Techno-Economic Feasibility of Artificial Recharge for Fluoride Mitigation

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Title of Project : Techno Economic Feasibility Of Artificial Recharge Of
Aquifer As A Mitigatory Measures In Fluoride Affected Area Of Yavatmal
District, Maharashtra India
1.1 Introduction-
Government of India implemented the hydrology project phase II with financial
aids provided by International Development Association (World Bank). Under these
project, Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India has approved 13 purpose driven
studies of ground water (vide let no MOWR/12/94/2005-B & B /vol-V/922-953 Dated
3/09/2008) And that of three purpose driven studies are with Ground water surveys
and development agency . Among these three, PDS project of Yavatmal district is
sanctioned. For this purpose, three villages were selected on pilot basis where
fluoride contamination is above permissible limits.
Consumption of 20 – 80 mg/l of fluoride over a period of more than 10 years
produces crippling fluorosis (skeletal damage) 50 mg/l produce thyroid changes, 100
mg/l produce growth retardation, more than 125 mg/l or 25 grams (single dose)
produce kidney function changes or even death. Thus, fluoride consumption in
excess is detrimental to the health of humans and animals. Hence, it is considered to
undertake Purpose Driven studies in the chronically affected Yavatmal district of
Maharashtra State.
1.2 Objectives Of Project :
1) Identification of litho units associated with fluoride content.
2) Assessment of ground water quality with special reference to fluorides.
3) Socio- economic impact including health hazards in the study area.
4) Influence of different kind of artificial schemes on fluoride reduction.
5) Feasibility studies for artificial recharge for fluoride mitigation.
6) Develop action plan to tackle the issue of fluoride contamination in the study area.
7) Undertaking widespread awareness campaign to mitigate causes and effects of
fluoride.

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1.3 Location and Demographic Information
The area selected for the above mentioned project under Hydrology Project – Phase II
comes in mini watershed PGK-4 (2/8) from Pandharkawada taluka, Yavatmal District.
This area falls in Survey of India Toposheet no.55 L/12 having quadrant A-2, A-3, B-2
and lies along the co-ordinates N200
04’30’’/E780
33’00’’ to N200
07’50’’/ E780
35’25’’. The
study area consists three villages viz, Sakhra, Dharna and Konghara of mini watershed
PGK–4 (2/8) located about 7 kms due North-West of Pandharkawda city on Nagpur-
Hydrabad Highway no.7. All the three (3 )Villages of the mini watershed are
accessible throughout the year by tar road.
Location of Study Area
Map-1

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Study Area at Glance
Sr.no. Name of Village Dharna Sakhra Bk. Konghara
1 District Yavatmal Yavatmal Yavatmal
2 Taluka Pandharkawda Pandharkawda Pandharkawda
3 Watershed no. PGK-4 (2/8) PGK-4 (2/8) PGK-4 (2/8)
4 Toposheet no. 55 L/12 55 L/12 55 L/12
5 Quadrant no. B – 2 A - 2 A -2, A - 3
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Co-Ordinates
N 200
06’ 20’’
E 780
35’ 20’’
N 190
57’ 30’’
E 780
32’ 28’’
N 200
04’ 30’’
E 780
33’ 00’’
7 Altitude 272 m 268 m 260 m.
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Population (as per
Census 2001) 1072 1053 694
9 Geographical Area 578.33 Ha 400.00 Ha 619.00 Ha
10 Cultivable Land 512.5 Ha 362.00 Ha 524.2 Ha
11 Forest Area 0.0 Ha 25.00 Ha 75.4 Ha
12 Waste Land 65.5 Ha 12.9 Ha 19.4 Ha
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Public Drinking Water
Supply Well
1 no.+ Aqui. Of Irrg. BW in
Summer. 1 no. 1 no.
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Drinking water Dug
Wells 4 no./ 3 Use 1 no./ 1 use 2 no./ 2 use
15
Drinking water Hand
Pumps 7 no. / 3 Use 3 no. / 1 use 7 no./ 7 use
16 Irrigation wells 20 no./ 15 Use 23 / 12 use 10 no. / 7 use
17 Irrigation Borewells 00 no. 03 no. 00 no.
18 Water conservation Structures
Percolation Tank 00 no. 1 no. 00 no.
K.T.Weir 00 no. 00 no. 1 no. - Disuse
Cement Plug 3 no. 2 no. 00 no.
19 Croping Seasons Crop Type
Kharif Cotton, Soyabean, Jawar
Rabbi Wheat, Gram, Vegetables
Perennial Other

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1.4 Drainage
Khuni river is the main drainage of the study area which is a major tributary of
Painganga basin. The study area is drained by a third order stream which is a main
tributary of Khuni river. Lower order drainages from the adjoining hilly area to North and
NE region of the study area drain the seasonally flowing stream thus forming a dendritic
drainage pattern. Valley cuttings along the main stream are shallow. Drainage map of
study area is shown below :
1.5 Geomorphology
The mini watershed PGK-4 (2/8) is situated in hilly, gently to moderately
slopping terrain. As per the previous analysis report out of 6 villages of the mini-
watershed, 3 villages are affected with fluoride contamination. These three(3) villages
are selected for study purpose. The thickness of capping of basalt ranges between 45
to 55 m. The general slope is towards south. The highest elevation of mini watershed is
290 m above MSL and minimum is 273 m above MSL. The mini watershed is located in
moderately dissected plateau i.e. MDP, the morpho index is B. No lineament are
observed passing through the area.

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1.6 Soils
Soil in the study area is the typical residual type Black Regur originating from the trap
of Deccan Basalt. Amygdules of quartz, calcite, zeolites are also recorded in the soil
indicating its insitu nature. In general the soil is poorly developed.It is a clayey
granular soil commonly known as Black Cotton Soil present in layer of 0.50 mtr to
2.50 mtr. Highly calcareous kankar in the soil is a common feature in the study area.
1.7 Geology
As per the earlier systematic hydrological survey work the traverses taken along the
nala cutting and road cutting shows that the area is covered by vesicular basalt. Local
patches of exposed massive trap are also noticed in North – West part of the area.
Unit R.L. (m) Thickness
in (m.)
Geological Formation
III 287 to 293 6.00 High to mod. Weathered and fractured
massive basalt
II 280 to 287 7.00 Weathered vesicular basalt
II 271 to 280 9.00 Moderately weathered fractured massive
basalt
I 264 to 271 7.00 Moderately weathered fractured horizontally
jointed massive basalt
Geologically, the study area is a part of the Deccan Volcanic province, trap
is present only as a capping over the basement. Deccan Volcanic province is
comprising of hard rock formation. It is characterized by volcanic basalt mainly
belonging to Ajanta, Chikhli, and Karanja formations of the Sahyadri Group ranging in
age from Upper Cretaceous to Lower Eocene. The basaltic lava flows are piled one
above the other with horizontal disposition. From the depth of 3.6m to 85.25 m four
distinct basaltic flows are encountered in borehole followed by Gondwana sediments
up to the depth of 100m and is continuing.

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The generalized stratigraphic succession of the area is as below:
Age Group Formation Lithology
Quaternery Alluvium
Cretaceous
to Eocene
Sahyadri
Group
Karanja Formation
2 to 5 flows (160m thick)
‘aa’ flow (50m thick)
Chikhli Formation
11 ‘aa’ and 1 compound
flow (90m thick)
Ajanta Formation
5 ‘aa’ and 9 pahoehoe
flows (154m thick)
Permian to
Triassic
Gondwana
Supergroup
Motur
Formation
Sandstone
(After: Prembabu & Bhai, 2008)
1.8 Hydrogeology
During field investigation in all 35 wells were examined for collecting
information pertaining to hydrology of the study area. Depth of wells, static water levels,
annual fluctuation of static water levels, well yield, general water quality, cropping
pattern etc were investigated for assessing hydrogeological characteristics of the study
area. The vesicular basalt and weathered jointed zones of the massive basalt act as
moderately productive phreatic aquifer in the wells of the study area.

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Depth of wells ranges between 6.00 to 11.00 meters. Depth to water level in
pre monsoon season are deeper ranging between 6.20 to 10.70 meters i.e, most of the
wells are dry in summer season. During post monsoon season the depth to water levels
of the wells range between 0.80 to 5.60 meters.
1.9 Landuse
The study area is characterized by undulating topography, low level
plateaus, isolated denudational hills, conical hills, ridges and mounds which have
resulted due to weathering and erosion of Deccan basaltic rocks. The plateau and
isolated hills are bounded by steep to moderate slopes. The general slope is towards
south The nature and extent of land utilization under different types in the village is
as follows ;
Total Geographic Area - 1597.42 ha
Area under forest - 100.5 ha
Cultivable Area - 1408.7 ha
Culturable Wasteland - 97.8 ha
1.10 Rainfall and Climate
As per the analysis of rainfall data from the nearest rainguage station at
Pandharkawda located due south of study area at distance of 5km, The average rainfall
of the study area is 954 mm. The monsoon rains occurs during the months of June to
October. Most of the total annual rainfall occurs due to southwest monsoon. The rainfall
is not uniform in all parts of the Yavatmal districts. Wani taluka in the eastern part of
district receive 1125 mm of rainfall. Darhwa taluka in the western part of the district
receive 889 mm of rainfall.
Yavatmal located in central receive 1099 mm of rain. Study area falls due eastern
part of the district. Rainfall data analysis of the study area of last eleven years from
2001 to 2010 shows that out of 11 years the deficit rainfall occurred for four years and
deficiency varies from - 8.79 % to - 35.37 % while seven years has excess of rainfall
which varies from + 6.36 % to 19.16%.

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Table showing Rainfall data of last 11 years
Sr.
no.
Year Annual
Rainfall
(mm)
Rainfall as compared
with Annual Average
Rainfall (901.63mm)
% Rainfall as
compared with
Annual Average
Rainfall (901.63 mm)
Deficit/
Surplus %
Rainfall
1 2001 1061 + 159.37 117.68 + 17.68 %
2 2002 1053 + 151.37 116.79 + 16.79 %
3 2003 742 - 159.63 82.3 - 17.7 %
4 2004 830 - 71.63 92 - 8 %
5 2005 1052.3 + 150.67 116.71 + 16.71 %
6 2006 967.9 + 66.27 107.35 + 7.35 %
7 2007 989.02 + 87.39 109.69 + 9.69 %
8 2008 588.13 - 313.50 65.23 - 34.77 %
9 2009 648.55 - 253.08 71.93 - 28.07 %
10 2010 1084.4 + 182.77 120.27 + 20.27 %
11 2011 1002.30 + 100.67 111.17 + 11.17 %
Average 901.63
The climate of study area is tropical. The average maximum temperature
attained in summer is 45c and average minimum temp in winter is 080
C. Temperature
rises rapidly by beginning of March till May which is the hottest month with mean
maximum temperature 45.80
C and the mean minimum temperature 28.30
C. The heat in
summer is intense.
Winds are generally light to moderate with some strengthening during May to
August. In post monsoon and cold season winds generally flow from east to NE. By
March southwester lies and westerlies blow. In rest of summer season and SW
monsoon, winds are mostly from directions between SW and NW.
Humidity - Normally the humidity level is moderate throughout the year. Dryness
of the air goes increasing with onset of extreme summer, it gets worse if the previous
monsoon is scarce. In monsoon, the humidity levels are moderate to normal.
Cloudiness - Cloudiness is in the season of monsoon from July to September.
Rest of the year sky is clear. Sometimes, non monsoon clouds with thunder and
lightining are observed in month of October and December followed by showers. In
month of January and March the non monsoon clouds are with heavy winds, thunder,
lightining followed by hail.

