IJLTER.ORG Vol 20 No 11 November 2021

International Journal
of
Learning, Teaching
And
Educational Research
p-ISSN:
1694-2493
e-ISSN:
1694-2116
IJLTER.ORG
Vol.20 No.11

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
(IJLTER)
Vol. 20, No. 11 (November 2021)
Print version: 1694-2493
Online version: 1694-2116
IJLTER
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER)
Vol. 20, No. 11
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically those of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations,
broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machines or similar means, and storage in data banks.
Society for Research and Knowledge Management

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational
Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal which has been
established for the dissemination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the
fields of learning, teaching and educational research.
Aims and Objectives
The main objective of this journal is to provide a platform for educators,
teachers, trainers, academicians, scientists and researchers from over the
world to present the results of their research activities in the following
fields: innovative methodologies in learning, teaching and assessment;
multimedia in digital learning; e-learning; m-learning; e-education;
knowledge management; infrastructure support for online learning;
virtual learning environments; open education; ICT and education;
digital classrooms; blended learning; social networks and education; e-
tutoring: learning management systems; educational portals, classroom
management issues, educational case studies, etc.
Indexing and Abstracting
Research is indexed in Scopus since 2018. The Journal is also indexed in
Google Scholar and CNKI. All articles published in IJLTER are assigned
a unique DOI number.

Foreword
We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of
Learning, Teaching and Educational Research.
Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal committed to
publishing high-quality articles in the field of education. Submissions
may include full-length articles, case studies and innovative solutions to
problems faced by students, educators and directors of educational
organisations. To learn more about this journal, please visit the website
http://www.ijlter.org.
We are grateful to the editor-in-chief, members of the Editorial Board
and the reviewers for accepting only high quality articles in this issue.
We seize this opportunity to thank them for their great collaboration.
The Editorial Board is composed of renowned people from across the
world. Each paper is reviewed by at least two blind reviewers.
We will endeavour to ensure the reputation and quality of this journal
with this issue.
Editors of the November 2021 Issue

VOLUME 20 NUMBER 11 November 2021
Table of Contents
Turning Windows into Mirrors: Digital Stories as a Teaching Strategy to Explore the Apprenticeship of
Observation in Pre-Service Teachers....................................................................................................................................1
Carolina S. Botha
Teachers’ Self-Efficacy and Online Teaching during COVID-19 Pandemic in Qatari Governmental Schools......... 17
Amani M. Allouh, Saba M. Qadhi, Mahmood A. Hasan, Xiangyun Du
The Motivations and Barriers of Teachers’ Professional Development Activities during the Movement Control
Order (MCO) – A Preliminary Insight ............................................................................................................................... 42
Asraf Hadzwan Ahmad Safian, Anidah Robani, Muliati Sedek
Language Learners’ Willingness to Communicate and Speaking Anxiety in Online versus Face-to-Face Learning
Contexts.................................................................................................................................................................................. 57
Nada Alqarni
Teacher Perspectives on the Impact of the Cyber Press on the Development of Religious Knowledge among
Hearing-Impaired Students................................................................................................................................................. 78
Ihsan Ghadivan Ali Assaree, Ibrahim Khalaf Suleiman Al-Khalidi
Engaging Pre-Service and In-Service Teachers in Online Mathematics Teaching and Learning: Problems and
Possibilities ............................................................................................................................................................................ 96
Roland G. Pourdavood, Xuan Song
Development of a Problem-Based Learning Management System-Supported Smartphone (PBLMS3) Application
Using the ADDIE Model to Improve Digital Literacy ................................................................................................... 115
Rahmat Rizal, Dadi Rusdiana, Wawan Setiawan, Parsaoran Siahaan
Character Education in the Pandemic Era: A Religious Ethical Learning Model through Islamic Education....... 132
Nadri Taja, Encep Syarief Nurdin, Aceng Kosasih, Edi Suresman, Tedi Supriyadi
Factors Associated with Student Enrollment, Completion, and Dropout of Massive Open Online Courses in the
Sultanate of Oman .............................................................................................................................................................. 154
Vinu Sherimon, P. C. Sherimon, Leena Francis, Disha Devassy, Teresa K. George
The Impact of Teacher Feedback Via Google Doc in L2 Learners’ Writing ................................................................ 170
Mohammed Abdullah Alharbi, Abdulrahman Alqefari
Factors Inducing Literature Anxiety for Students Studying Literature in English .................................................... 195
Agnes Wei Lin Liau, George Boon Sai Teoh
Effectiveness of the Flipped Classroom Strategy in Teaching Qur’an Recitation Skills and Attitude Towards It
among First Grade Students in Saudi Arabia.................................................................................................................. 215
Ali Tared Aldossari, Munirah Saud Alhamam

