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History of Friction Ridge Identification
- 2. Historical Timeline of Friction Ridge Identification Heather Charron April 5, 2012
- 3. Ancient History (…aka ‘older than dirt’) ~7000 B.C. – Thumb impressions of the bricklayers were found along edges of clay – Clay earthenware 3000 B.C. – Standing stones were found in France containing ridge detail on the digits
- 4. Ancient History Friction ridge impressions were used as personal ID as early as: ~300 B.C. in China – Clay seals (#6 finger) – Sign contract documents 702 A.D. in Japan 1882 in the U.S.
- 5. Ancient History 1873 - Petroglyph carving at Kejimkujik Lake (Nova Scotia) – shows awareness of patterns ‘Deed of Hand’ Mark (China) – crease location of all joints on right hand were marked
- 6. Ancient History Other methods of Identification: Egyptians kept detailed descriptions of subject’s physical features Chinese used notches on sides of writing tablets of duplicate contracts; physically matched ensuring authenticity.
- 7. 17 and 18 Century th 1684 – Dr. Nehemiah Grew – first described human skin in a published paper 1685 – Govard Bidloo – detailed more on the human skin and papillary ridges 1687 – Marcello Malpighi – ridged skin creates friction for walking/grasping; skin layer Grew created in his honor 1690 – William of Orange – digit impressions on documents; shows considerations of individuality 1788 – Dr. J.C.A. Mayer – created detailed drawings of FRS patterns; first person to write FRS is unique Malpighi
- 8. 19 Century th Early 1800’s – “Thomas Bewick, his mark” 1823 – Dr. Johannes Evangelista Purkinje – named initial nine pattern types 1856-97 – Hermann Welcker – first person to start permanence study, although Herschel is usually credited Purkinje
- 9. 19 Century th 1858 – Sir William J. Herschel – Konai Contract; first official use of friction ridge skin by a European Herschel Herschel’s prints in 1859, 1877 and 1916
- 11. 19 Century th 1873-1885 – Dr. Henry Faulds wrote that friction ridges are unique and classifiable and mentioned their permanence in a letter to Darwin 1877 – Thomas Taylor – proposed using bloody prints at scenes to identify suspects – Herschel wrote ‘Hooghly Letter’ suggesting the FP system be expanded; it was denied Faulds
- 12. 19 Century th 1879 – Alphonse Bertillon began studying body measurements and devised anthropometry. 1880 – Faulds was the first Bertillion person to publish in a scientific journal that FRS can individualize and be used as evidence – I. West Taber – fingerprints of Chinese immigrant laborers Bertillion Bureau 1902
- 13. 19 Century th 1882 - Gilbert Thompson used thumb print on a document to prevent forgery; first known use of fingerprints in the U.S. Receipt from Thompson to Lying Bob Thompson
- 14. 19 Century th 1883 – Dr. Arthur Kollman published on development and structure of human and ape hands; first to identify volar pads on the hands and feet. – A book was published by Mark Twain mentioning the permanence and uniqueness of a fingerprint. ‘The Tragedy of Pudd’nhead Wilson’ used fingerprints to solve a murder Twain
- 15. 19 Century th 1886-1888 – Faulds suggests fingerprint bureau to the Yard 1891 – Juan Vucetich - first practical uses of fingerprints by law enforcement
- 16. 19 Century th 1892 – Galton published first book on fingerprints, establishing uniqueness and persistency; defined specific types of minutiae Galton
- 17. 19 Century th 1892 - First homicide solved by fingerprint evidence Francisca Rojas’ Inked Fingerprints Buenos Aires, Argentina
- 18. 19 Century th 1894 – Sir Edward Henry and employees developed the Henry Classification System 1894/1897 – Harris Hawthorne Wilder was the first to suggest the centers of disturbance represented locations of volar pads 1900 – Henry System became standard practice in England Henry Haque
- 19. 20 Century th 1901 – Fingerprint bureau was formed in New Scotland Yard 1902 – Bertillion credited for solving first murder in Europe using only fingerprint evidence Captain Parke 1902 – Dr. Henry P. de Forest used fingerprints for job applications 1903 – First use of fingerprints for criminal purposes in the U.S. by Captain James Parke; American Class. System developed – Will & William West story, Leavenworth Prison, KS (anthropometry)
- 20. 20 Century th 1904 – World’s Fair – Fingerprint and anthropometry booths – Fingerprinting inmates started at Leavenworth – Inez Whipple - locations of volar pads and explaining possible forces that affect ridge growth. 1905 – Deptford murder trial - first murder trial in England where fingerprints were used – Faulds allied with defense – U.S. Army adopted fingerprint system 1906 – 6 police departments in the US that were known to be taking fingerprints for identification purposes.