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1.11 Drinking Water Status
The project area is having total population of 2819 as per 2001 census, it is a
rural population. The drinking water supply is provided through 3 pipe water supply
source wells one each to the villages of study area, 6 public wells along with 11
handpumps. Village Dharna PWS Source well and most of the domestic wells of the
study area are reported dry in the month of January to February end, except those
wells, which are located in the downstream of surface water bodies. Out of 11
handpumps, 2 handpumps are working seasonally and 9 handpumps are working
perennially. As most of the sources are contaminated due to fluoride and are above
permissible limit, the population is facing safe drinking water problem throughout the
year. The water requirement is made available by requisition of irrigation wells and
borewells located within the project area. The water requirement for domestic
purpose is given below :
Sr.
No.
Type of requirement Population Requirement
per unit (liter
per day)
Total requirement (ham per
annum)
1. Domestic (Rural) 2819 40 4.12
2. Animals 1500 20 1.10
Total 5.22
1.12 STATUS OF IRRIGATION
The entire economy of the area is based on agriculture. The irrigation practice is
conventional i.e. flood irrigation. The cultivators use manures and chemical fertilizers to
some extent. It is observed that area under Rabbi crop is confined to areas adjoining
the drainages and canal. The village wise cultivable area under different crop types is
as below- (Source – Revenue Department)
Kharif Crops - 1408.7 ha
Rabbi Crops - 225.0 ha
From the above statistics it is observed that the area under rabbi crop is
approximately 16 % as compared to Kharif Crop. It is due to non-sustainability of
sources depending on groundwater, revealing the picture of water availability in
the project area.

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1.13 Socio Economic Aspect
The people residing in study area are marginal farmers or farm labour. The
economic status in general is poor which affects their standard of living and also on the
eating habits. Food taken is not a balanced diet and is devoid of rich dairy products.
Result is Calcium devoid nutrition which might have resulted in minimizing the effects of
fluoride contaminated water intake. Also, the cheaper filtration methods of deflouridation
were not known to the people. Dental fluorosis is observed in most of the population of
wide range of age from children of 5 years to the elder peoples. In some old aged
peoples there signs of start of early skeletal fluorosis.
Awareness of the population was done by IEC campaign. A special workshop has
been carried in the Village Dharna. All the villagers, Mahila Bachat gats and students
residing in the affected study area were invited. In brief different mitigatory measures
were discussed to tackle the issue.
2.0 Methodology
Methodology (detailed with proposed design, manpower equipments, consultancy,
etc.) for undertaking the proposed study is as below :
1. Collection of secondary data to determine hydrological parameters. Other Technical
data collection related to this project.
2. Preparation of hydrological base maps and data delineation of hydrological units in
the three villages selected.
3. Collection of Ground water and rock sample for laboratory analysis to identify the
source of contamination of fluoride in water.
4. Socio-Economic survey to collect information on health hazard due to water quality
problem. IEC Campaigns.
5. Piezometers construction – In all ten number of piezometers constructed for monitoring
of groundwater quality at varying depths .
6. Monthly Water Sample collections – 34. Monthly Static Water Levels of observation
wells & Piezometers.
7. Geophysical Survey Work carried in the study area.
8. Conceptualization of the aquifer system to enable modeling studies.

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9. Chemical analysis and thin section reports reveal about the petrology and mineralogy
of the core sample from the study area carried by Geological Surveys of India.
10. Compilation of Collected Field data.
11. Techno-economic feasibility of artificial recharge structure for Fluoride mitigation.
Distribution of work among participating agencies
GSDA is the sole implementing agency. However, the analyses of soil/rock and other
related activities have been outsourced.
Duration of the project
The project has completed in three years period (2009-2011).
2.1 Monitoring Network
Conceptualization of the aquifer system to enable modeling studies and Techno-
economic feasibility of artificial recharge structure for Fluoride mitigation the aquifer
behavior studies were carried out regarding pre and post monsoon static water levels
fluctuation and their effect on the contamination of fluoride a monitoring network was
established. Along with existing monitoring stations, subsurface flow wise aquifer
system was identified by following methods :
1. Core drilling and its Petrographic and Geochemical studies.
2. Geophysical Survey studies.
3. On field logging of the Piezometers drilled.
Monthly Water sample collection from the study area is as follows ;
Sr.
no.
Water Samples Collected from Month Remark
1 36 no. Sept – 09 From starting of project.
2 10 no. Dec-10 From Piezometers.
In open circulating system where the groundwater is mixing in shallow and
deeper aquifers, the lowering of fluoride in water may take long time, till then the desired
results can be achived by targeting the aquifer with lower concentration of fluoride as
seen from the piezometer net water sample analysis.

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2.2 Piezometers construction –
In all ten number of Piezometers constructed for monitoring of groundwater
quality at varying depths. Accordingly, the identified aquifers were sealed so as to quantify
the contamination thus resulting into systematic planning for preparing action plan for
suggesting Artifical Recharge structures for mitigation of fluoride in the study area. The
information about the Piezometers constructed in the following villages Dharna, Sakhra
and Konghara, of Tehsil Pandharkawda, District Yavatmal (M.S.). Details are given below ;
The groundwater sample analysis from the piezometers net constructed in study area
the piezometer tapping aquifer beyond 25 mtr depths have upper soil and weathered
thickness sealed by MS Class casing. At this depth of aquifer the fluoride values are
Sr. no. Name of Village Total no. of Piezometers Drilled
1 Dharna 4 no.
2 Sakhra 3 no.
3 Konghara 3 no.
Details of all the ten Piezometers drilled are as given below :
Sr.
no.
Name of
Village
Piezometer Depth
(mtr)
Depth of
casing
(mtr)
Station Code Depth of Aquifer
traped
1. Dharna
1. Piezometer
2. Piezometer
3. Piezometer
4. Piezometer
75
58
32
16
58
32
16
6
DPz-1
DPz-2
DPz-3
DPz-4
58 to 75 mtr
32 to 58 mtr
16 to 32 mtr
6 to 16 mtr
2. Sakhra
1. Piezometer
2. Piezometer
3. Piezometer
75
51
26
51
26
6
SPz-1
SPz-2
SPz-3
51 to 75 mtr
26 to 51 mtr
Upto 26 mtr
3. Konghara
1. Piezometer
2. Piezometer
3. Piezometer
75
60
35
60
35
6
KPz-1
KPz-2
KPz-3
60 to 75 mtr
35 to 60 mtr
Upto 35 mtr

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found 1.7 to 3.00 ppm are minimal and manageable for dilution to achieve the desirable
limit of 1.00 ppm to permissible limit of 1.5 ppm. Thus, the aim of purpose driven study
is achieved by pinpointing the manageable aquifer that can be targeted to acquire the
desired result of controlling leaching of fluoride in the groundwater and facilitate the
people by providing them safe drinking water.
The rural population residing in the three fluoride villages can benefit from the study.
The findings of the study can be used to scale up similar studies not only in other
villages affected by fluoride from Yavatmal district, but also in villages from other
districts of Amravati and Nagpur region.
3.0 Core drilling and its Petrographic and Geochemical studies for
identification of Litho units associated with Fluoride
Core Logging and Sampling:
Run wise core logging was carried out from surface to 100m depth. The detailed
run wise borehole logging is given in the Annexure 1. Sampling was done at an interval
of about 1 m and wherever mineralogical variation is observed. A total of 100 nos. of
core samples was collected for petrographic and geochemical studies. The borehole
logging of Dharna village, Pandarkawada Taluka. Is given in plate.
Four distinct basaltic flows are encountered in the borehole followed by the
Gondwana sediments. The different flows are demarcated either by their typical top and
bottom flow characteristics or by the presence of red bole bed. Sharp contact is
recorded between the bottom most flow and Gondwana sediments.
On the surface dark grey colored soil is recorded persisting to a depth of 3 m. It
is mainly kankary, calcrete rich loose soil (with clay) spread over the basaltic flow.
Amygdales of quartz, calcite, zeolites are also recorded in the soil indicating its insitu
nature. In general the soil is poorly developed.
The top flow (Flow I) is characterized by the presence of large sized plagioclase
phenocryst measuring up to 5 cm in length and about 0.5 cm width and is termed as
Giant Plagioclase Basalt (GPB). The top flow is encountered at depth of 3.6m and
continued up to 6.45 m depth. Amygdales and vesicles density is more up to 5.7 m

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depth from the surface and drastically decreases with depth. The general amygdales
recorded in this flow are zeolites viz., green apophyllite and stilbite and honey yellow
colored fluorite.
The second basaltic flow (Flow II) is intersected at depth of 6.45m and continued
up to 32.82m.It is dark grey, fine grained, massive, porphyritic in nature. Secondary
fracture fillings are mainly chlorophaeitic material fluorite. At the depth of 32.82m, a
sharp contact is observed between massive, porphyritic basalt and greenish black, fine
grained, friable, vesicular basalt.
The third basaltic flow (Flow III) is intersected at depth of 32.82m up to 5.60m. It
is medium grained, black to greenish black, vesicular in nature. Vesicles are irregular in
shape, vary in sizes and filled with quartz, calcite, zeolite etc. Red bole bed is recorded
from 55.60 to 57.25 m. and brecciation between 57.25 m to 57.50 m. and is followed by
massive basalt upto 85.25m. (Flow IV). A contact is demarcated by red bole bed
between vesicular basalt (flow III) and massive basalt (Flow IV). Massive basalt is very
hard, compact, grayish black colored, fine grained with fracture fillings and poorly
vesicular.
Vesicles are recorded marking the base of the basaltic flow. At the depth of
85.25m a sharp contact is recorded between the massive basalt and sandstone of
Gondwana Supergroup. Sandstone of the Gondwana Supergroup is fine grained,
brownish to greenish in colour. It is gritty, pebbly in nature along with grey to brownish
colored, medium to coarse grained unsorted sand and reddish to greyish clay and are
recorded up to 100m. depth and beyond.
3.1 PETROGRAPHIC STUDY:
From the depth of 3.6m to 85.25m, four distinct basaltic flows are intersected in a
borehole followed by Gondwana sediments up to the depth of 100m. The petrographic
characteristics of these rocks are as follows :
Basalt of the top flow (Flow I) is mainly composed of calcic plagioclase
(labradorite to bytownite composition (approx.39% by visual estimation) + pyroxene
(approx.20%) (augite ± hypersthene), ± apatite(1%)+opaque minerals(20%)+glass( with
secondary minerals(20%) viz. palagonite+ fluorite ± calcite ± zeolite.