“Let Me Enjoy Teaching” Improving Academic Quality Assurance Practices to Attain Teaching Excellence: Case
Study of Selected Private Higher Education Institutions in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia ..................................... 237
Randa Hariri
Toward an Early Start for Head Start Children: Evidence from a Literacy Enrichment Starting at Age Three..... 255
Haiyan Zhang
Fusing the Jigsaw Method and Microsoft Teams: A Promising Online Pedagogy.................................................... 272
Malissa Maria Mahmud, Shiau Foong Wong
The Effects of Media Literacy-Based Activities on Writing Skills in the EFL Classroom.......................................... 288
Ji-Hyun Lee
Effectiveness of Gender Education in Ukraine as the Implementation of the Principle of Gender Parity ............. 306
Olga Shcholokova, Olena Karpenko, Zhanna Petrochko, Vira Kuzmenko, Tetyana Holubenko
Pre-Service Teachers’ Computer Self-Efficacy and the Use of Computers .................................................................325
Admire Chibisa, Mswazi Gladson Tshabalala, Mncedisi Christian Maphalala
Assessing for Learning: Teacher Training in Practice Involving 14 Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE)
Students................................................................................................................................................................................ 346
Elize (E. C.) Du Plessis
Predictors of Behavioural Intentions of Teachers to Adopt and Use Information and Communication
Technologies in Secondary Schools in Zimbabwe.......................................................................................................... 366
Norman Rudhumbu, Elizabeth Du Plessis, Patience Kelebogile Mudau
“I Teach the way I believe”: EFL Teachers’ Pedagogical Beliefs in Technology Integration and its Relationship to
Students’ Motivation and Engagement in the COVID 19 Pandemic Year ..................................................................387
Russell D’ Souza, Jayashree Premkumar Shet, Joel Alanya-Beltran, Korakod Tongkachok, Geena Hipolito-Pingol, Mohamed
Aboobucker Mohamed Sameem
Improving Students’ Critical Thinking through Oral Questioning in Mathematics Teaching.................................407
Muhammad Sofwan Mahmud, Wan Ahmad Munsif Wan Pa, Mohd Syazwan Zainal, Nadia Fasha Mohd Drus
The Autonomy of Indonesian EFL Students: A Mixed Method Investigation ........................................................... 422
M. Melvina, Nenden Sri Lengkanawati, Yanty Wirza
The Use of Critical Thinking Activities through Workshops to improve EFL Learners' Speaking Skills............... 444
Eliana Pinza-Tapia, Vanessa Toro, Karina Salcedo-Viteri, Fabian Paredes
Recommendations to Improve the Usability of Mobile Learning for Preschool Teachers in Africa: A Systematic
Scoping Review................................................................................................................................................................... 461
Monique De Wit, Nicola Ann Plastow
Enhancing Virtual Learning during the Crisis of COVID-19 Lockdown - A Case Study of a Higher Education
Institution in Maldives....................................................................................................................................................... 476
Mariyam Shareefa, Mohamed Muneez, Aaidha Hammad, Mariyam Shihama
Do EFL Teachers Reduce the Reading Gap in Qatar? A Study of Strategy Instruction in Government Schools... 494
Wafaa H. M. Morsy, Michael H. Romanowski, Xiangyun Du

1
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 1-16, November 2021
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.1
Received Aug 25, 2021; Revised Nov 04, 2021; Accepted Nov 18, 2021
Turning Windows into Mirrors: Digital Stories as a
Teaching Strategy to Explore the Apprenticeship of
Observation in Pre-Service Teachers
Carolina S. Botha
COMBER, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1693-5575
Abstract. This article shares the critical reflections of a teacher educator
who utilised digital stories as a teaching strategy in a professional
development module for final-year pre-service teachers. Action research,
through a participatory narrative inquiry approach, was employed, and
data were gathered from digital stories, scripts, and reflective essays. The
findings suggest that a platform was created for students to
collaboratively share their perceptions, beliefs, and memories regarding
teaching as a profession and to reflect on the impact that this lived
experience had on their developing professional identity and ideas of
good practice. Suggestions are made for recognising autobiographical
stories as essential to all facets of teacher education and for
acknowledging the influence of the apprenticeship of observation on
individual pre-service teachers and on teacher-training programme
curriculums.
Keywords: apprenticeship of observation; digital stories; narrative
inquiry; pre-service teachers; professional identity
1. Introduction
Regardless of the specific motivation individuals may have for initially deciding
to study teaching, they will be confronted with a significant transition once they
enter tertiary education and, subsequently, the teaching career. As early as 1975,
Dan Lortie, in his apprenticeship of observation, postulated that students did not
enter tertiary studies as blank slates, but instead came with a set of pre-
determined ideas about good practice in teaching that had a profound influence
on their developing professional identity (Lortie, 1975). In 2009, Palmer et al.
(2009) speculated that these perceptions and experiences that students had before
they entered university might not receive the adequate academic scrutiny that
they deserved and needed.

2
http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter
In traditional lecture halls, students are often required to only look through
windows, as they are often only confronted with the lenses of the epistemological
and ontological view of the lecturer or the institution instead of being empowered
to, through critical thinking and reflective practice, turn those windows into
mirrors. This article reflects on a teaching strategy where space was created,
through digital storytelling, for final-year pre-service teachers to explore the
abovementioned aspects by unpacking their lived experience and memories that
influenced their career choice and the subsequent conceptualisation of their
professional identity (Gholami et al., 2021).
Stories are an effective and emotional tool to create context and to explain,
understand, and share phenomena and emotions. It is a way of seeking meaning
and making sense of experiences, and a positive way of creating identity. Since
Schön (1983) advocated the significance of reflection for learning, many
approaches have been utilised to explore teacher experience and practice and to
offer a platform for the voices of teachers to be heard (Botha, 2017). Freire’s (1970)
theory of critical pedagogy postulates that a person’s lived experience should be
the foundation for learning.
This paper is grounded in the notion that autobiographical experience, memories,
and life history should be recognised as essential to all facets of teacher education
and that these stories have the power to influence their professional identity as
future praxis. Lambert (2010, p. 10) comments that “finding and clarifying stories
helps people to understand the context of their lives”. This process of self-
reflection helps one “move from an awareness of ‘I am’ to a deeper awareness of
‘I have been … I am becoming … I am … and I will be …’” (Lambert, 2010, p. 10).
In line with the recommendation of Dwyer et al. (2017) and Eichsteller (2019), I
choose to use the term “narrative inquiry” instead of “storytelling” when referring
to the unpacking of these experiences. As rationalisation, Dwyer et al. (2017)
emphasise Aristotle’s use of narrative as the natural framework for representing
the world of action. Narratives provide explanations of everyday sense making
through stories. Within this framework, this paper, therefore, utilises digital
storytelling as a form of participatory narrative inquiry to explore the
apprenticeship of observation in pre-service teachers.
2. Evidence and theories overview
2.1 The apprenticeship of observation
Together with constructivist thinkers such as Piaget (1970), Lortie (1975) and
Vygotsky (1978) have explored the powerful influence that prior learning and
previous experiences can have on the perceptions and experiences of pre-service
teachers. The notion of the apprenticeship of observation refers to the lasting
influence of the years that students spent as observers as learners in schools where
they formed an idea of what they thought good teaching practice was, based on
what they saw their teachers doing (Lortie, 1975). These pre-conceived notions are
largely one-dimensional, imaginary, unexamined, and remarkably resistant to
change and do not encompass the true complexity of teaching (Botha, 2020;
Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005; Mewborn & Tyminski, 2006; Reyneke &