- 21. 20 Century th 1907 – U.S. Navy started fingerprinting applicants 1908 – Marines adopted fingerprint system 1910 – Mary Holland (Navy) was first American female fingerprint instructor 1911 – National Bureau was created by Edward Foster (RCMP). Foster
- 22. 20 Century th People v Jennings - first American appellate case regarding admissibility of fingerprint evidence testimony – Fingerprint identification is a science, expert testimony is appropriate to aid members of the court in understanding FRS People v Crispi - first U.S. conviction obtained with fingerprint evidence alone
- 23. 20 Century th 1914 – Dr. Edmond Locard was published explaining poroscopy 1915 – IAI was formed 1918 – Wilder and Wentworth publish first scientific research supporting L3D as permanent and unique; uninterrupted ridges – State v Kuhl – Palmprints as proof of identity – Edmond Locard wrote regarding 12 points as identifications
- 24. 20 Century th 1924 – FBI ID Division was established 1926 – Harold Cummins coined the term ‘dermatoglyphics’ 1929 – Harold Cummins – volar pads regress at the beginning of friction ridge development
- 25. “The skin possesses the capacity to form ridges, but the alignments of these ridges are as responsive in growth as are the alignments of sand to sweeping by wind or wave” - Harold Cummins, 1929
- 26. 20 Century th 1933 – Latent Fingerprint Section of the FBI was created 1938 – Commonwealth v Bartolini – admissibility of footprints as proof of identity 1939 - Sinking of USS Squalus is first US disaster where fingerprint ID pays a major role in identifying victims 1940 – FBI participates in disaster identification for the first time; Pan Am airliner crash in Lovettsville, VA
- 27. 20 Century th 1952 – Dr. Alfred Hale described formation of FRS during fetal development and differential growth of ridges 1967 - NCIC began operation 1970 – First generation AFIS system released 1974 - National Society of Fingerprint Officers was created 1976 – Dr. Michio Okajima published a study on incipient ridges; dermal papillae Epidermis Dermis
- 28. 20 Century th 1977 – IAI establishes LP certification program 1983 – Interstate Identification Index (III) was added to NCIC – Ashbaugh coined ‘Ridgeology’, L1, L2 and L3D – (80’s) Ashbaugh introduced ACE-V methodology for fingerprint identification 1988 – First primitive livescan readers introduced 1989 – NY implemented first Statewide AFIS 1990 – Many states had AFIS; major cities installing LiveScan 1993 – Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals – ANSI/NIST standard implemented
- 29. 20 Century th 1997 – Shirley McKie controversy – ANSI/NIST standard updated to include SMT and records for facial images 1999 – United States v Mitchell – First serious Daubert challenge – Kumho Tire Corp. v Carmichael – IAFIS is operational 2000 - ANSI/NIST standard updated to add variable density records for finger, latent and palm images Published 1997
- 30. 21 Century st 2002 – United States v Llera Plaza 2004 - Madrid Bombing/ Mayfield case Mayfield Daoud
- 31. Madrid Train Bombing - 1994
- 32. 21 Century st 2005 – Commonwealth v Patterson 2009 – NAS Report released
- 33. References Black, J. “Ridgeology Concepts in Friction Ridge Examination” Course Manual, Ron Smith & Associates, 2012. Ashbaugh, D. Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis. CRC Press, 1999. Komarinski, P. Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems (AFIS). Elsevier, 2005. Lee, H. & R.E. Gaensslen. Advances in Fingerprint Technology, 2nd Ed. CRC Press, 2001. U.S. Department of Justice. The Fingerprint Sourcebook, 2011. U.S. Department of Justice/FBI. The Science of Fingerprints, 1993. Images http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-usn/usnsh-s/ss192.htm http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ncic http://ridgesandfurrows.homestead.com/
Notas del editor
- ~7000BC – Thumb impressions of the bricklayer’s were found along the edges of clay in a herringbone pattern. FRS discovered on earthenware dated to be 6000 years old is considered the oldest friction ridge skin impressions found to date. This indicates early civilizations were aware of the designs on their fingers. Standing stones were found on Goat Island (Brittany, France). Mr. Stockis published an article (treatise) in the early 1920’s in attempt to justify his claims of the ‘Stockis Theory’ of the stones containing ridge detail on their digits. The carvings he illustrated showed arches, tents, loops and whorls. Stockis Theory was previously investigated by Harold Cummins. He concludes that while the stones contain ridge detail to Neolithic humans and are highly suggestive of fingerprints, there are other features included that do not refer to dermatoglyphics.