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Basalt is fine grained comprising calcic plagioclase and clinopyroxene viz. augite.
These are texturally porphyritic in nature and exhibits inequigranular appearance
because of the phenocrysts. Phenocrysts of plagioclase and augite/hypersthene often
exhibit ophitic to subophitic texture (Fig.23). Plagioclase phenocrysts are subhedral and
embedded in very fine grained groundmass constituting essentially subhedral laths of
plagioclase and subhedral grains of augite with opaque minerals and glass. Some of the
olivine and interstitial glass shows intergranular to intersertal textures. Phenocryst of
hypersthene is observed at places (Fig.12). The length of plagioclase phenocryst varies
from 10µm to 300 µm, and width varies from 8 µm to 200µm termed as Gaint
Plagioclase Basalt (GPB). Zoned plagioclase phenocryst is observed at some places
(Fig.19).
Inclusion of apatite within plagioclase phenocryst is recorded (Fig.3). Density of
vesicles is more at the top of the flow and filled with fluorite, zeolite, and calcite along
with rim of palagonite. Glass is generally altered to yellow to dark brown palagonite.
Fluorite occurred as secondary fillings in fractures (Fig.14, 21 & 22) and vesicles (Fig.1,
2 &8) along with palagonite which shows two sets of cleavage and isotropism. The
concentration of fluorite mainly occurred at the core part of yellow to dark brown
palagonite in the vesicles. The more concentration of fluorite in vesicles is recorded
from the rocks at depth of 4.5m to 6.0m. Fractures are filled with fibrous calcite and
vesicles are filled with zeolite (viz. stilbite) and calcite along with palagonite. The density
of opaque minerals within the groundmass is more in the form of needles/grains/clots.
Basalt of the second flow (Flow II) is mainly composed of calcic plagioclase
(labradorite to bytownite composition (approx.36% by visual estimation) + pyroxene
(approx.23%) (augite ± hypersthene), ± apatite(1%)+opaque minerals(22%)+glass( with
secondary minerals(18%) viz. palagonite+ fluorite ±calcite. Basalts of this flow are fine
grained, porphyritic in nature exhibits inequigranular appearance because of the
phenocrysts of plagioclase. In general it shows ophitic to subophitic texture,
phenocrysts of plagioclase are embedded in fine grained groundmass constituting
plagioclase and augite with opaque minerals and glass. Fluorite occurs as secondary
filling in cavities and fractures along with palagonite.
Basalt of the third flow (Flow III) is mainly composed of calcic plagioclase (37%
by visual estimation) (labradorite to bytownite composition)) + pyroxene (21%) (augite ±
hypersthene), ± apatite(1%)+opaque minerals(18%)+glass(12%) with secondary
minerals(11%) viz. palagonite + fluorite ± calcite ± apophyllite ±zeolite (stilbite (Fig.6),
natrolite) ±quartz. Basalt of this flow is sparcely porphyritic and vesicular in nature. It is

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slightly medium grained and exhibits inequigranular appearance because of the
phenocrysts
and glomeroporphyritic aggregates (Fig.11). In general it shows ophitic to subophitic
texture. Phenocrysts of plagioclase and augite are subhedral and embedded in very fine
grained groundmass constituting plagioclase and augite with opaque minerals and
glass. Glass is generally altered to yellow to dark brown palagonite and green
chlorophaeitic material (Fig.15). Apophyllite(at some places)occurred as secondary
filling in vesicles with the rim of palagonite. Fluorite occurrs as secondary filling in
cavities and fractures along with palagonite and apophyllite at places Fig.16). The
density of opaque minerals is more in the form of needles/grains/thick masses.
Basalt of the bottom flow (Flow IV) is mainly composed of calcic plagioclase
(33% by visual estimation-labradorite to bytownite composition)) + pyroxene (23%)
(augite ± hypersthene), ± apatite(1%) + opaque minerals (21%) + glass (10%) with
secondary minerals(12%) viz. palagonite + fluorite ± calcite. The basalt is massive,
compact, fine grained, ophitic to subophitic texture in general. Phenocrysts of
plagioclase and augite/hypersthene are subhedral and embedded in very fine grained
groundmass of plagioclase and augite with opaque minerals and glass. Interstitial glass
exhibits intersertal textures. Opaque minerals viz. magnetite is subhedral, fine to
medium grained in the top and bottom portion of the flow however in the middle portion
of the flow, opaques occur in the interstitial spaces of plagioclase and pyroxene. At
places glomeropophyritic texture is observed. Inclusion of apatite within plagioclase
phenocryst is recorded. Fluorite occurrs as secondary filling in cavities and fractures is
the characteristic feature of this flow (Fig.4).Fractures are filled with fibrous calcite along
with palagonite (Fig.7&9). The density of opaque minerals is more in the form of grains
and its altered products as clots.
The rocks intersected after the basaltic flows, at the bottom level of the borehole,
are calcareous sandstone with ferruginous stains (Fig.17). The characteristics of this
rock is that they are medium to coarse grained, sub rounded to sub angular in nature.
The cementing material is calcareous and ferruginous and the main grains are mostly
quartz, feldspar (plagioclase, microcline), calcite, lithic fragments, fluorite and opaque
minerals. Fluorite is medium grained, two sets of cleavage intersecting at 110° and
isotropic in nature (Fig.18).

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3.2 GEOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS :
Ion Selective Electrode (ISE) method is used for determination of fluorine in
rocks of the studied borehole. The analytical procedure involves a simple sintering of
sample with fusion mixture. The sintered mass after cooling is taken into solution in
water. Proper buffer solution is added and fluoride activities are measured from
electrochemical potential created by a fluoride ion selective electrode relative to
standard electrochemical cell. The reading is directly related to free fluorine content of
the sample solution. The detection limit is 100ppm.
Geochemical data (Annexure 2) reveals that the fluorine content varies from 101
ppm to 796ppm in rocks of the studied borehole. The high fluorine concentration ~Av.
422 ppm is presents in the top most basaltic flow, which is Gaint Plagioclase basalt with
a few amygdales of fluorite at places. The second flow is characterized by massive,
pophyritic with fracture filling; it is reported as ~Av. 402 ppm of fluorine content.
The high concentration of fluorine i.e. 796 ppm is reported at the contact between
IInd and IIIrd basaltic flow. The average fluorine content in this contact is 468 ppm. In
the IIIrd flow it is low as ~Av 187ppm which is sparsely porphyritic and vesicular in
nature. The vesicles are mainly filled with palagonite, fluorite, calcite, zeolite and
apophyllite. The fluorine content in ~Av. 266 ppm in the bottom most flow (Flow IV),
where the characteristics of basalt are massive, compact with fracture filling and less
vesicles. At depth of 32.8-33.57m, at the contact of massive, pophyritic basalt and
vesicular basalt, the high concentration of fluorine i.e.1000ppm is reported due to the
density of vesicles is more and filled with fluorite along with palagonite. At the contact
between bottom most flow (Flow IV) and Gondwana sediments, the average of fluorine
content is ~Av 476 ppm is reported. The total of 15 nos.of samples are analysed from
Gondwana sediments. The top portion of Gondwana sediments having fluorine
concentration is as low as ~Av.147 ppm while the bottom portion from 96.85 m. to 100
m. fluorine content is ~Av. 384 ppm. Graphical representation of the fluorine content in
the rocks of the borehole upto 100m depth, Dharna village is given in the Plate 3.
Fluorine content in average, in borehole core samples, Dharna village is given in
Plate 4.

18
3.3 FLUORIDE CONTENT IN THE ROCK SAMPLES OF CORE :
As per the petrographic study, fluoride bearing minerals viz. fluorite, apatite and
apophyllite are present in rocks of the studied borehole. Two types of possible sources
of fluorine concentration are recorded i.e. primary and secondary occurrences.
i) Primary Occurrence: Fluorite is occurred in sandstone of the Gondwana Supergroup.
ii) Secondary Occurrence: Fluorite occurred as secondary fillings in vesicles (cavities)
and in fractures of plagioclase phenocryst along with devitrified glass/palagonite
(altered glass)in the basaltic flows.
During petrographic studies it is noticed that, the fluorite concentration is
significant especially in amygdales of basaltic flows. It varies from 6 to 14 % in volume
within amygdales of all basaltic flows. However, apatite is recorded in all the flows up to
1 % of the sections studied. Presence of apophyllite up to 2 % in volume as secondary
filling is recorded within the third basaltic flow (Flow III). Chatterjee et al., 1987 has
reported apatite with up to 0.80% of normative composition of basalt in Yavatmal
district, where as apatite up to 0.5% has been reportedfrom basalts of North China by
Liuyong Zho Wan Hua 1990.
Geologically, the area covered by Deccan basaltic flows of the Ajanta, Chikhali
and Karanja Formation of the Sahyadri Group of Upper Cretaceous to Lower Paleocene
age. From the depth of 3.6m to 85.25m four distinct basaltic flows are encountered in
borehole followed by Gondwana sediments up to the depth of 100m and is continuing.
From the petrographic study, it is evident that
The more concentration of fluorite occurrs as secondary fillings in vesicles
(cavities) and in fractures of plagioclase phenocryst along with devitrified glass /
palagonite (altered glass). Apophyllite also occurrs as secondary fillings in vesicles.
Apatite is recorded as an inclusion within plagioclase phenocryst of basalt.
Fine to medium grained fluorite occurrs in sandstone of the Gondwana

19
Sr.
no.
Formation Content of Fluoride in rock
Sample
Depth in mtr
1 Ist flow 422 ppm GL to 6.45 mtr
Fluoride Content in rock Samples at I&II flow contact is 468 ppm.
2 IInd flow 402ppm 6.45 to 33 mtr
Fluoride Content in rock Samples at II & III flow contact is1000ppm.
3 IIIrd flow 187ppm 33 to 55 mtr.
Fluoride Content in rock Samples at III & IV flow contact is 796 ppm.
------------------------ Red Bole ----------------------------
4 IVth flow 266 ppm 55 to 57mtr
Fluoride Content in rock Samples at IV flow and Gondwana contact is 476 ppm
5 Gondwana
(Top)
147 ppm 86 mtr
Gondwana
(Bottom)
384ppm 100mtr
Petrographic and Geochemical analysis of the rock samples and the chemical analysis
of the water samples from the study area reveals following inferences ;
1)Core drilling studies revealed that the Deccan trap capping is upto 86 meters and
beneath the formation is Gondwana (viz. Sandstone)
2)Water quality analysis reports show that Ca mg/lit content in groundwater inversly
proportional to the content of Fluoride in ppm. Also, same findings with increasing
Total Hardness.
3)Depletion of water table during late summer and decrease in percentage rainfall has
affected the quality of groundwater resulting in detoriation by increase of Fluoride
content.
4)Significantly the Fluoride Content is more in the deeper aquifer than in shallow one.

20
4.0 Geophysical Investigation
In order to study the pilot area, geophysical surveys have been carried out to
delineate the subsurface weathered mantle, vesicular/joints/fracture and impervious
basaltic rock formation and gondwana formation.
Electrical resistivity soundings are taken to investigate the variations in the resistivity
with depth. Measurements of the resistivity are taken with the help of Mc Ohm resistivity
meter (Japan). Schlumberger configuration was utilized to measure the resistivity of the
substrata.
The project area is comprised three villages. The main drainage is flowing from east
to west in the pilot area. In the pilot area total 41 vertical electrical soundings (VES)
were conducted.
Sr.
No.
Name of the
village
Total no. of VES
conducted
Sr. No. of VES
1 KONGARA 19
VES1,2,3, W7S6, W6S6, W5S6, W8S5,
W7S5, W6S5, W5S5, W8S4, W7S4, W6S4,
W5S4, W4S4, W01, W6S2, W5S2, W4S2
2 SAKHARA 9 VES1,2,3, W4, W2, W0, N2W4, N2W2, N2
3 DHARNA 13
VES1,2,3, N2E2, N2E4, N3E6, N4W4, N4E2,
N4E4, N4E6, N6E2, N6E4, N6E6
TOTAL 41
A total 32 VES were conducted in
grid pattern with 500 m interval
INDEX
Village boundary
VES point locations
Plate No 1

21
Vertical electrical soundings were conducted across and along the main drainage
of the pilot area i.e. from village Kongara, Sakhara to Dharana. Soundings were
conducted along west to east direction. The sounding points were selected at every half
kilometer distance. The locations of all the sounding points are shown in plate no.1.
Total 8 lines are carried out in Kongara, Sakhara and Dharana villages i.e., L1, L11, L2,
L3, L4, L5, L6, L7 are shown in plate no. 2.
4.1 Interpretation of the Geophysical Data
The geophysical data has been plotted on double logarithmic graph for the
interpretations. Auxiliary point chart and two layer master curves prepared by Orellana
and Moony (1966) have been used to calculate the true resistivity and true thickness of
L7
L6
L5
L4
L3
L2
L11
L1
VES TAKEN LINES
VES taken line
Plate No 2