3
Botha, 2019). Lortie (1975) warns that by only seeing what teachers do in class and
not having any insight into their thinking, planning, and pedagogical decision
making, pre-service teachers will most probably never connect teaching objectives
and teacher actions. They may not realise that teachers are constantly making
pedagogical choices between different teaching strategies or considering the
various types of knowledge, skills, and values they have to convey during a
lesson.
In addition, this apprenticeship of observation has an impact on and contributes
to the conceptualisation of the already developing professional identity of a pre-
service teacher. In light of this, teacher educators may seek to provide
opportunities for individual deconstruction and the unpacking of these
perceptions instead of avoiding the acknowledgement of the presence of this
apprenticeship in the lives of their students (Botha, 2020; Darling-Hammond,
2006). Digital stories, through the lens of participatory narrative inquiry, provide
a suitable vehicle to explore these autobiographical memories of students to elicit
the impact that this apprenticeship could have on their developing professional
identity.
2.2 Digital stories
Digital life stories are grounded in critical pedagogy (Freire, 1970) and the social
learning theory (Bandura, 2001), which develops the idea of modelling and self-
modelling. Such stories, according to Kim and Li (2020, p. 1), are three- to six-
minute video vignettes through which students can “engage in critical reflection
about their experiences, participate actively in the learning process, and give voice
to their identities”. In such videos, a first-person voiceover is used with selected
visual material that has been sourced specifically to address a particular theme.
Creating these stories inevitably becomes an emotive experience. Additional
advantages of these stories over traditional storytelling comprise the option of
including emotional and affective content through enhanced creativity and the
freedom to use one’s imagination, involve personal motivation, and offer
opportunities for collaboration (Fleer, 2018; Lambert, 2010; Robin, 2008; Yocom et
al., 2020). Further benefits identified in the literature include the user’s
development of personal and professional identity (Fleer, 2018; Kim & Li, 2020),
the enhancement of academic skills (Marais, 2021), such as digital searching or
oral and writing, and its service as a transformative tool for a variety of contexts
(Dahlström & Damber, 2020; Kearney, 2011). Digital stories are often
interdisciplinary and participatory (Robin, 2008) and have the potential to be a
catalyst for great power and personal growth (Kim & Li, 2020). This strategy is,
therefore, a deliberate effort to combine technological applications with pre-
determined pedagogical approaches. This may include using embodied
pedagogies on a real-life platform for authentic stories that portrays not only
ownership of the story but also a reflection on past and future motivation and
behaviour.
2.3 Participatory narrative inquiry
Clandinin and Rosiek (2007) build on the work of Dewey when they advocate a
pragmatic ontology of experiences where all of an individual’s experiences grow
from other experiences that are located somewhere on the continuum of that

4
person’s past, present, or future. In addition, Connelly and Clandinin (2006, p.
477) highlight the following:
[P]eople shape their daily lives by stories of who they and others are and
as they interpret their past in terms of these stories. Story, in the current
idiom, is a portal through which a person enters the world and by which
their experience of the world is interpreted and made personally
meaningful.
Such a participatory paradigm requires a focus on critical subjectivity where
knowledge is created through critical self-reflection and reflexive dialogue
(Wood, 2020). This promotes the acceptance of multiple ways of knowing,
multiple realities, and an openness to alternative ways of understanding the
world and contexts people live in. In addition, it creates space for narrative
inquiry as a valid methodology.
Narrative inquiry thus presents a suitable vehicle for an action research approach
to exploring the stories and lived experience of pre-service teachers (Ding &
Curtis, 2020). Lived experience and experiences of a specific personal and social
context are explored (interaction) whilst transcending boundaries of past, present,
and future (continuity). According to Bell (2002), researchers should acknowledge
that stories do not exist in a vacuum but are constantly restructured and retold as
new events unfold and new interpretations of older events become available.
When storytelling, in this case digital storytelling, is considered as a way of
participatory narrative inquiry, the content of and reflection on the story become
more important than the making and telling of the story. The hidden meanings
are explored, and both the storyteller (pre-service teacher) and the listener
(researcher) are invited to critically reflect on their own experience and the
influence of this story on their conceptualised reality. In the context of this study,
digital stories are used to explore the impact of the apprenticeship of observation
and the subsequent development of the professional identity of pre-service
teachers. The principles of narrative inquiry were employed to answer the
following research question that guided the study: How can digital storytelling
be used as a participatory tool to explore the developing professional identity of
pre-service teachers?
3. Methodology
The original intent of this digital story assignment was to explore the life stories
and lived experience of participants as part of an academic module in a pre-
service teacher education programme. It soon became clear that there was much
to be learnt from this endeavour, and the subsequent aim became to analyse these
stories as a means of exploring the impact of the apprenticeship of observation on
the creation of these stories. In addition, I realised that there was an opportunity
to explore the value of these stories in the development of the professional identity
of these pre-service teachers. As this was an activity that span several weeks, had
several components, and fostered self-reflection with the goal of personal and
social transformation, an action research approach was used for the study. In the
following section, the methodology used during this endeavour will be unpacked
by introducing the participants (the storytellers), exploring the ethics of care with