- Friction ridge impressions were used as personal ID as early as: 300BC - The opposite side listed the name of the person making the impression. This leads a strong inference that the Chinese were aware of individuality well over 5000 years ago. Clay finger seals (#6 finger) Sign contract documents 702 A.D. in Japan 1902 in the U.S.
- Petroglyph carving is an outline of hand and fingers, including creases of the palm and fingers with patterns on the fingertips. Can only be dated before 1873, but it’s considered to be several hundred years old. Outline is the crucial part because without the outlying shape of the hand, the rest may have been overlooked as scratch marks. Deed of Hand Mark” was also used in early China; the flexion crease location of each phalangeal joint of the right hand was marked into a document. In some cases, the whole hand was traced and the flexion creases of the fingers were also used.
- Other methods of Identification: Egyptians kept detailed descriptions of subject’s physical features Chinese used random notches on sides of writing tablets of duplicate contracts. Later they were physically matched ensuring authenticity.
- 1684 - Dr. Nehemiah Grew – first described human skin in a published paper 1685 – Govard Bidloo – detailed more on the human skin and papillary ridges Grew and Bidloo never mentioned uniqueness or permanence 1687 – Marcello Malpighi (Italian physiologist) He discovered that ridged skin creates friction for walking and grasping; a layer of skin was named in his honor; published ‘Concerning the External Tactile Organs’ where details of the skin including function, form and structure were detailed. He is credited with being the first to use the newly invented microscope for medical studies. 1690 - William of Orange – required citizens to put digit impressions on documents next to their signatures; shows considerations of individuality During a siege under his command, 225 citizens of Londonderry (now Northern Ireland) suffered damage and loss. Claims were made to London for compensation and required their digit impressions on the documents, along with their signatures. Supposedly, 17 total complete palm prints were found in plaster in London after an accident fire required them to tear down the exterior wooden wall panels. Most were excellent, revealing clear ridge detail 1788 - Mayer’s info on uniqueness was published 100 years before the Konai Contract, which is where Herschel is usually given credit to realize uniqueness.
- Early 1800’s - Thomas Bewick published many books with wood engravings. These woodcuts included a fingerprint along with the words “Thomas Bewick, his mark’. While the woodcuts containing fingerprints were detailed, there was no evidence that he understood or used FRS for individualization. Some authorities like Herschel credit Bewick with stimulating their original interest in fingerprints 1823 - Dr. Johannes Evangelista Purkinje (German professor)– Thesis titled ‘Commentary on the Physiological Examination of the Organs of Vision and the Cutaneous System’- He named the initial nine pattern types which later was used in the Henry classification System. He did not mention personal identification or individuality of ridge structure in his thesis. 1856-1897 - Hermann Welcker (German anthropologist) – Began printing his own right hand in 1856 and then again in 1897 . This made him the first person to start a permanence study. Welcker is not cited often. Instead, Herschel (duscussed next) is usually credited for being the first person to study the persistence of FRS.
- 1858 – Sir William J. Herschel (born in England, moved to India in 1853) used a stamp of a man’s right hand (Konai) on an official contract. This was the first official use of friction ridge skin by a European. Continued to publish prints of himself taken in 1859, 1877 and 1916 to show permanence
- 1858 – Sir William J. Herschel -There is no evidence at the time of the Konai contract that even Herschel himself understood individuality.