22
the electric layers. Otto Koefoed method (1979) has been used for the interpretation of
the geoelectric layers.
The analysis of field data has been carried out in two ways namely a) Qualitative
and b) Quantitative.
4.2 a. Qualitative Analysis & Iso Resistivity Studies:
Iso- resistivity maps of different depth levels are useful to study the horizontal
variations of the project area. Four types of three Iso - resistivity maps of apparent
resistivity values at three different half current electrode separation (AB/2) of 16 meters,
30 meters and 60 meters were generated by using software Map info 10.5 programmed
(Plate No. 3,4,5).
Main object of the study area is to find the fluoride affected subsurface formation.
Geophysical methods can not be detecting directly fluoride mineral of subsurface area.
It is known that fluoride mineral is filled as secondary deposition in
weathered/vesicular/fractured/jointed massive basalt, contact zones and sandstone.
Hence here object is to find weathered/vesicular/fractured/jointed massive basalt,
contact zones and sandstone area, which is affected by fluoride mineral.
These iso-resistivity maps show high resistivity zone, moderate resistivity zone
and low resistivity zone, which are helpful in delineating potential and non potential
zones in groundwater point of view, in the pilot area.
The maps indicate concentration of high resistivity contours broadly in northeast,
west and in some part of southwest portion of the pilot area. I The maps of AB/2 = 16,
AB/2 = 30 and AB/2 = 60, indicate that the central part is covered by the area having
high resistivity values,which indicates massive basalt.
The area covered by shades of light blue, green colors are interpreted as
potential zones . Light blue color range 40 – 60 Ohm.m, it indicates fractured, vesicular
and jointed basalt. Green color range 20 – 40 Ohm.m, it indicates weathered basalt.
The description for colors is given as follows.
Pink - Moderately resistivity zone - Top soil with sum clay
Green - Medium resistivity zone - Weathered Basalt
Light blue - Low resistivity zone - Fracture, vesicular and jointed basalt
Red - High resistivity zone - Compact, massive basalt

23
Iso resistivity map AB/2 – 16 m
The dark blue color is observed in Konghara, Dharna and sum part of Sakara
villages of pilot project showing very good groundwater potential. The northeast part is
covered with dark blue, which indicates good groundwater potential zone. The green
color is surrounded to blue color region, which indicates poorly weathered and fractured
basalt. There is red colored patch is observed in north-east part of pilot having high
resistivity zone with poor to nil ground water potential zone (Plate no 3).
The light blue colour is observed in Konghara, Dharna and some part of Sakhra
villages of pilot project showing very good groundwater potential. The southwest is also
covered with light blue, which indicates good groundwater potential zone. The green
colour is north, south and southwest region, which indicates poorly weathered and
fractured basalt. There is red colore is observed in north-east and central part of pilot
having high resistivity zone with poor to nil ground water potential zone (Plate no 4).
Konghara
Sakra bk
Dharna
1-20 ohm m (Top soil)
20-40 ohm m (Weathered basalt)
40-60 ohm m (Vesicular/fractured
/jointed basalt)
60-100 ohm m (Massive basalt)
INDEX
Plate No 3

24
The light blue color is observed in Konghara, Dharna and sum part of Sakara
villages of pilot project showing very good groundwater potential. The green color is
south and southwest region, which indicates poorly weathered and fractured basalt.
There is red colored patch is observed in north-east and central part of pilot having high
resistivity zone with poor to nil ground water potential zone (Plate no 5).
40-60 ohm m (Vesicular/
Fractured /jointed basalt)
INDEX
Dharna
Sakra bk
Konghara
Plate No 4
INDEX
40-60 ohm m (Vesicular,
Fractured/jointed basalt)
Konghara
Sakra bk
Dharna
Plate No 5

25
4.2 b. Quantitative Analysis:
All soundings data has been interpreted for different electric layers and based on
these layers eight geo-electric cross sections have been prepared, namely L1, L11, L2,
L3, L4, L5, L6 and L7. Brief discussion of each cross section is given below.
Geo electrical cross sections:
CROSS SECTION L1
The section L1 is drawn along west to east direction of the project area which
covers village Kongara of the project. This section exhibits seven electrical layers
comprising in that blue color range 5 – 12 ohm m indicates top soil with some clay.
Grey color range 20 – 30 ohm m indicates less kankar soil with more clay, Light biscuit
color range 4 – 10 ohm m indicates weathered basalt with clay. Light blue color range
25 – 35 ohm m indicates amygdaloidal basalt with sum quartz, zeolite. Gray color range
30 – 40 ohm m indicates prophyritic basalt, poorly fractured. Pink color range 40 – 70
ohm m indicates poorly fractured basalt. Red color range 80 – 160 ohm m indicates
compact massive basalt (Plate no 6).
LINE 1 CROSS SECTION
W7S6
257.026
W6S6
258.070
W5S6
257.650
255.726
254.226
252.726
249.726
216.726
256.15
255.15
246.15
233.15
200.15
Plate No 6
INDEX
5 -12 Ώm Loose soil with clay
20 - 30 Ώm Less kankar, soil with more clay
4 - 10 Ώm Weathered basalt with sum clay
25 - 35 Ώm Amygdaloidal basalt with sum quartz, zeolite
30 – 40 Ώm Massive prophyritic basalt, poorly fractured
40 - 70 Ώm Massive basalt, poorly jointed basalt
80 – 160 Ώm Massive basalt

26
CROSS SECTION L11
covers village Kongara of the project. This section exhibits eight electrical layers
Coffee color range 20 – 30 ohm m indicates less kankar soil with more clay, Light
biscuit color range 2 – 8 ohm m indicates weathered basalt with sum clay. Yellow color
range 10 – 20 ohm m indicates amygdaloidal basalt. Light blue color range 6 – 10 ohm
m indicates weathered basalt with sum clay. Gray color range 20 – 30 ohm m indicates
prophyritic basalt, poorly fractured. Light pink color range 30 – 50 ohm m indicates
porphyritic, fractured basalt. Pink color range 50 – 70 ohm m indicates poorly jointed
basalt. Red color range 80 – 160 ohm m indicates compact massive basalt (Plate no 7).
S SECTION L2
W8S5
258.324
W7S5
258.021
W6S5
257.71
W5S5
257.081
256.824
255.824
254.824
242.824
231.824
220.824
195.824
255.881
252.881
245.881
235.881
235.881
210.881
197.824
Plate No 7
6 -10 Ώm Loose soil with clay
10 - 20 Ώm Amygdaloidal basalt
20 - 30 Ώm Massive prophyritic basalt, poorly fractured
30 - 50 Ώm Massive prophyritic basalt, fractured
80 – 160 Ώm Massive basalt
INDEX

27
comprising in that blue color range 5 – 10 ohm m indicates loose soil with sum clay.
Coffee color range 20 – 45 ohm m indicates less kankar soil. Light biscuit color range
4 – 10 ohm m indicates weathered basalt with sum clay. Yellow color range 2 – 3 ohm
m indicates clay. Light blue color range 6 – 10 ohm m indicates weathered with sum
clay. Gray color range 50 – 60 ohm m indicates prophyritic basalt, poorly fractured. Pink
color range 90 – 140 ohm m indicates poorly jointed basalt. Red color range 300 – 500
ohm m indicates compact massive basalt. (Plate no 8).
W8S4
259.826
W7S4
258.621
W6S4
258.27
W4S4
259.214
257.826
253.826
245.826
229.826
201.826
188.826
258.114
257.614
238.514
232.514
228.514
202.514
Plate No 8
INDEX
5 - 10 Ώm Loose soil with clay
20 - 45 Ώm Less kankar, soil
2 - 3 Ώm clay
6 - 10 Ώm Weathered basalt
300 - 500 Ώm Massive basalt

28
CROSS SECTION L3
comprising in that blue color range 10 – 12 ohm m indicates loose soil with clay. Brown
color range 40 – 60 ohm m indicates exposed massive basalt. Light biscuit color range
2 – 10 ohm m indicates weathered basalt with sum clay. Light pink color range 10 – 50
ohm m indicates amygdaloidal basalt. Gray color range 40 – 80 ohm m indicates
prophyritic basalt, fractured. Light blue color range 20 – 40 ohm m indicates porphyritic
basalt, poorly fractured. Pink color range 90 –140 ohm m indicates poorly jointed basalt.
Red color range 200– 400 ohm m indicates compact massive basalt (Plate no 9).
W01
271.868
W6S2
271
W5S2
270.892
W4S2
271.683
270.668
263.668
270.183
261.183
256.83
201.83
258.668
230.668
183.668
Plate No 9
INDEX
40 - 60 Ώm Exposed massive basalt
10 - 50 Ώm Amygdaloidal basalt
40 - 80 Ώm Massive prophyritic basalt, fractured
200 - 400 Ώm Compact Massive basalt

29
CROSS SECTION L4
covers village Sakara of the project. This section exhibits eight electrical layers
comprising in that blue color range 40 – 120 ohm m indicates Top soil. Coffee color
range 60 – 100 ohm m indicates less kankar soil. Light biscuit color range 30 – 40 ohm
m indicates weathered basalt with some clay. Red color range 200 – 400 ohm m
indicates massive basalt. Gray color range 50 – 80 ohm m indicates weathered
fractured, poorly fractured basalt. Light blue color range 40 – 50 ohm m indicates
porphyritic, poorly fractured basalt. Pink color range 50 – 100 ohm m indicates massive
basalt with poorly fractured basalt. Thick red color range 500 – 1200 ohm m indicates
W4
265.021
W2
264.54
W0
263.982
263.521
263.021
262.421
258.421
250.421
227.421
262.982
261.982
231.982
218.982
205.982
198.982
Plate No 10
INDEX
40 - 120 Ώm Loose soil
60 - 100 Ώm Less kankar, soil
50 - 80 Ώm Weathered basalt, poorly fractured basalt
50 - 100 Ώm Massive basalt, poorly fractured basalt
200 - 400 Ώm Massive basalt 500 - 1200 Ώm Hard massive basalt

30
CROSS SECTION L5
covers villages Sakara and Dharna of the project. This section exhibits eight electrical
layers comprising, in that blue color range 9 – 45 ohm m indicates loose soil. Coffee
color range 4 – 8 ohm m indicates less kankar soil with more clay. Light biscuit color
range 2 – 8 ohm m indicates weathered basalt with some clay. Grey color range 40 – 80
ohm m indicates porphyritic, fractured basalt. Light blue color range 13 – 20 ohm m
indicates vesicular basalt with sum clay. Red color range 100 – 1200 ohm m indicates
N2W4
268.868
N2W2
266.33
N4
272.23 N2E2
269.932
N2E6
264.826
267.368
266.868
260.868
257.868
250.868
N2E4
269.932
263.326
263.326
239.326
Plate No 11
INDEX
9 - 45 Ώm Loose soil
40 - 80 Ώm Massive porphyritic basalt, fractured basalt
13 - 20 Ώm Vesicular basalt with sum clay
500 – 1200 Ώm Hard massive basalt

31
CROSS SECTION L6
covers village Sakara and Dharna of the project. This section exhibits eight electrical
layers comprising in that blue color range 10 – 35 ohm m indicates top soil with sum
clay. Coffee color range 5 – 20 ohm m indicates kankar with some clay. Light biscuit
color range 20 – 40 ohm m indicates weathered basalt. Yellow color range 4 – 6 ohm m
indicates clay. Light blue color range 10 – 20 ohm m indicates massive porphyritic
basalt with sum clay. Thick blue color range 20 – 40 ohm m indicates poorly jointed,
vesicular basalt. Red color range 60 – 650 ohm m indicates compact massive basalt
(Plate no 12).
LINE 6 CROSS SECTIONN4E4
283.76
N4E2
273.84
N4E2
273.84
N4E2
282.61
282.26
280.76
274.26
269.26
257.26
234.26
281.11
279.11
277.11
271.11
251.11
224.11
Plate No 12
4 - 6 Ώm Clay
10 - 20 Ώm Massive prophyritic basalt with sum clay
200 - 650 Ώm Hard massive basalt
INDEX