5
which this research was undertaken, and sharing the process of data gathering
and analysis.
3.1 The storytellers
The participants in the study were enrolled for an eight-credit, 12-week teaching
methodology module in a pre-service teaching programme at a university in
South Africa. This second-semester module is presented in the fourth and thus
final year of the pre-graduate programme, and the focus of the module is the
culmination of modules scaffolding professional development. The students
were, therefore, expected to display the knowledge, skills, and values regarding
the development of their professional identity throughout their pre-service
teaching programme and teaching practice experiences at schools.
The demographic composition of the students was very diverse in terms of
gender, language, and race. The cohort of the study consisted of 44 students, of
which 74% were female and 26% male, and 65% spoke Afrikaans and 35% English.
Of the 44 students, 34 were white, five coloured, and five black.
3.2 An ethics of care
Sharing stories and experiences can be a very personal experience, and it is,
therefore, crucial that a culture and a relationship of trust and mutual respect exist
between the teacher educator and the students before such an activity is
undertaken. Connelly and Clandinin (2006) point out that in a narrative inquiry
endeavour, negotiation about respect, mutuality, and openness to include
multiple voices is essential.
Building a relationship and creating rapport are essential parts of preparing for
an action research endeavour. In an effort to create trust and a feeling of safety for
the students to share their stories, I introduced the assignment by presenting my
own digital story about the development of my professional identity as a teacher
and, subsequently, as a teacher educator. I was honest and shared both the joys
and the struggles I had experienced in my career thus far. I acknowledged my
own apprenticeship of observation and admitted that I regarded it as both a joy
and a burden that I possibly played a role in the forming of the apprenticeship of
observations of my students. Sharing my own story in the format expected for the
assignment served as an opportunity not only to create a safe space but also to
motivate the students to share their own lived experience, expectations, and
perceptions regarding teaching as a career. It also served to address power
imbalances in the room.
Ethical approval for this study was obtained through the appropriate institutional
channels. At the onset of the assignment, all students enrolled for the module were
invited to provide informed consent should they agree to their stories being
shared on the online learning platform of the university. In this way, it would be
also available for other students in the class to view. Two students opted not to
provide such consent. Subsequently, at the end of the semester, after grading and
the marks had been released, the students were also requested to provide
informed consent for their digital stories and other data resulting from this
assignment to be used in the study and possible future presentations. All of the

6
students provided their consent, including the two students who had not agreed
to their stories being shared on the electronic platform. As a gesture of respect, I
undertook not to use any of the material they had created in this paper. To
guarantee anonymity, the students were offered the option of choosing
pseudonyms for this paper.
3.3 The process
The assignment reported on in this paper was designed as a six-week activity
making up the largest part of the formative assessment for the module. Students
were expected to submit three separate components over the allotted time. First,
a script for the envisioned digital story was submitted. After submitting the digital
story and taking part in class discussions, the students submitted a reflective essay
on their experience. The process was divided into four phases. These phases can
be regarded as cycles in a participatory action research design. As part of a
complete assignment document, the students were given the following theme for
their digital story:
Becoming a teacher
Look back, look inward, or look forward …
Reflect on the following questions and use them as inspiration for your digital story. You
can choose to address only one, or more, of these issues.
Which people, events, and factors led to your decision to enrol for a teaching qualification?
Which teachers or other people in your life had an influence on your career choice? How
was your own experience of being a learner, and how did it influence the type of teacher
that you are going to be? What are the greatest lessons that you have learnt through your
years as a BEd student?
How do you experience being a BEd student? Are you still sure that you want to become
a teacher? Who or what has influenced your point of view? Which factors do you currently
regard as influential in the development of your professional identity?
What are your fears and concerns about your future as a teacher? Which aspects of
professional development do you still need to give attention to before you will feel prepared
to enter a full-time teaching position?
3.3.1 Cycle 1: Conceptualisation
During the first cycle, the students were tasked with only conceptualising the
script of their digital story that could ultimately be used as a voiceover for their
story. As a lecturer-researcher, I was cognisant of the danger of letting students
get caught up in the excitement of using new technology and focusing more on
the process of creating the digital story than on the content of the story. Therefore,
by writing a script of 250 words as a first submission, the students were forced to
concentrate their efforts on examining their own perceptions, expectations, and
experiences.
After the submission of the scripts, I provided detailed individual feedback to
each student, including prompting questions to foster more critical thinking and
self-reflection. The students then had the opportunity to consider the feedback

