle - Final stress
  hanger-'on, passer- 'by
• Verb + ing + noun (purpose is aided or
  achieved by the object) - Initial stress
  'Washing machine, 'running shoes
• Verb + ing + noun (a characteristic) - Final
  stress
  sliding 'scale, running 'water
• Adjective +verb + er - Final stress
  high-'flier, fast-'breeder, loud'speaker

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Compound words

  • 2. Contents • Introduction • Rules of compound stress • Hypotheses on compound stress • Conclusion
  • 3. Introduction • Compound vs. phrases e.g. Family tree, doctor’s dilemma, black board Family affairs, doctor’s office, blackboard
  • 4. • Two main criteria for classification a) Whether the combination of words is functioning as a compound or a phrase e.g gentleman ,gentle man Jesperson (1942) Criticism : the word unit is vague b) Whether the combination has primary stress on the first element or second. Bloomfield: Ice- cream , ice cream
  • 5. Bloch and Trager  formal distinction between compound and phrase  English has formal distinction • phonemic modification of their components • kind of juncture • Stress pattern Or the combination of above factors
  • 6. Trager and Smith  rules out “stress pattern”  “simply two different dialects” E.g. Long Island , long island
  • 7. Levi  explored complex nominals  distinguished it from other compound constructions  Divided complex nominals into three types • nominal compounds e.G apple cake (forestressed N+N) • nominalizations e.G presidential refusal (afterstressed Adj+N) metal detection (forestressed N+N) • non-predicate adjectives e.G musical clock, electrical engineering (afterstressed Adj+N)
  • 8. Schmerling It does seem to be the case that in some instances stress assignment is governed by the choice of head or attribute, in others by syntactic characteristics(whether the attitude has the superficial form of an adjective or a noun).There ought to be rules that captures these generalizations. In other cases stress assignment is an idiosyncratic property of individual compounds and ought to be indicated in the lexicon as such. The fact that stress placement is sometimes predictable should not make us try to predict it always.
  • 9. Chomsky/Halle analysis  “relative prominence tends to be preserved under embedding both for compounds and phrases”.  both combinations occur as constituents of larger construction and the relative stress levels are maintained. E.g whale oil , whale oil lamp American history, American history teacher, teach American history.
  • 10. • Chomsky/Halle analysis is not applicable at a large scale. • Liberman and Prince: Nuclear Stress rule, The compound stress rule, Rhythm rule
  • 11. The Nuclear Stress Rule • The Nuclear Stress Rule specifies that the strongest stress in a phrase will fall as far back, i.e., as close to the end as possible.
  • 12. . . * . . . * . . line 2 __________ ____________ (* . *) (* . . *) . . line 1 Jesus wept Madison Avenue
  • 13. Metrical Boundaries (to (the (people (of Judea)))) ×××××× to the (people of Judea) √√√√√√
  • 14. Larger Constituents . . . * ---------------------------------------------------- (. . . * ) -------------------------------------------- . ( . . * ) ---------------------------- * * (* * ) [Jesus[preached[to[the[people[of[Judea]]]]]]]
  • 15. Stress Equalization Convention • When two or more constituents are conjoined into a single higher level constituent, the asterisk columns of the heads of the constituents are equalized by adding asterisk to the lesser column(s).
  • 16. Line 4 . . . * ____________________________________ Line 3 {*} . . * ----------------------------------------- Line 2 {*} {*} . * --------------------- Line 1 * * * * (Jesus(preached to the(people of Judea)))
  • 17. • JESUS preached to the people of Judea • Jesus PREACHED to the people of Judea • Jesus preached to the PEOPLE of Judea • Jesus preached to the people of JUDAE
  • 18. The Rhythm Rule • The Rhythm Rule specifies that the stress on a word will be retracted (i.e., moved forward) in order to avoid consecutively stressed syllables. This rule reflects the tendency in English towards alternating stressed and unstressed syllables. • In a constituent composed of two or more words, retract the right boundary of the prefinalsubconstituent of constituent to a position immediately before the head of subconstituent, provided that the head of subconstituent is located in the last word of subconstituent (with further restrictions if the subconstituent consists of a single word).