32
CROSS SECTION L7
covers village Sakara of the project. This section exhibits eight electrical layers
Light biscuit color range 20 – 45 ohm m indicates weathered basalt. Grey color range
40 – 80 ohm m indicates massive porphyritic, fractured basalt. Light blue color range
5 – 15 ohm m indicates poorly jointed, vesicular basalt with sum clay. Pink color range
40 – 65 ohm m indicates fractured basalt. Red color range 100 – 2500 ohm m indicates
N4E2
278.48
N4E2
273.84
N4E2
278.86
277.28
273.28
234.26
269.28
263.76
277.36
257.16
241.16
240.66
250.78
192.66
Plate No 13
INDEX
100 - 110 Ώm Exposed massive basalt
40 - 80 Ώm Massive porphyritic basalt, fractured basalt
5 - 15 Ώm Massive basalt, poorly jointed basalt with sum clay
40 – 65 Ώm Fractured basalt
200 – 2500 Ώm Compact massive basalt

33
Kongara single point resistance log data, apparent resistivity graphs correlation
and interpretation
At Kongara piezometer site, single point resistance log and one VES are
conducted. Logging data and VES data are correlated and plotted in centimeter graph.
Using VES data, apparent resistivity graph was plotted and interpreted. In VES
interpretation nine layers are exhibits, in that first layer resistivity 15.5 ohm m having
thickness 1.5 m indicates top soil, second layer resistivity 12.5 ohm m having thickness
1 m indicates weathered basalt, soil mix with kankar, third layer resistivity 10.25 ohm m
having thickness 3 m indicates weathered basalt, soil mix with clay and kankar, fourth
layer resistivity 336 ohm m having thickness 10 m indicates massive basalt, fifth layer
resistivity 56 ohm m having thickness 19 m indicates vesicular, fractured, sixth layer
resistivity 76 ohm m having thickness 10 m indicates zeolitic trap, seventh layer
resistivity 116 ohm m having thickness 20 m indicates massive basalt, eighth layer
resistivity 9 ohm m having thickness 0.8 m indicates red bole, ninth layer resistivity 88
ohm m indicates Sandstone (plates 14, 15, 16).
Plate No 14 Single point resistance log at Kongara piezometer site
App.ResValues.
AB/2 in mts

34
Sakhra single point resistance log data, apparent resistivity, factor and reciprocal
graphs Trend and interpretation
At Sakhra Piezometer site single point resistance log and three VES are
conducted. Logging data and VES data was correlated and plotted in centimeter graph.
Using VES data apparent resistivity graph, factor graph, reciprocal graph was plotted
and interpreted. In VES interpretation tenth layers are exhibits, in first layer resistance
range 90 ohm m having thickness 1.5 m indicates weathered basalt, second layer
resistance range 300 ohm m having thickness 7 m indicates massive basalt, third layer
resistance range 875 ohm m having thickness 23.5 m indicates hard massive basalt,
fourth layer resistance range 501 ohm m having thickness 15 m indicates massive
App.Res.CURVE
1
10
100
1 10 100 1000
AB/2 in Mts
App.Res.Values
Plate No 15 Apparent resistivity cure at Kongara piezometer site
Kongara piezometer site VES 1 interpretation
Plate No 16
LAYER NO
LAYERS TRUE
RESISTIVITY
LAYERS TRUE
THICKNESS
CUMULATTIVE
THICKNESS
(RL – CU TH)
RL = 258.627 M PROBABLE LITHOLOGY
LAYER 1 ρ1 = 15.5 OHM t1 = 1.5 MTS Ct1 = 1.5 MTS 257.127 Top soil
LAYER 2 ρ2 = 12.5 OHM t2 = 1 MTS Ct2 = 2.5 MTS 256.127 Weathered basalt, soil mix
with kankar
LAYER 3 ρ3 = 10.25 OHM t3 = 3 MTS Ct3 = 5.5 MTS 253.127 Weathered basalt, soil mix
with clay and kankar
LAYER 4 ρ4 = 336 OHM t4 = 10 MTS Ct4 = 15.5 MTS 243.127 Massive basalt
LAYER 5 ρ5 = 56 OHM t5 = 19 MTS Ct5 = 34.5 MTS 224.127 Vesicular, fractured basalt
LAYER 6 ρ6 = 76 OHM t6 = 10 MTS Ct6 = 64.5 MTS 214.127 Zeolitic trap
LAYER 8 &
LAYER 9
ρ8 = 9 OHM
ρ9 = 88 OHM
t8 = 0.8 MTS
t9 = -- --
Ct8 = 65.3 MTS
Ct9 = --- ---
193.327
--- ----
Red bole
Sandstone

35
Sakara sinlge point resistance log data, apparent resistivity graphs correlation
and interpretation
At Sakara piezometer site, single point resistance log and one VES are conducted.
Logging data and VES data are correlated and plotted in centimeter graph. Using VES
data, apparent resistivity graph was plotted and interpreted. In VES interpretation ten
layers are exhibits, in that first layer resistivity 90 ohm m having thickness 1.5 m
indicates weathered basalt, second layer resistivity 300 ohm m having thickness 7 m
indicates massive basalt, third layer resistivity 875 ohm m having thickness 23.5 m
indicates hard massive basalt, fourth layer resistivity 501 ohm m having thickness 15 m
indicates massive basalt, fifth layer resistivity 99 ohm m having thickness 16 m indicates
fractured basalt, sixth layer resistivity 54 ohm m having thickness 10 m indicates
vesicular basalt, seventh layer resistivity 10 ohm m having thickness 0.84 m indicates
red bole, eighth layer resistivity 102 ohm m having thickness 14 m indicates fractured
basalt, ninth layer resistivity 238 ohm m having thickness 22 m indicates massive
basalt, tenth layer resistivity 164 ohm m indicates Sandstone (plates 17, 18, 19).
Single point resistance log at Sakara piezometer sitePlate No 17
App.ResValues.
AB/2 in mts

36
APP.RES.CURVE
1
10
100
1 10 100 1000
AB/2 in Mts
App.Res.Vvalues
Apparent resistivity cure at Sakara piezometer sitePlate No 18
Sakara piezometer site VES 1 interpretationPlate No 19
LAYER NO APP RES LA THICK CU THICKNESS
(RL – CU TH)
RL = 264.250 M PROBABLE LITHOLOGY
LAYER 1 ρ1 = 90 OHM t1 = 1.5 MTS Ct1 = 1.5 MTS 262.75 Weathered basalt
LAYER 3 ρ3 = 875 OHM t3 = 23.5 MTS Ct3 = 32 MTS 232.25 Hard massive basalt
LAYER 4 ρ4 = 501 OHM t4 = 15 MTS Ct4 = 47 MTS 217.25 Massive basalt
LAYERS 5 ρ5 = 99 OHM t5 = 16 MTS Ct5 = 63 MTS 201.25 Fractured basalt
LAYER 6 ρ6 = 54 OHM t6 = 10 MTS Ct6 = 73 MTS 191.25 Vesicular basalt
LAYER 7
&
LAYER 8
ρ7 = 10 OHM
ρ8 = 102 OHM
t7 = 0.84 MTS
t8 = 14 MTS
Ct7 = 73.84 MTS
Ct8 = 87.84 MTS
190.41
176.41
Red bole
Fractured basalt
LAYER 9
&
LAYER 10
ρ9 = 238 OHM
ρ10 = 164 OHM
t9 = 22 MTS
T10 = -- --
Ct9 = 109.84 MTS
Ct10 = --- ---
154.41
--- ----
Massive basalt
Sandstone

37
Dharana single point resistance log, apparent resistivity graphs correlation and
interpretation
At Dharana piezometer site, single point resistance log and one VES are
conducted. Logging data and VES data are correlated and plotted in centimeter graph.
Using VES data, apparent resistivity graph was plotted and interpreted. In VES
interpretation, eleven layers are exhibits, in that first layer resistance range 26 ohm m
having thickness 3 m indicates Soil mix with clay and kankar, second layer resistivity 32
ohm m having thickness 3 m indicates Weathered basalt with amygdaloidal basalt, third
layer resistivity 48 ohm m having thickness 7 m indicates Massive basalt with poorly
fractured basalt, fourth layer resistivity 115 ohm m having thickness 13 m indicates
massive basalt, fifth layer resistivity 88 ohm m having thickness 12 m indicates Massive
basalt with poorly fractured basalt. sixth layer resistivity 64 ohm m having thickness 7 m
indicates Massive basalt with Poorly vesicular basalt, seventh layer resistivity 284 ohm
m having thickness 14 m indicates compact massive basalt, eighth layer resistivity 104
ohm m having thickness 0.8 m indicates Porphyritic basalt with vesicular basalt, ninth
layer resistance range 7 ohm m having thickness 0.2 m indicates red bole, tenth layer
resistance range 448 ohm m having thickness 28 m indicates compact massive basalt,
eleventh layer resistance range 164 ohm m indicates Sandstone (plates 20, 21, 22).
Single point resistance log at Dharana piezometer sitePlate No 20
App.ResValues.
AB/2 in mts

38
APP.RES.CURVE
1
10
100
1000
1 10 100
AB/2 in Values
App.RES.Vlaues
Apprenst resistivity cure at Dharana piezometer sitePlate No 21
Dharana piezometer site VES 1 interpretationPlate No 22
LAYER NO APP RES LA THICK
CU THICKNESS
(RL – CU TH)
RL = 325 M PROBABLE LITHOLOGY
LAYER 1 ρ1 = 26 OHM t1 = 3 MTS Ct1 = 3 MTS 322 Soil mix with clay and kankar
LAYER 2 ρ2 = 32 OHM t2 = 3 MTS Ct2 = 6 MTS 319
Weathered basalt with
amygdaloidal basalt
LAYER 3 ρ3 = 48 OHM t3 = 7 MTS Ct3 = 13 MTS 312
Massive basalt with poorly
fractured basalt
LAYER 4 ρ4 = 115 OHM t4 = 13 MTS Ct4 = 26 MTS 299 Massive basalt
LAYERS 5
&
LAYERS 6
ρ5 = 88 OHM
ρ6 = 64 OHM
t5 = 12 MTS
t6 = 7 MTS
Ct5 = 34 MTS
Ct6 = 41 MTS
287
280
Massive basalt with
Poorly fractured basalt.
Massive basalt with
Poorly vesicular basalt
LAYER 7 ρ7 = 284 OHM t7 = 14 MTS Ct7 = 55 MTS 266 Compact massive basalt
LAYER 8
&
LAYER 9
ρ8 = 104 OHM
ρ8= 7 OHM M
t8 = 0.8 MTS
t8 = 0.2 MTS
Ct8 = 55.8 MTS
Ct7 = 56 MTS
265.20
265
Porphyritic basalt with
vesicular basalt
Red bole
LAYER 10
&
LAYER 11
ρ10 = 448 OHM
ρ11 = 164 OHM
t10 = 28 MTS
t11 = -- --
Ct10 = 84 MTS
Ct11 = --- ---
237
--- ----
Compact massive basalt
Sandstone

39
TREND OF GSI PETROGRAPHIC REPORT AND GSDA ELECTRICAL LOGGING
REPORT
GSI PETROGRAPHIC DISCRIPTION GSDA ELECTRICAL LOGGING
DISCRIPTION
As per GSI Petrographic description of
core drilling report at Dharna, from 30.00
to 33.57 m depth rock is fine grained,
fractured basalt. Few grains of fluoride
occurs as secondary fillings in fractures
and cavities along with altered glass
(palagonite). (Plate no 27)
As per GSDA resistivity logging report at
Dharna, from 28.00 to 34.00 m depth
fracture zone and Cavities demarcated
(Dharna normal down log in piezometer
1, Plate no 23).
Note: GSDA logger has struck from
28.00 to 35.00 m depth (cavities) while
logging.
From 33.57 to 38.00 m depth rock is fine
grained, vesicular basalt. Fluoride and
zeolite occurs as secondary fillings in
vesicles. (Plate no 27)
From 34.00 to 40.00 m depth vesicular
zone demarcated (Dharna normal down
log in piezometer 2, Plate no 24).
to medium grained, vesicular and
fracture basalt. Fluoride occurs as
secondary fillings in vesicles and
fractures. (Plate no 27)
and fracture zones demarcated (Dharna
normal down log in piezometer 2, Plate
no 24).
to medium grained, vesicular and
fracture basalt. Fluoride occurs as
secondary fillings in fractures and
cavities along with altered glass
(palagonite). (Plate no 27)
and fracture zones demarcated (Dharna
normal up log in piezometer 1 & 2, Plates
no 25, 26).
Note: GSDA logger has struck from
65.00 to 75.00 m depth (cavities) while
logging.