- 1873-1885 –Dr. Henry Faulds conducted research in Japan by collecting prints of monkeys and people . In a letter to Charles Darwin (2/16/1880), he wrote that friction ridges are unique and classifiable and mentioned their permanence. 1877 – Thomas Taylor (US Dept of Agriculture in DC, microscopist) proposed the idea to use bloody prints found at crime scenes as a means to identify suspects. This lecture was published in the American Journal of Microscopy and Popular Science, July 1877. -Herschel wrote the “Hooghly Letter” to the Inspector of Jails and Registrar general describing his ideas and suggesting the fingerprinting system be expanded to other areas. He was denied and later returned to England.
- 1879 – Alphonse Bertillon (French scientist) began studying body measurements of individuals and devised anthropometry. Anthropometry was used between 1882-1914. 1880 – Faulds’ is first to publish in a scientific journal the value of friction ridge skin for individualization. Submitted an article for publication in ‘Nature’ proposing FR individualization at crime scenes and provided examples . Faulds was the first person to publish that FRS can individualize and be used as evidence. -- Herschel responded to Faulds’ letter in Nature, which was published approx a month later. It mentioned the controversy in British fingerprint circles dates around the same time. Faulds couldn’t have known about Herschel’s fingerprint experiments since he was in Japan part of the time. -- Faulds was annoyed when knighthoods were granted to Galton, Herschel and Henry because he thought he was the originator of placing criminals at crime scene aspect of FP ID. -- Oddly enough, a large framed image of fingerprints on the 6th floor in the Yard was found years later by his daughters and credits Faulds as “Sir Henry Faulds” --I. West Taber (photographer from San Francisco) suggested fingerprinting be adopted for the registration of Chinese immigrant laborers.
- 1882 - Gilbert Thompson (geologist) of the U.S. Geological Survey in New Mexico , used his own thumb print on a document to prevent forgery. This is the first known use of fingerprints in the United States.
- 1883 – Dr. Arthur Kollman (German; studied embryological development of FRS) published an article on human and ape hands and their development and structure. He was the first to identify the presence and locations of the volar pads on the hands and feet. Mark Twain (born Samuel Langhorne Clemens) published a book about his life ‘Life on the Mississippi,’ which mentioned the permanence and uniqueness of a fingerprint. Twain also wrote ‘The Tragedy of Pudd’nhead Wilson’, in which a character collects prints and uses them to solve a murder , and later shows how prints are different on each finger, that twins have different prints and how prints made from the fingers can be individualized.
- 1886-1888 – Faulds offered to form a fingerprint bureau at Scotland Yard at his own expense. By some, this suggestion caused people to make insinuations about his sanity. 1891 – Juan Vucetich (Argentinean statistician) began experimenting with fingerprints after studying Galton’s research. His classification system and individualization of prisoners through fingerprinting were the first practical uses of fingerprints by law enforcement.
- 1892 – Sir Francis Galton (English; cousin of Charles Darwin) published the first book on fingerprints, establishing FRS is unique and persistent. He was the first to define and name specific types of minutiae. Ultimately, Galton published over 200 papers and 9 books Kollmann’s work was cited in “Finger Prints” ALSO IN 1892 ….
- 1892 - A murder was solved using thumbprint evidence in Buenos Aires, Argentina. The Rojas murder case is considered to be the first homicide solved by fingerprint evidence, with help from Juan Vucetich. Argentina became the first country to abolish anthropometry and rely solely on fingerprints for identification.
- 1894 – Sir Edward Richard Henry, along with two employees, developed the Henry Classification System after collaborating with Galton on a method of classification. Some say Henry’s employees (Khan Bahadur Azizul Haque and Rai Bahadur Hem Chandra Bose) actually figured out the Henry system and that Henry couldn’t even understand it fully when explained to him. In addition, he used fingerprints as a means of identifying workers to ensure the payment of wages was not duplicated. 1894/1897 – Harris Hawthorne Wilder (Zoology Prof, Smith College, Mass.) published his first paper after studying primates and realizing the resemblance of their volar friction ridges to humans. He was the first to suggest the centers of disturbance of primate friction ridge formations actually represented the locations of the volar pads. Ultimately, Wilder published 7 books and 39 papers during his career, and was a member of the IAI. 1900 – The Henry Classification System became standard practice in England; eventually it would be adopted in most English-speaking countries.