7
and improve their scripts, after which they started the process of creating their
digital stories. I also invited the students to a face-to-face conversation, should
they want to discuss any matters relating to their script or my comments.
3.3.2 Cycle 2: Creation
The assignment allowed the students the freedom to design the structure and
content of the story to allow them to be creative and fully represent themselves in
the final product. The only prerequisites were a time limit of three to five minutes
and a 250-word limit on the script for the voiceover. They were given the option
of using a variety of free software, such as PowerPoint with a voiceover, Animoto,
MovieMaker, Videoscribe, or Powtoons. Relevant training was provided through
a list of websites providing information and online facilitators. The completed
digital stories were submitted via the online learning platform of the university.
In as much as I dislike quantifying effort and performance, the assignments had
to be graded with an analytical rubric, where different levels of achievement were
awarded to a variety of assessment criteria. An analytical rubric was chosen over
a holistic rubric because it tends to provide more detailed feedback, allows for
consistent grading, and gave me the option of including additional comments that
provided feedback on a much more personal and detailed level.
3.3.3 Cycle 3: Sharing
After grading, a viewing party, with soda and popcorn, was held during two
classes, where the students viewed the digital stories of their peers. Before the
viewing, we collaboratively negotiated house rules that, firstly, respected the
privacy of the students and, secondly, fostered a caring environment where the
students felt safe to share their work. After every few stories, I facilitated a
conversation that started with positive feedback and appreciation for both the
story and the effort that went into the making of the digital story.
3.3.4 Cycle 4: Reflecting
In the final cycle of the assignment, the students were tasked with writing a
reflective essay in which they were invited to critically reflect on their expectations
and experiences and evaluate the influence of the assignment on the
conceptualisation of their developing professional identity. The reflective essays
were not graded, as I did not want to assign a numeric value to this very personal
form of feedback. I did, however, read each reflection and returned a personal
thank-you note that validated their effort and shared how their stories had
touched me and influenced my own thinking and practice.
3.4 Data analysis
Scripts, digital stories, rubrics, reflective narratives, observations, and notes of
class discussions were used as sources of data to enhance the validity and
reliability of the study. A three-phase inductive approach, consisting of preparing,
organising, and reporting, was followed to analyse the data. The preparation
involved a decision to use words and sentences as the unit of analysis. I attempted
to make sense of the data by reading several times through all the data and
attempting to identify themes. Organising the data was initiated through open
coding, and then the data were analysed using content analysis, one of the
qualitative research techniques.

8
To ensure justice, beneficence, and respect, I shared my findings and subsequent
themes with the students via a forum discussion on the online learning platform.
They were invited to do member checking and contribute to the process of
ensuring the validity of the data. This was valuable to assure outcome validity (in
acknowledging unexpected outcomes), dialogic validity (to ensure that all of the
participants felt that their voices were heard and their contribution
acknowledged), democratic validity (in that we followed a collaborative process
throughout the study), and process validity (that the core principles of action
research were adhered to).
During the conceptualisation of this paper, I expected to use several excerpts from
various stories to illustrate the themes that had been identified. But I eventually
made the decision to share the full scripts of four students instead of sharing
isolated excerpts from various students’ work. This is intended to facilitate a more
detailed narrative and thereby capture the context and emotion shared in their
digital stories. In addition, such an approach provides a more lifelike and
authentic view of the data and invites the reader into the holistic experience of
individuals. The digital stories of Alicia, Mary, Rene, and Pieter (pseudonyms) are
shared in the next section. Their reflective narratives were also utilised in the data
shared in this study.
4. Sharing in some stories
Through thematic analysis, the following themes of the digital stories and in other
supporting data sources were identified:
• Academic excellence
• Empathetic caring
• Tradition
• Empowering mentorship
4.1 Academic excellence: Alicia’s story of being inspired
When I was at school, I had teachers who were not very, how shall I put
it, enthusiastic about their subjects. They would rather sit behind their
desk while they left us to our own devices. I do not want to be that type of
teacher. I choose to remember the teachers who inspired me and who had
a great influence on my life. My Hospitality Studies teacher inspired me
to become a teacher. In her classes I found my passion. She was always
prepared and ready to give advice. Once I started my teaching studies, she
was the mentor for my first teaching practice. She really took me under
her wing and showed me the other side of being a teacher.
I was astounded at her subject knowledge. It was so much more than what
I realised when I was a learner in her class. I want to be that type of
teacher. A subject specialist. A lifelong learner. I want to give them a
reason to work hard at academics. I think academic teaching is the primary
job of a teacher and we have a responsibility to foster a love for learning
in children.
We must set the example of academic excellence. Like my Hospitality
Studies teacher did.

9
4.2 Empathetic caring: Mary’s story of overcoming being bullied
I was bullied at school. I felt alone, no one wanted to help me. My life was
useless. They called me names and said there’s nothing I can do about it
… if I do, they will tell everybody I am the school slut. How could you
ruin someone’s life like that?
People just kept saying “Be the strong one …”, “Be happy, it’s not the
end of the world.” How can you say this to a child? My world is falling
apart, and you DON’T even see it! It felt like the whole school was against
me. At break time I would sit in the classroom, just to avoid the people.
One day a teacher came to me and said she was worried. That day she
adopted me and started treating me like her own daughter. Made me feel
self-worth. She never gave up on me.
I was more at peace because I knew someone at school was looking after
me. Because of that one teacher, the one person who saw me as me, and
who saw that I did not fit in, I wanted to become the best teacher that I
could be. For the children like me, the losers, the outsiders. To remind
them that there is a plan for each and every one of them.
I am looking forward to becoming a teacher, to journey with the
misunderstood children until they also find a reason to live. I will succeed!
4.3 Tradition: Rene’s story of filling big shoes
I come from a family of teachers. My grandfather was a school principal.
My mother and father are both still teachers. I did not have much of a
choice for my career. It almost feels like I have been teaching my dolls since
I was in nappies myself. I am very proud of my family history. Although
it sometimes feel[s] as if my identity has been imprinted on me without
giving me the choice to choose another path. I have big shoes to fill.
I, however, admit that my first opportunities to stand in front of a class
during teaching practice have given me a new founded respect for this
family tradition. They made it look so easy. I am quickly learning that it
is not. I never realised how much work goes into being a teacher. I thought
all that you needed was a love for children and a desire to change lives.
Teaching practice taught me that being a teacher is very time-consuming.
Don’t think your day is over when the school bell rings. I never thought
about when marking happened, and I never realised how much planning
one had to do before a lesson. This was indeed an eye-opener! So I am very
grateful for the shoulders of giants that I can stand on. I know they will
be there to guide me when my time comes.
4.4 Empowering mentorship: Pieter’s story of overcoming adversity
I had to work very hard while I was at school. I have a learning disability.
But I received so much extra support and encouragement from my
teachers. I thought that I would never be able to become a teacher myself,
I was not meant to go to university. But my rugby coach instilled faith in