40
Dharna normal down log in piezometer 1Plate No 23
Plate No 24 Dharna normal down log in piezometer 2

41
Plate No 26 Dharna normal up log in piezometer 2
Plate No 25 Dharna normal up log in piezometer 1

42
TREND OF GSI GEOCHEMICAL REPORT AND GSDA ELECTRICAL LOGGING
REPORT
GSI GEOCHEMICAL DISCRIPTION GSDA ELECTRICAL LOGGING
DISCRIPTION
As per GSI geochemical data two distinct
zones of high concentration >200 ppm of
fluoride is presented between depth from
30 to 34 m and 68 to 73 m.
As per GSDA resistivity logging data two
highly fracture, vesicular zones and cavities
demarcated between depth of 28.00 to
34.00 m and 68 to 74 m (Dharna normal
down and up logs in piezometer 1 & 2,
Plates no 23, 24, 25, 26).
Note: GSDA logger has struck from 28.00
to 35.00 m depth (cavities) and from
65.00 to 75.00 m depth (cavities)
while logging.
Recording of Borewell Data Pandarkawda, Yavatmal,
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Core Recovery Drill in percentage
<---LenghofRun(m)indepth
Series1
Plate No 27

43
4.3 Conclusions of Geophysical Investigation
Conclusions as per AB/2 = 16 m, AB/2 = 30 m, AB/2 = 60 m of Iso resistivity
maps interpretation
1). Iso resistivity map AB/2 = 16 m having fluoride mineral may filled as secondary
deposition in weathered/vesicular/fractured/jointed massive basalt zones shown in
blue and green color of north, northeast side is more in Dharana village, north side is
less in Sakara village and south side is medium in Kongara village.
light blue and green color of north, northeast side is more in Dharana village, north
side is very less in Sakara village and south side is less in Kongara village.
light blue and green color of north side is less in Dharana village, south and south
west side is less in Sakara village and south side is less in Kongara village.
Finally as per geophysical data, fluoride mineral may filled as secondary deposition in
weathered/vesicular/fractured/jointed massive basalt zones in Dharana village is more
at 16 m depth, in Sakara village is less at 30 m depth and in Kongara village is more at
60 m depth.
Conclusions as per cross sections, logs and VES interpretations
4). Cross sections L1, L11, L2, L3, Kongara log and Kongara VES having fluoride
mineral may filled as secondary deposition in vesicular, fractured massive basalt
19 m thickness at shallow depth from 15.5 m to 34.5 m and primary deposition in
Sand stone at deeper depth from 65.3 m onwards in Kongara village.
5). Cross sections L4, L5, L6, Sakara log and Sakara VES having fluoride mineral may
filled as secondary deposition in vesicular, fractured massive basalt 16 m thickness
at medium depth from 47 m to 63 m depth and 14 m thickness at deeper depth from
73.84 m to 87.84 m depth and also primary deposition in Sand stone at deeper depth
from 109.84 m onwards in Sakara village.
6). Cross sections L5, L6, L7, Dharana log and Dharana VES having fluoride mineral
may filled as secondary deposition in fractured, vesicular massive basalt 7 m
thickness at shallow depth from 6 m to 13 m and 19 m thickness at medium depth
from 26 m to 41 m and also primary deposition in Sand stone at deeper depth
from 84 m onwards in Dharana village.

44
7). Dharna normal up and down logs in piezometers 1 & 2 having fluoride mineral may
filled as a secondary deposition in fractured massive basalt and cavities 6 m
thickness at medium depth from 28 m to 34 m depth, vesicular massive basalt 6 m
thickness at medium depth from 34 m to 40 m depth, fractured and vesicular
massive basalts 6 m thickness at medium depth from 40 m to 46 m depth, vesicular
and fractured massive basalt 6 m thickness at deeper depth from 68 m to 74 m
depth in Dharana village.
Finally as per geophysical data, fluoride mineral may filled as secondary
deposition in fractured & vesicular massive basalt zones in Kongara village from 15.5 m
to 34.5 m depth, in Sakara village from 47 m to 63 m depth and from 73.84 m to 87.84
m depth, in Dharana village from 6 m to 13 m depth and from 26 to 41 m depth.
Fluoride mineral may filled as primary deposition in Gondwana formation in
Kongara village from 65.3 m depth onwards, in Sakara village from 109.84 m depth
onwards, in Dharana village from 84 m depth onwards.

45
5.0 Chemical Analysis of Groundwater
Figure 1 Dental fluorosis
Figure 2 - Skeletal Fluorosis
It is considered to undertake Purpose Driven studies in the chronically affected Yavatmal
district of Maharashtra. Capping of Deccan basalt covers the area selected for project..
Groundwater Surveys and Development Agency envisages to undertake the above
mentioned project so as to understand and mitigate the root cause of fluoride
contamination, in terms of its depth and aerial extension. For this purpose 3 villages are
selected on a pilot basis where fluoride contamination is above permissible limits. Due to
the weathered nature of the trap, it will be useful to mitigate the artificial recharge of
aquifer to delineate the problem

46
Chemical analysis
Water samples from above said villages were collected in polyethylene bottles between
the year 2009-2011 and to till days and analysed for, pH, EC, TDS, F-
, Cl-
, NO3
-
, SO4
2-
,
Ca2+
, Mg2+
, Na+
, Fe2+
and K+
as per standard procedures for the examination of water
and waste water prepared and published by American public health association,
American water work association, Water pollution control federation. The F-
, NO3-
,SO4
2-
, Fe2+
ions were determined by Spectrophotometerically, F-
was also done by
ion selective electrode; Ca2+
and Mg2+
were analysed by EDTA method, while Na+
and K+ by emission mode of the atomic emission spectrotometer. Chemical standards
and blanks were run and replicate analysis of each sample was done for each
parameter and variations were ±5 - 10%.
Chemical data interpretation of Konghara village
In the technology of HP, the fluoride concentration varies from 0.6 to 3.5 ppm and
in case of DW the fluoride concentration varies from 0.2 to 1.7 ppm.
The chemical analysis results clearly indicate that the samples from deeper aquifers
have higher fluoride as compared to shallow aquifers
The chemical data also exhibits that the pH of ground water in deeper aquifers is
higher as compared to shallow aquifers.
As far as seasonal variation is concerned, the fluoride concentration was in the
following order, post monsoon < pre monsoon. The Graph 1 and Graph 2 clearly
indicates that the concentration of fluoride is higher for the pre monsoon and dilution
is observed after the post monsoon in both Handpump and Dugwell.
The concentrations of calcium are less where fluoride concentration found higher as
can be seen in Graph 10 and 12.
The concentrations of sodium are mores where fluoride concentration found higher
as can be seen Graph 11 and 13.

47
Graphical presentation of trend of Fluoride concentration in HP, Konghara village
Graph 1. Month versus fluoride concentration in Hand-pump of Konghara village.
The Graph 1 exhibit maximum fluoride concentration in the month of June (3.3 ppm)
in kongara village. The trend of fluoride concentration is lower in case of post monsoon
and higher concentration in case of pre monsoon .
Graphical representation of trend of Fluoride concentration in DW of village
Konghara
Graph 2 - Month versus fluoride concentration in Dug-well of Konghara village.
The Graph . 2 exhibit maximum fluoride concentration in the month of April (1.6 ppm) in
kongara village. The trend of fluoride concentration is lower in case of post monsoon
and higher concentration in case of pre monsoon .

48
Chemical data interpretation of Dharna village
In the technology of HP, the fluoride concentration varies from 1.0 to 6.9 ppm and
in case of DW the fluoride concentration varies from 0.6 to 2.2 ppm.
have higher fluoride as compared to shallow aquifers.
is observed after the post monsoon in both HP and DW technology.
can be seen .
as can be seen .
Graphical representation of trend of Fluoride concentration in HP, Dharana village
Graph 3- Month versus fluoride concentration in Hand-pump of Dharna village.
The Graph 3 exhibit maximum fluoride concentration in the month of June (6.1 ppm)
in Dharana village. The trend of fluoride concentration is lower in case of post monsoon
and higher concentration in case of pre monsoon.

49
Graphical representation of trend of Fluoride concentration in DW, Dharana
village
Graph 4 Month versus fluoride concentration in Dug-well of Dharna
The Graph. 4 exhibit maximum fluoride concentration in the month of June 2011 in
Dharana village. The trend of fluoride concentration is lower i.e. 1.0 ppm in case of
post monsoon and higher concentration in case of pre monsoon .i.e.2.2 ppm.
Chemical data interpretation of Sakhara village
In the technology of HP, the fluoride concentration varies from 1.0 to 2.8 ppm and in
case of DW the fluoride concentration varies from 0.6 to2. 4 ppm.
have higher fluoride as compared to shallow aquifers
is observed after the post monsoon in both HP and DW technology.
can be seen
as can be seen

50
Graphical representation of trend of Fluoride concentration in Sakhara for HP
Graph 5 - Month versus fluoride concentration in Hand-pump of Sakhara village.
The trend of fluoride concentration is lower in case of post monsoon (Sept. 2009 to Feb.
2010) and Jul. 2010 to December 2010 and higher concentration in case of pre
monsoon ( March –June 2010).
Graphical representation of trend of Fluoride concentration in Sakhara for DW
Graph 6 Month versus fluoride concentration in Dug-well of Sakhara village.
The trend of fluoride concentration is lower in case of post monsoon i.e.0.8 ppm and
higher concentration in case of pre monsoon i.e.2.2 ppm.

51
Trend observed in groundwater of study area.
Graph 7 - Trend of Calcium & Fluoride in Hand-pump
Graph 7 exhibits the Trend between calcium and fluoride. As the concentration of
fluoride increases with respect to it the concentration of calcium decreases. This
shows that there is inverse Trend .
Graph 8- Trend of Sodium & Fluoride in Hand-pump
Graph 8 exhibits the Trend between Sodium and fluoride. As the concentration of
fluoride increases with respect to it the concentration of Sodium increases. This shows
that there is direct Trend .

52
Graph 9 - Trend of Calcium & Fluoride in Dug-well
Graph 9 exhibits the Trend between calcium and fluoride. As the concentration of
fluoride increases with respect to it the concentration of calcium decreases. This
shows that there is inverse Trend .
Graph 10- Trend of Calcium & Fluoride in Dug-well
Graph 10 exhibits the Trend between Sodium and fluoride. As the concentration of
fluoride increases with respect to it the concentration of Sodium increases. This
shows that there is direct Trend .

53
Variation of Fluoride in case of Piezometer in study area : Graphical
representation of trend of Fluoride concentration.
Graph – 11 Depth wise Fluoride concentration of Konghara village
Graph 11 exhibits that there is the fluoride concentration of Konghara pizometer
1,2,3 (Depth 70 meter,60 meter,35 meter)varies from 3.6 to 4.2,2.0 to 2.4 and 2.2 to
3.1 ppm respectively .
have higher fluoride as compared to shallow aquifers .middle aquifer shows slightly
lower values than that of upper aquifer.
following order, post monsoon < pre monsoon. The Graph 11 clearly indicates that
the concentration of fluoride is higher for the pre monsoon and dilution is observed
after the pos monsoon.