- 1901- The Fingerprint Bureau that Faulds suggested approx 13 years earlier was formed at New Scotland Yard. This, along with the issues surrounding he and Herschel’s differences in the Nature article (and the knighthood of others except him, mentioned earlier), annoyed him even more. October 1902 – Bertillion made an individualization in a case he assisted with in Paris using only fingerprint evidence . As a result of this case (murder of Joseph Reibel) Bertillion is given credit for solving the first murder in Europe using only fingerprint evidence. -First systematic use of fingerprints in the U.S. was by Dr. Henry P. de Forest (New York Civil Service Commission) in 1902 for job applications and to prevent imposters from taking tests. 1903 – Captain James H. Parke (NY) developed the American Classification System and subsequent fingerprinting of criminals in NY; this was the first systematic use of fingerprints for criminal purposes in the US. -William & Will West story, Leavenworth Prison, Kansas (anthropometry)
- 1904 – World’s Fair, St. Louis, MO, had booths demonstrating identification methods. Anthropometric booth was run by Emerson E. Davis (NY), fingerprint method booth was run by Inspector John Kenneth Ferrier (New Scotland Yard) and Capt. J. Parke (NY). - October 19, 1904, Inspector Ferrier and Major M.W. McClaughtry began fingerprinting inmates at the Leavenworth federal prison. These records became the beginning of the US Govt fingerprint collection. Ferrier remained in US after the fair to teach fingerprinting and powder development. -- 1904 – Inez Whipple (Smith College, Mass.) published a paper which included giving locations of the volar pads and explaining possible forces that affect ridge growth. Became Inez Wilder after marrying coworker, Harris Hawthorne Wilder in 1906. 1905 – The first murder trial in England where fingerprints were used as evidence was the Deptford Murder Trial. (2 brothers, Alfred Stratton and Albert Ernest, found guilty of husband & wife murder, sentenced to death then hanged) – AKA ‘Farrow Murders’ after the victims -- Faulds allied himself with the defense at this trial (an attempt to get back at the Yard for going against his 1886 suggestion of creating the fingerprint bureau) – U.S. Army adopted fingerprint system 1906 – There were 6 police departments in the US that were known to be taking fingerprints for identification purposes.
- 1907 – The Navy adopted the practice of fingerprinting applicants 1908 – Marines adopted fingerprint system 1910 – Mary Holland (training of the Navy) was the first American female instructor of fingerprinting, who was one of four experts in the murder suspect Thomas Jennings case (mentioned later). She was a former student of Sgt. John Ferrier of the Scotland Yard Fingerprint Bureau. 1911 - Edward Foster, (RCMP) attended the World’s Fair and was intrigued by fingerprints and what they could offer. After years of coordinating, a National Bureau was created in 1911. The staff included Foster, 3 assistants and a stenographer. Original files consisted of 2042 sets of fingerprints taken by Foster between 1906-1910. He led the National Bureau (later change to Fingerprint Bureau until his retirement in 1932.
- 1911 – People v Jennings was the first American appellate case regarding the admissibility of fingerprint expert testimony -- Fingerprint identification is a science, expert testimony is appropriate to aid members of the court in understanding FRS 1911 – People v Crispi is considered to be the first conviction obtained with fingerprint evidence alone in the US
- 1914 – Dr. Edmond Locard ( Director of Lab of Police in France; student of Bertillion), published an article that explained poroscopy and how pores could supplement fingerprint comparisons. 1915 – IAI was formed 1918 – Wilder and Wentworth publish first scientific research supporting third level detail as permanent and unique ; recognized value of uninterrupted ridges (AKA open fields) - State v Kuhl – Palmprints as proof of identity - Edmond Locard wrote that if 12 points (Galton's Details) were the same between two fingerprints, it would suffice as a positive identification. Locard's 12 points seems to have been based on an unscientific "improvement" over the eleven anthropometric measurements (arm length, height, etc.) used to "identify" criminals before the adoption of fingerprints.
