Best Practices in Quantitative 
Cross-Cultural Research. A series of six presentation, introduce scientific research in the areas of cross-cultural, using quantitative approach.

1. Hangzhou, March 2011
Prof. Dr. Hora Tjitra, Zhejiang University
Best
Practices
in
Cross-­Cultural
Research
Quantitative Research Methodologies (6/6)

2. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Three
Classical
Comparative
Studies
in
Cross-­Cultural
Management
and
Psychology
2
Hofstede (1984)
Trompenaars
& Hampden-Turner (1997)
Schwartz (1999)
• Culture is the collective programming
of the mind which distinguishes the
members of one category of people from
another (Hofstede,1984) .
• Clearly,Hofstede’s cultural framework has
provided the catalyst for many studies
throughout the social sciences,and has
helped shape marketing thought.(Jeffrey
Blodgett & Aysen Bakir & Gregory Rose,
2008).
• However Hofstede model ignores the
existence of substantial within-country
cultural heterogeneity,his measures are
not valid,and culture changes over time
rather than being static as suggested by
the dimensions (e.g.,Sivakumar & Nakata,
2001).
• Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner(1997)
believed cultures can be distinguished
according to solutions chosen for specific
problems,then have developed a model
of culture with seven dimensions.
• Contrary to the approaches of Hall and
Hofstede,Trompenaars and Hampden-
Turner do not focus on interaction or
cultural status quo only,but mix the two
areas,coming up with advice for
intercultural business situations next to
classifying specific cultures.
• However Trompenaars and Hampden-
Turner‘s research was criticized from
several perspectives,research sample,
methodology,and no database
(Hofstede,1996).
• Schwartz (1999) define values as
conceptions of the desirable that guide
the way social actors (e.g.organizational
leaders,policy-makers,individual
persons) select actions,evaluate people
and events,and explain their actions and
evaluations.
• The seven value types are postulated to
form three bipolar dimensions that
express the contradictions between the
alternative resolutions to each of the
three issues just described:Autonomy
versus Conservatism,Hierarchy versus
Egalitarianism,Mastery versus Harmony.
• Many of the respective studies have been
influenced by Schwartz’(1992) values
theory.Following his theoretical
reasoning,values can be classified
according to their motivational content.
(Wolfgang Bilsky,2004) .

3. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
3
14
years
in
Germany
7
years
in
China
Born
and
grew
up
in
Indonesia
Prof.Dr.Hora Tjitra - Cross-cultural and Business Psychology
Dipl.-Psych.,Technical University of Braunschweig
Organizational Psychology and Human Resource Management
Dr.Phil.,University of Regensburg
Intercultural Psychology and Strategic Management
Executive Education,INSEAD
HR Management in Asia

4. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
Outline
1 Hofstede - Factor Analysis 5
2 Trompenaars - Social Dilemma 8
3 Schwartz - Small Space Analysis 15
4 Bennet - Intercultural Development Inventory 22
5 Process Model of Quantitative Research 28
4

5. The
Classical
Cross-­Cultural
Value
Study:
The
Five
Hofstede
Cultural
Dimensions
Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
5
Long – Short Term
Orientation
Uncertainty Avoidance
Quantity-Quality of life
Power Distance
Hofstede
Cultural
Dimensions
Individualism
– Collectivism
• Conducted between 1968 and 1972
• Respondents were 117.000 employees of IBM in 53 countries
• Using Factor Analysis

6. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
6
Hofstede’s Methods and Research Question
• What
are
the
components
of
culture,
a
small
set
of
dimensions
or
characteris3cs,
that
enable
us
to
classify
culture-­‐in-­‐the-­‐large
(at
a
na3onal
level)?
And
do
na3ons
differ
and
can
they
be
clustered
into
culturally-­‐similar
na3ons?
• What he didn’t ask: Can we capture culture in a small set of dimensions? Is
culture stable? Is it a characteristic of individuals? Do people enact culture or
have it set on them?
• Late
60s,
ques,onnaires
were
distributed
to
thousands
of
IBM
employees
worldwide
• The results were subjected to factor analysis
• Questions were based on prior work on culture by Inkeles and Levinson (a
sociologist and psychologist)
• They answered the questions about work modes, methods, and meanings on
desirable and desired situations and characteristics

7. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
7
Some Results of the Study

8. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
The
Seven
Dimensions
of
Trompenaars
8
Neutral versus Emotional
Universalism versus Particularism
Individualism versus Communitarianism
Specific versus Diffuse
Achievement versus Ascription
Sequential versus Synchronic
Internal versus External Control
1
2
7
6
5
4
3

9. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
9
Research Methods: Social dilemma
Social Dilemma,
a
dilemma
or
paradox
that
commonly
results
from
Collec,ve
Ac,on.
The Prisoner's Dilemma( PD):
is
a
short
parable
about
two
prisoners
who
are
individually
offered
a
chance
to
rat
on
each
other
for
which
the
"raEer"
would
receive
a
lighter
sentence
and
the
"raEee"
would
receive
a
harsher
sentence.
The
problem
results
from
the
fact
that
both
can
play
this
game
and
if
both
do,
then
both
do
worse
than
they
would
had
they
kept
silent.

10. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
10
Universalism and Particularism in different countries
The story of Stouffer
and Toby
Switzerland
Canada
USA
Sweden
United Kingdom
Australia
Netherlands
Germany
Czech Rap
France
Sigapore
Japan
India
China
Russia
Korea
Venezuela
97
93
93
92
91
91
90
87
83
73
69
68
54
47
44
37
32
Friends has no/some right and would not to
help

11. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
11
Universalism VS Particularism
 Consistency
 Systems, standards&rules
 Uniform procedures
 Demand clarity
Universalism（普遍主义）
1 2
Particularism（特殊主义）
 Flexibility
 Pragmatic(重实效的）
 Make exceptions "It depends"
 At ease with ambiguity

12. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
12
Specific VS Diffuse
Public Public
Specific Relationship
（专一型关系）
Private Private
Diffuse Relationship
（扩散型关系）
Public
Danger Zone
Private Private

13. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
13
Achievement VS Ascription
What You Do Who You Are
STATUS
Family
Age
Sex
Education

14. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
14
The result of time orientation in different countries
USA
JPN
UK
FRA
SPA
GER
Think of the past, present and future as being in the shape of circles.Please draw three circles
represententing past, present and future.Arrange these circles in any way you want that best
show how you feel about the relationship of the past, present and the future. You may use
defferent size circles.

15. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
15
Cross-cultural studies on basic human values by the
Israelis Psychologist Shalom Schwartz
•Text •Text
• 1988-­‐1992
• 86
samples
drawn
from
41cultural
group
in
38
na<ons
• Smallest
space
analysis
Individual-
level
analyses
Culture-level
analyses
individual-
level culture
model
Country-
level culture
model

16. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
16
Research method: Smallest space analysis (SSA)
The
most
basic
form
of
MDS, mul3dimensional
scaling,
represent
empirical
rela3onships
in
a
set
of
data
as
points
in
space
with
the
aim
of
making
aspects
of
the
data
that
may
be
obscured
in
the
original
matrix
more
apparent.
The
use
of
MDS
is
par3cularly
favored
as,
unlike
factor
analysis,
it
makes
no
assump3on
that
the
dimensions
or
structures
are
linear.
The SSA procedure
begins
by
calcula3ng
the
associa3on
coefficients
between
pairs
of
items
or
variables.
It
then
represents
the
items
as
points
in
an
n-­‐dimensional
Euclidean
space
such
that
the
rank
of
the
distances
between
the
points
is
the
inverse
of
the
rank
of
the
inter-­‐item
associa3on
coefficients.
Thus,
the
closer
together
two
points
are
in
the
space,
the
higher
their
posi3ve
associa3on
or
greater
their
similarity.

17. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
17
Universalism
Schwartz’s individual-level model
wisdom
World
of
beautyUnity
with
nature
Broadminded
v
Equality
Protec;ng
environment
Inner
r
harmony
Social
jus;ce
World
at
peace
True
friendship
responsible
Loyal
Mature
love
Meaning
in
life
helpful
honest
Forgiving
Spiritual
life
Benevolence
Obedient
Politeness
Self-­‐discipline
Honor
parents
conformity
Detachment
Humble
Devout
Respect
for
tradi;on
Moderate
Accep;ng
por;on
in
life
Tradition
healthy
Family
security
Social
order
Clean
Reciproca;on
of
favors
Sense
of
belonging
Na;onal
security
Security
Social
recogni;on
Preserving
public
image
wealth
Authority
Social
power
Power
Intelligent
Capable
successful
Ambi;ous
Influen;al
Achievement
Pleasure
Enjoying
life
Hedonism
Varied
life
Exi;ng
life
Daring
Stimulation
Self-­‐respect
Choosing
own
goals
Crea;vity
Curious
Independent
Freedom
Self-direction

18. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
18
The Ten Dimensions
power Social
status
and
pres3ge,
control
or
dominance
over
people
and
resources
Achievement Personal
success
through
demonstra3ng
competence
according
to
social
standards
Hedonism Pleasure
and
sensuous
gra3fica3on
for
oneself
Stimulation Excitement,
novelty,
and
challenge
in
life
Self-direction Independent
thought
and
ac3on
choosing,
crea3ng,
and
exploring
Universalism Understanding,
apprecia3on,
tolerance,
and
protec3on
for
the
welfare
of
all
people
and
for
the
nature
Benevolence Preserva3on
and
enhancement
of
the
welfare
of
people
with
whom
one
is
in
frequent
personal
contact
Tradition Respect
for/commitment
to/acceptance
of
the
customs
and
ideas
that
tradi3onal
culture
or
religion
imposes
on
the
self
Conformity Restraint
of
ac3ons/inclina3ons/impulses
likely
to
upset
or
harm
others
and
to
violate
social
expecta3ons
or
norms
Security Safety,
harmony,
and
stability
of
society,
of
rela3onship
and
of
self

19. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders
Schwartz’s
Country-­Level
Seven-­Dimension
Model
19
Harmony
Conserva-sm
Egalitarian
commitment
Intellectual
autonomy
Affec-ve
autonomy
Mastery
Hierarchy
Intellectual
Autonomy
Affective
Autonomy
Hierarchy
Egalitarianism
Mastery
Harmony
Conservatism Emphasizes maintaining the status quo,propriety,and
restraint of actions or inclinations
Emphasizes the desirability of individuals pursuing their own
their own ideas and intellectual directions independently
Emphasizes the desirability of individuals pursuing affectively
positive experience
Emphasized transcendence of selfish interests in favor of
voluntary commitment to promoting the welfare of others
Emphasized transcendence of selfish interests in favor of
voluntary commitment to promoting the welfare of others
Emphasizes getting ahead through active self-assertion
Emphasizes fitting harmoniously into the environment

20. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
20
Mean importance of Culture-level value dimensions in
some countries
Conserva<sm
Affec<ve
Autonomy
Intellectual
Autonomy
Hierarchy Mastery
Egalitarian
Commitmen
t
Harmony
Highest
Israel-­‐Druze
France
Switzerland
(Fr) China
China
Portugal
Italy
China 3.97 (21) 3.32 (20) 4.27 (15) 3.70 (1) 4.73 (1) 4.49 (33) 3.71 (28)
Germany 3.42 (33) 4.03 (4) 4.75 (5) 2.27 (23) 4.07 (22) 5.37 (7) 4.42 (10)
USA 3.90 (23) 3.65 (11) 4.20 (16) 2.39 (19) 4.34 (5) 5.03 (14) 3.70 (29)
Israel-Jews 4.08 (16) 3.62 (13) 4.31 (14) 2.69 (14) 4.06 (23) 4.78 (29) 3.01 (36)
Lowest Switzerland (Fr) Slovakia Singapore Italy Finland Thailand Isra_Jews

21. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
21
Lessons Learned from the Schwart’s National Level Value Studies
His data do
not support a
view of the
United States
as a highly
individualist
nation
Samples from
Western
European nations
are the most
individualist
nations
China is not a
prototypical
collectivist
society and the
notion of China
as a culture that
legitimates
hierarchical
differentiation is
supported
Singapore is
closest to the
pure Hofstede
conception of
collectivism.

22. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
22
Ignorance
Ethnocentric
Ethnorelative
“Munich
is
nothing
different
than
Bangalore.“
“Why
do
the
people
talk
and
behave
so
differently
like
I
do?”
“In
principle
all
human
beings
are
the
same:
all
of
them
must
eat,
drink
and
sleep.”
“The
more
cultures
I
know,
the
beDer
I
can
make
combinaEon.”
“I
feel
like
being
a
member
of
the
culture!”
“I
feel
at
home
wherever
I
go
cause
I
know
how
the
things
going
there.”
Defense
Trivialize
Acceptance
Adaptation
Integration
Development Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS)
from Bennet

23. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
23
IDI
– IDI is a statistically highly reliable, cross-
culturally valid measure of intercultural
competence developed by Hammer and
Bennett based Development Model of
Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS).
– The IDI is a 50-item, theory-based
paper and pencil instrument that
assesses the major stages of
intercultural competence as
conceptualized in the DMIS theory.
– The instrument is easy to complete,
and it can generate a graphic profile of an
individual's or groups' predominant stage
of intercultural development and textual
interpretation of that stage and associated
transition issues.
– Ques<ons
are
answered
in
five
scales:
– 1=disagree
– 2=disagree
somewhat
more
than
agree,
– 3=disagree
some
and
agree
some
– 4=agree
somewhat
more
than
disagree
– 5=agree.
Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI)

24. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
24
Altshuler’s Research
• Expanding
the
use
of
the
IDI
to
a
new
populaEon,
medical
providers
•
Describing
normaEve
standards
for
the
medical
providers
group
•
TesEng
the
predicEve
value
of
demographic
characterisEcs
on
the
IDI
Research Objective
Research design
Month 1 measurement
Month 2
measurement
Month 3
measurement
Month 4
measurement
Month 5
measurement
Group 1- Didactic &
Behavioral
Rehearsal
SP
Encounter
IDI
Didactic &
Behavioral
Rehearsal
SP
Encounter
IDI
SP Encounter
Group 2 –
Behavioral
Rehearsal
SP Encounter SP Encounter
IDI
Behavioral
Rehearsal
IDI
SP Encounter
Group 3 – Control SP Encounter SP Encounter
IDI
SP Encounter

25. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
25
Results(1): Intercultural Sensitivity Measurement
(1) Group profile of intercultural sensitivity…
(2) demographic predictors of intercultural sensitivity…
Item Denial Defense Minimization Acceptance
Cognitive
adaptation
Behavioral
adaptation
DD AA
M(SD) 2.09( 0.85) 2.48(1.05) 4.5(1.08) 5.44(0.84) 4.77(0.98) 4.69(0.68) 2.28 4.86
•There
is
no
gender
difference
•There
is
no
region
difference
•The
gender
difference
reached
significance
for
the
post-­‐training
AA
scale
(female
M
=
5.43;
male
M
=
4.67;
t
=
2.27;
p
=
0.03).

26. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
26
Results(2): Effects of Intercultural Training
(3) effect of intercultural training on the six IDI sub-scales through pre/post-
training analysis
(4) effect of intercultural training through analysis using three factor scores
(DD; Minimization; AA)
Item Denial Defense Minimization Acceptance
Cognitive
adaptation
Behavioral
adaptation
DD AA
Total pre 2.09 2.48 4.5 5.44 4.77 4.69 2.28 4.86
Group
1
Pre 1.82 2.24 4.61 5.56 5.28 4.94 2.03 5.26Group
1 Post 1.97 2.21 4.38 5.72 5.21 4.89 2.09 5.27
Group
2
Pre 2.28 2.84 4.53 5.23 4.31 4.36 2.56 4.63Group
2 Post 2.44 2.97 4.52 4.86 4.57 4.63 2.71 4.69
Group
3
Post 2.12 2.62 4.76 5.34 4.50 4.62
2.37 4.82

27. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
27
Results(3): Case study
(5) case profiles of individual trainee participants…
• Participants #2,
The
most
representaEve
cases
of
intercultural
sensiEvity
were
assessed
as
scoring
low
on
DD,
low
on
MinimizaEon,
and
high
on
AA.
•
Participant #18,
Low
intercultural
competence
individuals
had
a
configuraEon
of
scores
which
were
high
on
DD,
high
on
MinimizaEon,
and
low
on
AA.
•
Participant #14,
The
trainee
who
exhibited
the
greatest
movement
toward
intercultural
sensiEvity
following
the
training
intervenEon
•Participant #17,
Who
exhibited
a
substanEal
‘‘retreat’’
following
training
by
adopEng
a
more
ethnocentric
worldview.

28. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
28
Process Model of Quantitative Research
Ideas, Title, Questions,
and Objectives Expose
(1-6 Pages)
Literature
Research
Development of
Research Instruments
Pilot Study
& (?) Modification
Data Collection
& Analyzing
Report
Research Design
& Project Plan
Literature
Research
Proposal

29. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
29
Expose,Research Proposal & Article
Title
Subtitle
1. Objectives
2. Ideas / Background
(Why)
3. Questions
(Hypotheses)
4. Theories
(Why)
5. Method
6. Expected Results
7. Application
8. References

30. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
30
International Project References in the Research Areas of
Culture Diversity,Talent Development,and Strategic Change
14
years
in
Germany
Born
and
grew
up
in
Indonesia
8
years
in
China
• Building Global Competence for Asian Leaders:
Comparative study on intercultural sensitivity of Chinese,
Indonesian and Singaporean international assignees.
• Applying Social Medias (Web 2.0) in Learning & Development.
• International Employability:Development of Intercultural
Competence of German and Chinese Young Professionals.
• Cross-Cultural Learning Behavior:
Effectiveness of the Western Technology Transfer and Learning
Approaches in China.
• Comparative Studies of Chinese-Indonesian Intercultural
Competence and Sensitivity.
• Dynamic Decision Making in Chinese and Multinational Teams.
• Intercultural Perspectives of International Post-Merger
Integration in Europe.
• Intercultural Synergy in Professional Team.
• ...

31. Best
Prac*ces
in
Quan*ta*ve
Cross-­‐Cultural
Research
31
Cross-Cultural Research Methodology -
Quantitative Research Method (Lecture Series)
1.
Quan;ta;ve
Methods
• Introduc;on
• Our
Research
• What
is
Science
3.
Scales
&
Reliability
• Intercultural
Competence
(1)
• Scales
&
Variables
• Reliability
Analysis
5.
Sta;s;cal
Analysis
• Hypothesis
Tes;ng
• Inference
Sta;s;c
• SPSS
Introduc;on
2.
Research
Design
&
Validity
• Complex
Problem
Solving
• Designing
Quant.
Research
• Good
Quality
-­‐
Validity
4.
Survey
Research
• Intercultural
Competence
(2)
• Ques;onnaire
Design
• Sampling
Method
6.
Research
Ar;cles
• Basic
structure
of
ar;cles
• Understanding
Scien;fic
Journals

32. Thank
You
Contact us via …
Mail: hora_t@mac.com
Follow: twitter@htjitra
Website: http://horatjitra.com
Zhejiang
University,
Hangzhou
(China)