54
Graphical representation of trend of Fluoride concentration.
Graph – 12 Depth wise Fluoride concentration of Dharana village .
Graph 12 exhibits that the fluoride concentration of Dharana pizometer 1,2,3 and
4 (Depth 75.2meter,56.9 meter,30 meter and 7.9 meter)varies from 5.1 to 6.1,3.7
to 4.0 ,2.8 to 3.2 and 3.8 to 4.3 ppm respectively .
have higher fluoride as compared to shallow aquifers .middle aquifer shows slightly
lower values than that of upper aquifer.

55
Graphical representation of trend of Fluoride concentration.
Graph – 13 Depth wise Fluoride concentration of Sakhara village .
Graph 13 exhibits that there is the fluoride concentration of Sakhara pizometer
1,2,3 (Depth 74.2 meter,49.5 meter,26.3 meter)varies from 4.0 to 4.8,2.8 to 3.4
and 1.7 to 2.7 ppm respectively .
have higher fluoride as compared to shallow aquifers .

56
Calcium, Fluoride and Sodium Trend observed in Piezometer of study area.
Graphical representation of calcium ,Sodium and Fluoride Trend in Konghara
Peizometer.
Graph 14- Calcium trend of Konghara Pizometer
Graph 15 - Fluoride trend of Konghara Pizometer
Graph 16 – Sodium trend of Konghara Pizometer
Graph 14, 15, 16 exhibits the Trend between calcium sodium and fluoride. As the
concentration of fluoride increases with respect to it the concentration of calcium
decreases. This shows that there is inverse Co- relation .As the concentration of
shows that there is direct Co- relation .

57
Graphical representation of calcium ,Sodium and Fluoride Co- relation in
Dharana Peizometer.
Graph 17 – Calcium trend of Dharana Pizometer
Graph 18 – Fluoride trend of Dharana Pizometer
Graph 19 – Sodium trend of Dharana Piezometer
Graph 17, 18, 19 exhibits the trend between calcium sodium and fluoride. As the

58
Graphical representation of Calcium , Sodium and Fluoride trend in Sakhara
Peizometer.
Graph 20 – Calcium trend of Sakhara Piezometer
Graph 21 – Fluoride trend of Sakhara Piezometer
Graph 22– Sodium trend of Sakhara Pizometer .
Graph 20, 21, 22 exhibits the trend between calcium sodium and fluoride. As the

59
Overall Chemical analysis of groundwater reveals following findings;
Area under study reveals following points during analysis.
1) Fluoride observed in shallow aquifer have less concentration than deeper
aquifer.
2) Concentration higher in case of summer and slight dilution occurs after
monsoon.
3) Semiarid climate plays important role for increase the conc. as the
temperature rises.
4) Water quality analysis reports show that Ca mg/lit content in GW inversely
proportional to the content of Fluoride in ppm.
5) Water quality analysis reports show that Na mg/lit content in GW directly
proportional to the content of Fluoride in ppm.
6) Depletion of water table during late summer and decrease in percentage
rainfall has affected the quality detoriate of groundwater resulting in increase
of Fluoride content .
7) Significantly the Fluoride Content is more in the deeper aquifer than in shallow
one.
Identified water quality related issue and possible remedial measures
Recommendation
Nalgonda technique
The Nalgonda technique was developed by the National Environment Engineering
Research Institute (NEERI) in Nagpur (India) in the 1960s and has since mainly been
implemented in India. The process involves adding aluminum sulphate (Al2(SO4)3) and
lime to raw water. Theory
The addition of aluminum sulphate to raw water results in the creation of insoluble
aluminum hydroxide flocks. Then, by the processes of coagulation/flocculation and
sedimentation, part of the initial fluorine concentration can be removed from the water
as a solid. The addition of lime ensures an optimal removal pH of around 6-7, which
allows the complete precipitation of aluminum. The second effect of the lime is to help to
form dense flocs for rapid settling. The reactions involved in this process are (WHO,
2006):

60
Aluminum dissolution
Al2(SO4)318H20 ↔ 2Al3+ + 3SO4 2- + 18H20
Aluminium precipitation
2Al3+ + 6H20 ↔ 2Al(OH3) + 6H+
Co-precipitation
F- + Al(OH)3 ↔ Al-F complex + undefined product
pH adjustment
6Ca(OH)2 + 12H+ ↔ 6Ca2+ + 12H2O
The Nalgonda technique can be implemented at a household level with the use of a
bucket (Figure 2.1) or at community level with a tank.
Nalgonda

61
Schematic diagram and domestic TERAFIL water filter.
Three most common domestic units for sorption de-fluoridation.
Bone charcoal is a blackish, porous, granular material.
calcium phosphate 57–80 per cent,
calcium carbonate 6–10 per cent,
activated carbon 7–10 per cent.

62
The TDS and Fluoride removal plant, based on Ion exchange and
Reverse osmosis process.
Introduction :
• In collaboration with TATA Consultancy Services Ltd., Pune
CSV has introduced a low cost water filter made from rice
husk ash. The filter is very cheap and can be fabricated at
the village level by the women folk, with very little
investment. The filter is very hygienic and kills about 98%
bacterial in the water and keeps it free from fluorides and
arsenic.
The Water Purifier consist Three Main Parts
1. Filter Bed 2. Plastic Bucket 3. Mud Pot
1. Manufacturing of Filter Bed
Fabrication of Filter Element : The fabrication of the filter bed
(cartridge comprises of three main process:
Preparation of treatment of rice husk ash
Container preparation
Casting of filter bed
Cost – Rs 350/- Filter
Bed
Water Filter

63
6.0 Artificial Recharge Structures proposed for Fluoride mitigation
The major aim of the artificial recharge projects is to augment groundwater storage.
In study area the recharge measures are planned with an objective of augmenting
groundwater storage to improve the water quality by improving water availability. The
techno economic feasibility of the recharge projects need to be combined with different
schemes like minor irrigation tanks, aforestation, soil conservation, etc thus having a
approach of overall drainage basin level development. Phreatic aquifer will be best
benefited more easily than the confined aquifer. In the vesicular basalts and jointed
basalts, the calcareous material present as secondary filling in vesicles, cavities and
joints subsequently get dissolved by recharged water. This tend to accelerate the
recharge rate.
In rainy season the vesicular basalt and massive basalt with secondary porosity get
naturally recharged. With offset of monsoon the water levels of aquifers start
depleting which further gets depleted by the winter crop irrigation ( Rabbi cropping
season) resulting in drying up of these moderate to poor aquifers. Hence, it is
necessary to construct the water conservation structures along with the artificial
recharge structures so as to elongate the period of groundwater recharge and its
sustainability.
Considering source water availability and hydrogeological properties of formations to
receive the recharged water play important role in augmenting groundwater recharge.
The action plan proposed for runoff conservation and artificial recharge by
conventional and unconventional measures is as follows;
1. Rejuvenation of the existing structures.
2. Construction of new conservation and recharge structures.
a. Unconventional measures.
b. Conventional measures.
6.1.1. Rejuvenation of the existing structures
Techno-Economic feasibility is the aim of our project so rejuvenation work is the
suited frame for achieving the objective. In two of the three villages of study area viz.

64
Dharna and Sakhara Bk. there are present a number of existing Cement Plug/Check
Dam/Nala Bund. In village Dharna there are three existing cement plugs and in
Sakhra Bk. there are two cement plugs. Rejuvenation of these existing structures is
proposed so as to increase the storage capacity of these cement plugs which have
been affected due to silting. Hence, to get maximum prolonged storage benefit from
these structures to upstream side of the structure nala deepening (drainage
deepening) by 2.00 meters and straightening upto 400mtrs with width of 4 to 6 meter
width approximately as per the field condition is proposed. The proposed measure is
expected to store 4.8 TCM water which is 3.8TCM more than the previous storage
capacity. Well deepening upto full aquifer depth with the well recharging pits is also
proposed.
Advantages :
1) It will not involve any land acquisition issue as would have been a case with other
conservation structures like Percolation tank, village pond or farm Ponds etc.
2) Co-operation from the beneficiaries for facilitating the rejuvenation work will be
there as they are very much aware of the benefits of the existing structures.
3) As mentioned above the utility of the existing structures is increased with
increased storage capacity of the rejuvenated structure thus achieving
Techno-economic feasibility.
6.1.2. Construction of new conservation and recharge structures
The number of recharge structures required to store and recharge the groundwater
reservoir have been worked out as follows :
6.1.2.a). Unconventional measures
i) Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting
In this measure the Rain Water is collected, filtered using proper filtration media and
is stored or recharged directly to ground water either in wells or borewells.
The Handpumps from the three villages of study area are recommended for
Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting. In village Dharna the Handpump near Primary Zilla
Parishad School building and other near the Gram Panchayat building and one in the

65
new vasti are proposed for recharge. In village Sakhara Bk. the Dual Pump near the
National Highway at the entrance of village is proposed for roof top rain water
harvesting. In village Konghara , all the seven handpumps are recommended for
proposed structure.
Groundwater Surveys and Development Agency has developed unconventional
techniques for strengthen of drinking water sources. These techniques include the
following structures;
i) Jacket Well Technique (JW) : Well jacketing in hard rock areas increases
effective diameter of the well artificially, thereby increase in the storativity and
improves transmissivity of the aquifer. Boreholes to a depth little less than of the well
to be jacketed are drilled in a circular pattern around the targeted well. Subsequently
blasting is carried out so as to create artificial fractures in the compact rock. These
bores sometimes are drilled in semi circular (‘Half Well Jacketing’)or any other
desired pattern depending on the prevalent topographical and hydrogeological
conditions.
In study area in village Sakhara Bk. and Konghara the Public Water Supply Source
well is on the nala bank. There half well jacketing of both the wells is recommended.
ii) Stream Blast Technique (SBT) : This technique is used for those wells which are
located on river/nala bank. It is recommended for those wells which become dry or
partially dry and the yield is decreased in summer season. It develop a hydraulic
connectivity of the groundwater flowing below the nala bed with the source well.
In village Dharna, the Public Water Supply Source well is due NorthEast of the nala
confluence. It is at a considerable distance from both the nala banks and dries by the
end of February or middle of March depending on the rainfall received that year.
Stream blast technique is proposed to divert the subsurface flow and to develop a
hydraulic connectivity of the groundwater flowing below the nala bed and the source
well.
iii) Fracture Seal Cementation (FSC) : This technique is applied to stop
groundwater movement and increase the sustainability of groundwater in shallow
aquifer. It is suitable in disintegrated rock combined with fractures and granular

66
porosity. This technique creates a ‘Cut-Off-Wall’ or ‘Underground Bandhara’ in hard
rock formation where conventional ‘Cut-Off-Wall’ construction is too costly. In this
technique two rows of boreholes are drilled to a depth of depth little more than the
dug wells of targeted area. Through these bores cement slurry is injected under
desirable pressure so as to seal the existing fractures and openings.
In village Dharna a FSC structure is proposed on the nala flowing between gat no. 66
and gat no. 67 to arrest the subsurface groundwater movement from the Public Water
Supply Source well present due North East of the drainage.
6.1.2.B). Conventional measures
i) Cement Plug : A cement bandhara is proposed in village Dharna on the
nala flowing in gat no.67 due South West of the Public Water Supply
Source well.
ii) Storage/Recharge Pits : A number of recharge pits are proposed to the
Irrigation dug wells in all the villages of study area.
7.0 Conclusion and Recommendation
1) Core drilling report revealed that Deccan trap is capping the sedimentary
Gondwana formation. Thickness of capping at village Dharana in the BW is found to
be 86 mtrs.
2) The petrography and geochemical study of the borewell core reveals that more
concentration of fluorite occurs as secondary fillings in vesicles and fractures i.e, the
weak zones in trap (as per GSI report).
3) The petrography and geochemical study of the borewell core reveals presence of
four distinct flows and concentration of fluorite is more in Ist, (0-6.45mt.) II ,(6.45-
32.82)and IVth ,(57.49-85.25) basaltic flow.
4) Study of the rainfall of two rainy season shows that the fluoride concentration in
the groundwater depends upon monsoon rainfall of the area. If the rainfall is more
fluoride concentration is less. (In dug well of village Dharna when Rainfall was
1153mm in year 2010 fluoride conc. was found 1.4 ppm in the month of June 2010

67
whereas rainfall in year 2011 was 839 mm the fluoride conc. was 2.2 ppm in the
month of June 2011).
4) Dilution can be a solution for the higher concentration of Fluoride. Hence it is
recommended to construct various artificial recharge and water conservation
structures in the study area. It will dilute the water thus reducing the fluoride
concentration and improve the water quality. (In village Dharna Dug well located in
down stream of check dam having fluoride conc. 1.8 ppm in the month of April and
becomes 1.2 ppm in month of July.
5) The water conservation and groundwater recharge structures together will definitely
improve and increase in agriculture and dairy products of the area. With this
prosperity Calcium rich diet will be another facilitation to cope up with the effects of
Fluoride contamination.
6) Locally made Rice Husk Adsorption Filter, at village - Dattapur available in the
adjoining Wardha District can also be used for defluoridation. It is also a cheap filter
with minimum maintanence and costs upto Rs. 350/- . It is useful in areas where the
fluoride concentration is upto 2.5 ppm. This filter reduces fluoride concentration up
to 1ppm.