10
myself that was not rooted in marks on a report card. He was there to
support me when I was sad about a poor report card or overjoyed after
scoring a winning try. He taught me that a great teacher did more than
teach academics, he invested in his learners. He saw past their adversities
and embraced their potential. He helped them to believe in themselves.
I struggled with the transition of moving between school and university.
It took me a few years longer than my peers to get it done. I failed some
subjects along the way, but I will eventually be graduating at the end of
this year. I found my feet and learnt the tricks of the trade.
I want to start teaching to be a mentor to children like me, who felt dumb
and disabled and like a disappointment. I want to help them see that
anything is possible, if they just believe and work hard enough.
5. Discussion
5.1 A snapshot of identity in time
I found great joy in watching the variety of digital stories with my students. The
true privilege and value of participatory work were, however, the facilitation of
the reflective discourses and the subsequent identification of four very strong
themes emerging from their efforts. I found pleasure in hearing students
collaboratively deconstructing their thought processes and sharing in the
emotions behind the stories. In her reflective essay, Rene linked her experience to
that of her peers and the stories she had learnt from them:
I have always felt very emotional when I heard the reasons people was
inspired to become teachers. In my situation I never had that ‘wow’
moment. It was a given. But for the first time I really understand how to
translate my own feelings and thoughts into being a good teacher.
It was almost like being invited into someone’s home after initially only having
been allowed to look in through a window. The digital stories portrayed the
outside façade of the house, but the discourse and reflective essays invited the
reader in. Mary’s courage to share her story of being bullied and marginalised
created a platform for other students to share their difficult stories as well. Having
courageous conversations about what had happened in their past or even what
they were going through at that very moment contributed to the group of students
having empathy for one another and committing to an awareness of such issues
in their future careers. This added depth and insight to the reflective essays that
were written after those conversations during the viewing parties.
Although the themes were visible in almost all of the stories, comparing and
contrasting the content of class discussions and reflective essays also provided
valuable insight. It was interesting to note, in the tradition of narrative inquiry,
that the continuity of time was prominent. Almost all of the stories had a
component of reflection on the influence of the past on their decision to study
teaching. They also included a realistic component of the present time, indicating
that they all had more to learn and realised that they still needed more preparation
to become the great teachers they envisioned to be in their future. Pieter’s story is

11
a good example of the influence of time on his story of becoming a teacher. In his
reflective essay, he explains:
I never thought I would look back to my difficulties at school and be
grateful for what it has taught me. Making this digital story helped me to
see that my past does still have an influence on my future, but in a good
way, and that I have the power to dictate the terms of that influence on
my future.
However, I had to ask myself how critical these reflections on past experiences
were. Were the students, in the script of their digital stories, merely sharing
experiences from the past, or were they possibly acknowledging the influence of
the apprenticeship of observation on their perceptions of what teachers did on a
daily basis? This study begs the question of whether the students might have lived
and relived these stories for years, but maybe then, for the first time, they might
really understand the true impact of the story on not only their career choice but
also the development of their professional identity. Could the class discussions
and reflective essay support these students’ attempt at linking context and time
for professional development? The new meaning that they had made had the
potential to transform thinking and empower them.
I could clearly see the impact of the apprenticeship of observation on their
perception of good teaching practice, personal mentoring, or empowering
learners. As the creators of their stories, many of the students recognised that past
experiences not only shaped their current practice but also defined their visions
of career development grounded in specialised subject knowledge, student
mentoring, or a love of learning. The stories also showed that the final-year pre-
service teachers held particular ideas about teaching and learning that paralleled
the practices they themselves had experienced and how they aimed to engage
their own learners in a passion for their chosen discipline. The love for teaching
that Alicia’s hospitalities studies teacher had instilled in her reminds one of the
vital role that teachers play in the holistic development and support of learners.
Individual teachers have the power to inspire and instil a passion for learning and
teaching that can have a lasting impression on their personality, career, and
overall being.
After holding the viewing parties and analysing the reflective essays, I was,
however, still unclear on whether the ways in which the influence of the
apprenticeship of observation was illuminated were intentional or incidental. As
both a teacher educator and a researcher, I was not sure whether the deeply
ingrained influence of the apprenticeship had truly been deconstructed through
the process. Was there a deliberate decision and effort to overcome this influence,
or might the students now only be more aware of the existence of this
apprenticeship? Table 1, through reference to the digital stories and reflective
essays of the students whose stories are shared in this paper, explores the
challenges that the apprenticeship of observation possibly still poses for pre-
service teachers.