  • 19. • “Rhythm rule is universally constrained from moving the absolute stress peak of the phrase to which it applies”. Prince (1983) 3 1 2 4 New York Maine Route 3 1 2 4 Maine New York Route Like the nuclear stress rule, the rhythm rule for word sequences applies cyclically.
  • 20. Removing Stress Clashes • JapaNEse • INstitute • Japanese (adjecent) Institute = • JApanese INstitute • sixTEEN JapaNEse vs. SIXteen JApanese INstitutes • ANtique NINEteen TWENty MOtor
  • 21. Cooper and Eady (1986) • Thirteen corporations/companies submitted bids... • thirTEEN • THIRteen Look ahead???
  • 22. The Compound Stress Rule • No new rule is required, for the stress contours of compound words result from the interaction of the nuclear stress rule and the rhythm rule. • In particular, the nuclear stress rule freely applies to all constituents composed of two or more full words (that is, not clitics). • The rule will apply to compounds as well as to noncompounds and will place an extra asterisk on the rightmost subconstituent.
  • 23. Three hypothesis • Structural hypothesis • Semantic hypothesis • Analogical Hypothesis
  • 24. Plag(2006)Structural hypothesis • Compounds are regularly left-stressed • Word combinations with right stress cannot be compounds. • Questions raised and confusions • Stress is the only distinction between Madison street and Madison Avenue
  • 25. • Giegrich (2004) has proposed a new variant of structural hypothesis Compliment –head: structures like truck driver cannot be syntactic phrases hence must be compounds i.e left-stressed Modifier-head: structures such as steel bridge display the same word order as corresponding modifier-head phrase (wooden bridge) hence are syntactic structures and are right-stressed.
  • 26. • Contradictions: e.G opera glasses , table cloth • Giegrich: above is the result of lexicalization. • Problems with the above idea: • Lexicalization---- not a categorical process • It cannot be decided whether an item is lexicalized?
  • 27. Contradictions • We should not find rightward stress among NN constructs that exhibit comliment- head order. Counter example: Tory leader • structural hypothesis------Not Valid!
  • 28. Semantic Hypothesis “ stress assignment according to semantic categories” • rightward stress--- well defined categories • E.g geologist-astronomer , scholar- activist • Above are----Copulative compounds
  • 29. • Other meaning relations : Temporal: summer night Locative : Boston marathon Causative: aluminium foil, silk tie-----(made of) Shakespeare sonnet, Mahler symphony(created by)
  • 30. Contradictions • Summer school, summer camp , day job • Fudge’s theory: NNs in which N refers to the period or point of time are right-stressed---- REFUTED! • Common point in both hypothesis? Rightward stress is restricted to modifier- head compounds.
  • 31. Analogical hypothesis • Schmerling: ------ “many compounds choose their stress pattern in analogy to combinations that have the same head”------ e.G Oxford street, Main street, Fourth Street Madison Avenue, Fifth Avenue • It is however unclear that how far this approach can reach.
  • 32. • Manufactures Rule Made-of-Rule - Final stress apple 'pie, raspberry 'jam, wooden 'doll • One word Rule Compounds written as one word almost always have initial stress Blackbird, Greenhouse
  • 33. • Location Rule - Final stress • Country, region, town - Final stress Russian 'Roulette, Siamese 'Cat • Place names - Final stress King's 'Square, Western 'Avenue • Parts of a house, building - Final stress Garden 'Shed, Church 'clock, School 'Hall
  • 34. • Positioning - Final stress Left 'hand, West 'wing • Time Location - Final stress March 'sales, winter 'sports • Magazines, Newspapers - Final stress Western 'Mail, New York 'Times
  • 35. • Skills, academic subjects - Initial stress 'French teacher, 'Russian class, 'swimming instructor • Compound nouns formed from a phrasal verb - Initial stress 'set-up, 'make-up, 'comeback, 'feedback • Compound nouns with verb + er/ing + participle - Final stress hanger-'on, passer- 'by
  • 36. • Verb + ing + noun (purpose is aided or achieved by the object) - Initial stress 'Washing machine, 'running shoes • Verb + ing + noun (a characteristic) - Final stress sliding 'scale, running 'water • Adjective +verb + er - Final stress high-'flier, fast-'breeder, loud'speaker