- 1924 – The FBI Identification Division was established when the records of the National Bureau of Criminal Investigation and the Leavenworth Penitentiary Bureau were consolidated in Washington, D.C.The original collection consisted of 810,000 fingerprint cards 1926 – Harold Cummins coined the term ‘dermatoglyphics’ -- scientific study of fingerprints 1929 – Harold Cummins, Ph.D published a paper describing the formation of the development of volar pads on the human fetus. He found that volar pad regression took place during the same time as the beginning of friction ridge development. Also, he concluded that physical aspects of volar pads (location, growth differential, etc) affect FR development and overall pattern configuration. He also describes how other factors (disease, birth defects) can interfere with volar pad development and can affect friction ridges.
- 1933 – Latent Fingerprint Section of the FBI was created 1938 – Commonwealth v Bartolini – admissibility of footprints as proof of identity 1939 - Sinking of USS Squalus is first US disaster in which fingerprint ID pays a major role in identifying victims. It sank stern-first to the bottom of the ocean in 240 feet of water. The identification operation was conducted by James Herbert Taylor, Superintendent of the Identification Division, US Navy. 1940 - FBI participates in disaster identification for the first time when a Pan Am Central Airliner crashes in Lovettsville, VA (aka Lovettsville air disaster). Lovettsville,VA is only about 30 minutes SW of Frederick, MD. Two FBI agents were on board. FBI helped ID bodies of all 25 victims. They were flying through a thunderstorm, likely cause of crash is by lightning strike
- 1952 – Dr. Alfred Hale (an associate of Cummins) published a thesis describing the formation of FRS during fetal development and differential growth of the ridges. He defined initial, secondary and final phases. Hale also used ‘crown to rump’ measurements for fetus length. 1967 – NCIC (National Crime Information Center) of computerized database storing criminal justice information was launched on January 27, 1967 with five files and 356,784 records. By the end of 2009, NCIC contained more than 15 million active records in 19 files. NCIC averages 7.5 million transactions per day. 1970 – First generation AFIS system released 1974 - National Society of Fingerprint Officers was created. The organization initially consisted of only UK experts, but quickly expanded to international scope and was renamed The Fingerprint Society in 1977 1976 – Dr. Michio Okajima (Japan) published a paper on the study of incipient ridges. According to his report, “the incipient ridges are, in fact, permanent friction ridge structure.” Okajima also focused on the two rows of dermal papilla.
- 1977 – IAI establishes LP certification program 1983 – The Interstate Identification Index (III) was added to NCIC The III provides subject search, computerized criminal history, and criminal photo storage and retrieval. Ashbaugh coined ‘Ridgeology’ -- The study of the uniqueness of friction ridge structures and their use for personal identification“, also L1, L2 and L3D - idea was that a new word would draw attention to new ideas - In the 80’s, he introduced in the field the ACE-V methodology for fingerprint identification, where ACE-V 1988 – First primitive livescan readers introduced 1989 – NY implemented first Statewide AFIS (SAFIS) 1990 – Many states had AFIS; major cities installing LiveScan 1993 – Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals (factors the court should consider include: relevant and relaible, testing and validation, peer review, rate of error, general acceptance) ANSI/NIST standard implemented
- 1997 – Shirley McKie controversy ANSI/NIST standard updated to include SMT and records for facial images 1999 – United States v Mitchell (First serious Daubert challenge) Kumho Tire Corp. v Carmichael IAFIS is operational 2000 - ANSI/NIST standard updated to add variable density records for finger, latent and palm images
- 2002 – United States v Llera Plaza ( judge reversed decision a month later allowing fingerprint experts to testify to positive identifications) 2004 - Madrid Bombing/ Mayfield case “ After the March terrorist attacks on commuter trains in Madrid, digital images of partial latent fingerprints obtained from plastic bags that contained detonator caps were submitted by Spanish authorities to the FBI for analysis. The submitted images were searched through the Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS) “ from FBI Statement
- 2005 – Commonwealth v Patterson (simultaneous impressions) 2009 – NAS Report released