12
5.2 Exposing the challenges of the apprenticeship of observation
Table 1: Challenges posed by the apprenticeship of observation
Challenges
posed by the
apprenticeship
of observation
Implication for the
development of professional
identity and teaching
practice
Evidence of this challenge from
digital stories or reflective essays
Perceptions of
teaching are
based on only
their own
preferences,
needs, and
experiences
Pre-service teachers may not
have an extensive
understanding of teaching
strategies and interventions
for children who learn in
different ways (learning
styles, challenges, etc.) than
they do. They may teach in
ways that work for
themselves instead of what
other individuals may need.
“This assignment taught me that not
all learners who struggle will have the
same needs that I did.” (Mary)
“I have to learn that a good teacher
cannot teach all learners in the same
way. I never realised that when I was
experiencing my own learning
difficulties.” (Pieter)
Concept of good
and bad practice
is limited to that
which they had
seen when they
were in school
Without first-hand experience
of alternative teaching
approaches, pre-service
teachers may lack the
knowledge and the will to
move beyond the models
they have experienced, which
are very often teacher-
centred.
“I now only realise that what I
considered good teaching might not
necessarily have been that good. I now
see how teacher-centred my teachers at
school were and I might have more
innovative ways to teach the same
material.” (Alicia)
Only obtain a
partial view of
the complexity
of teaching;
students are not
aware of the
thought
processes
involved in the
planning,
preparation, and
teaching of
lessons
Differentiation techniques by
which teachers engage
learners in different activities
or assignments based on
students’ unique interests,
learner preferences, or needs
are obscured in the
apprenticeship of
observation. Pre-service
teachers oversee these
complexities during teaching
practice when they are just
attempting to cope.
“I thought I knew what being a
teacher encompassed. But it took
teaching practice and this assignment
to realise that I might have
romanticised the career. I grew up
amongst teachers but I didn’t really
have an idea how hard they worked.”
(Rene)
Underestimate
the
administrative
load
As learners, and even as pre-
service teachers, students
only receive graded papers
without being aware of the
time it takes to grade these
and the great administrative
burden that is continuously
placed on teachers.
“As a child you never wonder when
that teacher marked your test. As a
student teacher I suddenly realised
that these things happened at night
and at a great cost to the personal live
and family of a teacher.” (Alicia)
Underestimate
the different
roles teachers
play
Pre-service teachers are not
always aware of the various
roles that teachers play. They
often think that the subject
specialist, assessor, and
“I saw the job of a teacher as teaching,
coaching sport and sometimes helping
a child in need. I never knew about
other tasks like being an agent of
change in the community, managing

13
pastoral role are the only
roles of the teacher.
diversity and inclusivity, and
addressing democracy and other
political issues.” (Mary)
Underestimate
the emotional
toll of teaching
Pre-service teachers are often
only exposed to academic
interaction with learners and
are not exposed to the
personal challenges teachers
may experience.
“Neither of my parents ever showed
the stress of their job. When they were
at home, they were there for me. I now
only respect them even more.” (Rene)
Underestimate
the gap between
theory and
practice
Many pre-service teachers
reported that they expected
that teaching would be as
teaching practice, and in their
observation, beginner
teachers were doing just as
well as veteran, experienced
teachers.
It does, however, seem that
during times of stress, they
fall back on apprenticeship
instead of what they learnt at
university.
“I thought you just show up and
everything falls into place. I suspect
that I will have a lot of challenges to
overcome when I start teaching next
year. What if university has not
taught me enough? I can’t rely on
what I thought I knew.” (Alicia)
“I spend a lot of time planning
lessons. But the moment I start
struggling with classroom discipline
or things start going wrong, I forget
all the cool teaching strategies I learnt
at university and I grab a textbook.
Because experience tells me that is
what works.” (Pieter)
6. Turning the window into a mirror
I experienced the joy of joining my students to look through the windows of their
digital stories and then had the privilege to be invited into some homes. A true
reflective practitioner, however, will not only observe the new house in which he
or she is standing, but will turn that window into a mirror and utilise the
opportunity to explore and improve his or her own praxis. Thus, I had to
acknowledge the complexities of this assignment and be open to critical reflection
and feedback. In this manner, I was also confronted with my own apprenticeship
of observation and the role that I played in contributing to the apprenticeship of
my students. I had to be willing to deconstruct and disrupt my own perceptions,
beliefs, and expectations of teaching. This process also included gaining an acute
awareness of addressing issues of diversity and inclusivity in my classes. I had to
acknowledge the importance of modelling good practice to the pre-service
teachers under my tutelage and critically reflect on my successes and failures in
this regard.
I was invited to look in the mirror at my own identity, my own story, and my own
house and acknowledge the new knowledge I had gained and the meaning I had
made through this endeavour. This assignment not only challenged my students
to critically unpack their understanding of their identity as teachers and to re-
evaluate their own epistemological and ontological positioning, but I was
challenging myself to do so as well. I had to critically assess the learning from this
assignment in my own teaching and learning practice and explore the
implications of this for the greater initial teacher education programme.