68
REFERENCES:
1) N.V.Ramamohana Rao, N.Rao, K.Suryaprakash Rao, R.D. Schuiling (1993)
Fluorine distribution in waters of Nalgonda District, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Environmental geology Vol.21 pp84-89.
2) V.Ramesam and K.Rajagopalan (1985) Fluoride ingestion into the natural waters of
hardrock areas, Peninsular India. Journal Geological Society of India, pp125-132.
3) A.Pekdeger, N.Ozgur, H-J Schneider (1990) High fluorine content in aqueous
system of the Golcuk Lake drainage area, Ispatra Western Taurides. The
International Earth Sciences Congress on Aegean Regions pp 160-170.
4) Ren Fuhong and Jiao Shquin (1988) Distribution and formation of high fluorine
groundwater in China. Environmental Geological Water Science. Vol 12 no.1 pp 3-
10.
5) S.V.B.K.Bhagvan and V.Raghu (2005), Utility of check dams in dilution of fluoride
concentration in groundwater and the resultant analysis of blood serum and urine of
villagers Anantpur District Andhra Pradesh, India. Environmental Geochemistry and
Health - 27 pp97-108.
6) Vinod Agrawal, A.K.Vaish and Prerna Vaish (1997) Groundwater quality : Focus on
fluoride and fluorosis in Rajasthan. Current Science Vol.73 no.9 pp743-746.
7) D.R.Chanda and S.R.Tamta (1999) Occurrence and Origin of groundwater fluoride
in phreatic zone of Unnao District Uttar Pradesh. Journal of Applied Geochemistry.
Vol 1 pp 21-26.
8) Uri Kafri, Arnon Arad and Ludwick Halicz (1989) Fluorine occurrence in groundwater
in Israel and its significance. Journal of Hydrology vol106 pp109-129
9) S.K.Pande ad S.N. Bisen (2009) Seasonal variation of fluoride in the groundwater
from Drgapur Coal Mine area, District -Chandrapur, Maharashtra. Gondwana
Geological Magazine vol24(2)pp117-121.
10)Chatterji A., Bhai H. Y. and Devashish Saha,1986 – 87: Systematic Geological
Mapping in parts of Yavatmal District (55L/8). Unpublished report, GSI, CR.
11)Das Sanjay & Rais Anwar, 2009: The source of Fluoride and its dispersion in land
water system around Lathi and Lilya, Amreli district, Gujarat. Journal of Applied
Geochemistry, Vol.11, No.2, pp 221-253.

69
12)Gonnade G. & Joshi C., 2007: Geochemical Studies in parts of Yavatmal District
Maharashtra for Assessment of Water Quality vis-à-vis Health Hazard Risk,
Unpublished report, GSI, Central Region, Nagpur
13) Liuyong Zhuwan Hua, 1990: Environmental characteristics of Regional
groundwaters in relation to Fluoride Poisioning in North China. Environmental
Geol. Water Science vol.18; no.13; pp 3-10.
14)Prembabu & Bhai H. Y., 2008: Geoenvironmental studies to detect and delineate
the zones of high fluoride and other toxic elements in groundwater and
identification of probable source and causative factors of contimination in
Yavatmal District, Maharashtra,Unpublished report, GSI, CR.

70
Photographs
IEC Workshop at PDS Village Dharna on 28/03/2011 under Hydrology Project –II aided
Purpose Driven Study Project by Groundwater Surveys and Development Agency,
District – Yavatmal

72
Core Drilling at village Dharna, Taluka Pandharkawda under Hydrology Project –II aided
Purpose Driven Study Project by Groundwater Surveys and Development Agency,
District – Yavatmal

73
Piezometer construction at village Dharna, Taluka Pandharkawda under Hydrology
Project –II aided Purpose Driven Study Project by Groundwater Surveys and
Development Agency, District – Yavatmal

74
Piezometer Nest and its monitoring for chemical quality of groundwater at village
Dharna, Taluka Pandharkawda under Hydrology Project –II aided Purpose Driven Study
Project by Groundwater Surveys and Development Agency, District – Yavatmal

RECORDING OF BOREHOLE DATA
: 1 Unit No. : 414
: North of Dharna village R.L. of Borehole Collar : +273 m(GPS)
: 20° 06' 36" R.L. of Borehole Bottom : 173 m
: 78° 35' 13" Azimuth : vertical
: 06-02-10
: 28-02-2010
: 100m
: Not available
: Not available
: Recorded after 54m
Annexure:1 Detailed Bore hole Logging, Dharna village, Panadarkawada taluka, Yawatmal district, Maharashtra.
Sl No. Box/Run
Length of
Run (m)
To From (m) (%) (m) (%)
1. 1/1 0 .5 0.50 - - - -
2 1/2 0.5 1.0 0.50 - - - -
3 1/3 1.0 1.5 0.50 - - - -
4 1/4 1.5 2.0 0.50 - - - -
5 1/5 2.0 2.5 0.50 - - - -
6 1/6 2.5 3.0 0.50 - - - -
7 2/7 3.0 3.2 0.20 - - - -
8 2/8 3.2 3.4 0.20 - - - -
9 2/9 3.4 3.6 0.20 - - - -
10 2/10 3.6 3.7 0.10 - - - -
11 2/11 3.7 4.0 0.30 - - - -
12 2/12 4.0 4.3 0.30 - - - -
13 2/13 4.3 4.5 0.20 - - - -
14 2/14 4.5 4.7 0.20 0.17 85 0.11 55
Date of commencement
Date of Completion
Total depth of borehole drilled
Borehole No.
Location
Latitude
Longitude
Core Recovery Drill
Core
Rock Quality Designate
Dark grey, fine grained, Giant Plagioclase Basalts (GPB) with amygdales. Phenocrysts
of plagioclase (up to 3cm)are recorded. Secondary filling of quartz, zeolites
(apophylite, stilbite etc) are recorded.
Reddish grey, medium grained basalt. Secondary fracture filling of quartz,
fluorite(?)are recorded.
Dark grey weathered bed rock (basalt) with clay. Amygdules are recorded. The rock is
powdery due to weathering.
Dark grey, friable rock ( Giant Plagioclase Basalt)
Dark grey, friable rock ( Giant Plagioclase Basalt)
Light grey coloured, kankary, calcrete rich loose soil (with clay) developed over
basaltic rock.
Light grey coloured, kankary, calcrete rich loose soil (with clay) developed over
basaltic rock.
Grey,clayey to silty weathered bed rock with amygdules and lithic fragments
Dark grey less kankary clay rich soil, developed over basaltic rock.
Dark grey less kankary clay rich soil,developed over basaltic rock. There is a increase
in clay content
in clay content
in clay content
Yellowish grey weathered bed rock, amygdales of quartz, calcite, zeolites are recorded
Grey,clayey to silty weathered bed rock with amygdules and lithic fragments
Depth of Water table
Depth of casing and size
Water loss
Lithology
Drill Run (m)

15 3/15 4.7 5.0 0.30 0.15 50 0.15 50
16 3/16 5.0 5.4 0.40 0.31 77.50 0.15 37.50
17 3/17 5.4 6.45 1.05 0.96 91.43 0.70 66.67
18 3/18 to 4/18 6.45 7.85 1.40 1.40 100 1.12 80
19 4/19 7.85 8.65 1.20 0.80 66.67 0.60 50
20 4/20 8.65 9.25 0.60 0.60 100 0.50 83.33
21 5/21 9.25 12.25 3.00 2.80 93.33 1.85 61.67
22 6/22 12.25 12.45 0.20 0.20 100 0.10 50
23 6/23 12.45 13.70 1.25 1.22 97.60 1.09 87.20
24 6/24 to7/24 13.7 14.4 1.70 0.61 35.88 0.43 25.29
25 7/25 14.4 15.05 0.65 0.63 96.92 0.47 72.31
26 7/26 15.05 16.40 1.35 1.35 100 1.35 100
27 7/26 16.40 17.20 0.80 0.74 92.50 0.54 67.50
28 7/27 to 8/27 17.20 20.10 2.90 2.90 100 2.37 81.72
29 8/28 to 9/28 20.10 23.20 3.10 2.90 93.55 2.75 88.71
30 9/29 to 10/29 23.20 26.20 3.00 3.00 100 2.60 86.67 Dark greenish grey, massive porphyritic basalt with very few amygdules. Amygdules
are mainly cryptocrystalline quartz and chlorophyle. Secondary fracture fillings are
observed. large phenocrysts of plagioclase are seen (4.5 cm x .5cm)
Dark greenish grey, massive basalt with very few amygdules. Amygdules are mainly
cryptocrystalline quartz and chlorophyle. Secondary fracture fillings are observed.
Dark greenish grey, massive porphyritic basalt with very few amygdules. Amygdules
observed. large phenocrysts of plagioclase are seen .
Dark greenish grey, massive porphyritic basalt with very few amygdules. Amygdules
observed. large phenocrysts of plagioclase are seen (4.5 cm x .5cm)
Dark grey massive porphyritic basalt. Euhedral plagioclase phenocrysts are recorded.
Fracture fillings are mainly chlorophyle and yellowish minerals may be fluorite.
Dark grey massive porphyritic basalt. Here plagioclase phenocrysts show alignment
(almost horizontal).
Dark grey to blackish very hard, massive, fine grained basalt with phenocrysts of
plagioclase. Secondary fracture fillings are recorded. Amygdules are less.
Dark grey to blackish very hard, massive, fine grained basalt with phenocrysts of
plagioclase. Secondary fracture fillings are recorded. Amygdules are less.
Dark grey, massive basalt without vesicles.Yellowish to greenish phenocryst of
plagioclase are presents.Chloritic materials are seen.
Dark grey massive porphyritic basalt. Euhedral plagioclase phenocrysts of about 4.5
cm are recorded. Fracture fillings are mainly chlorophyle and yellowish minerals may
be fluorite (?)
Dark grey,fine grained, Giant Plagioclase Basalts (GPB) with amygdales. Phenocrysts
of plagioclase (up to 3cm)are recorded. Secondary filling of quartz, zeolites
Dark grey, fine grained, Giant Plagioclase Basalts (GPB) with amygdales. Phenocrysts
of plagioclase (upto 3cm)are recorded. Secondary filling of quartz, zeolites
Contact between GPB and massive, porphyritc basalt is recorded. Up to 5.7 m the
density of amygdules is more. It drastically decreases with depth.

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