14
7. Implications for practice
It is generally accepted that pre-service teachers struggle once they stand in full-
time teaching positions. The data from this study have shown that the influence
of the apprenticeship of observation cannot be overlooked. Teacher educators
have the responsibility to assess the curriculum of their modules and programmes
to invite stories and lived experience into their classrooms. Adopting an action
research approach to teaching will not only enhance and develop the scholarship
of teaching and learning of the teacher educator but also acknowledge and
address the apprenticeship of observation in both the student and the teacher
educator.
It was clear that there were, in essence, two narratives in each digital story − the
overt narrative heard in the voiceover and the hidden message that not even the
creator of the story might have been aware of. The reflective essays were valuable
in identifying these hidden stories. Teacher educators should be acutely aware of
their role as facilitators of such hidden narratives. Apart from facilitating critical
thinking skills as a graduate attribute in their students, they also have the
responsibility of motivating and guiding students to become reflective
practitioners. Narrative inquiry and storytelling allow students the opportunity
for reflecting, considering alternative views and possibilities, and engaging in
participatory methodologies designed to assist in the process of developing an
ethical professional identity and eventually becoming agents of change in their
schools and classrooms. When the teaching in university lecture halls is relevant,
authentic, and meaningful, pre-service teachers can be exposed to a new
apprenticeship that will enable them to provide the same atmosphere in their own
classrooms where space is created for diversity, inclusivity, creativity, and
individuality of all.
8. Conclusion
This endeavour has taught me that by encouraging pre-service teachers to value
the stories they are living and the stories they hear, they may become teachers
who create conditions that will allow their learners to reflect on their own stories,
and by deconstructing the meaning and lived experience they bring, they may
cultivate a classroom where personal growth and development are at the fore.
This assignment has enhanced my own teaching practice, and I am now cognisant
of always attempting to include some of the following outcomes in all my
assignments:
• Create space for new meaning, new knowledge, and new understanding.
• Embrace diversity and inclusivity, and invite individual voices.
• Promote self-reflection and critical thinking.
• Enhance active learning and focus on alternative ways of teaching.
• Foster a sense of transformation and growth.
• Develop a sense of urgency for becoming agents of change in the
educational landscape.
• Continuously conceptualise a professional identity that is built on the
foundation of integrity, ethical behaviour, and good practice.

15
Through this adventure, I was not only invited to look through a window, but I
was also given the opportunity to turn that window into a mirror. I was offered
the chance to not only look at the façade of student teachers’ houses through the
digital stories they had created, but I could also join in their search for the
professional identity that supported their vision of being a teacher. Moreover, I
could observe how the window turned into a mirror and invited me to critically
reflect on my own identity and practice.
9. References
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review of
Psychology, 51, 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.1
Bell, J. S. (2002). Narrative inquiry: More than just telling stories. TESOL Quarterly, 36(2),
207-2013. https://doi.org/10.2307/3588331
Botha, C. S. (2017). Using metaphoric body-mapping to encourage reflection on the
developing identity of pre-service teachers. South African Journal of Education,
37(3), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v37n3a1377
Botha, C. S. (2020). The impact of the apprenticeship of observation on preservice teachers’
perceptions of teaching. Journal of Education, 81, 50-64.
https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v37n3a137710.17159/2520-9868/i81a03
Clandinin, D. J., & Rosiek, J. (2007). Mapping a landscape of narrative inquiry: Borderland
spaces and tensions. In D. J. Clandinin (Ed.), Handbook of narrative inquiry: Mapping
a methodology (pp. 35-75). Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452226552.n2
Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (2006). Narrative inquiry: A methodology for studying
lived experience. Research studies in Music Education, 27, 44-54.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1321103x060270010301
Dahlström, H., & Damber, U. (2020). Meanings made in students’ multimodal digital
stories: Resources, popular culture and values. Designs for Learning, 12(1), 45-55.
https://doi.org/10.16993/dfl.145
Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). Constructing 21st-century teacher education. Journal of
Teacher Education, 57(3), 300-314. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487105285962
Darling-Hammond, L., & Bransford, J. (2005). Preparing teachers for a changing world: What
teachers should learn and be able to do. Jossey-Bass.
https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.43-1083
Ding, F., & Curtis, F. (2020). ‘I feel lost and somehow messy’: A narrative inquiry into the
identity struggle of a first-year university student. Higher Education Research &
Development, 40(6), 1146-1160. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2020.1804333
Dwyer, R., Davis, I. D., & Emerald, E. (2017). Narrative research in practice: Stories from the
field. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-1579-3
Eichsteller, M. (2019). There is more than one way – A study of mixed analytical methods
in biographical narrative research. Contemporary Social Science, 14(3), 447-462.
https://doi.org/10.1080/21582041.2017.1417626
Fleer, M. (2018). Digital animation: New conditions for children’s development in play-
based setting. British Journal of Educational Technology, 49(5), 943-958.
https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12637
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Continuum. https://doi.org/10.5958/2231-
458x.2015.00027.5
Gholami, K., Faraji, S., Meijer, P. C., & Tirri, K. (2021). Construction and deconstruction of
student teachers’ professional identity: A narrative study. Teaching and Teacher
Education, 97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2020.103142

16
Kearney, M. (2011). A learning design for student-generated digital storytelling. Learning,
Media and Technology, 36(2), 169-188.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2011.553623
Kim, D., & Li, M. (2020). Digital storytelling: Facilitating learning and identity
development. Journal of Computers in Education, 8(2), 33-61.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-020-00170-9
Lambert, J. (2010). The digital storytelling cookbook. Digital Diner Press.
Lortie, D. (1975). Schoolteacher: A sociological study. University of Chicago Press.
https://doi.org/10.1177/019263657505939422
Marais, E. (2021). A journey through digital storytelling during Covid-19 students
preparedness to use technology for learning in the language classroom. Research
in Social Sciences and Technology, 6(2), 169-182.
https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.17
Mewborn, D. S., & Tyminski, A. M. (2006). Lortie’s apprenticeship of observation
revisited. For the Learning of Mathematics, 2(3), 30-32.
Palmer, M., O’Kane, P., & Owens, M. (2009). Betwixt spaces: Student accounts of turning
point experiences in the first-year transition. Studies in Higher Education, 34(1), 37-
54. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075070802601929
Piaget, J. (1970). Genetic epistemology. W. W. Norton. https://doi.org/10.7312/piag91272
Reyneke, E. M., & Botha, C. S. (2019). The professional orientation of first year student
teachers in a non-placement work-integrated learning program. International
Journal of Work-Integrated Learning, 21(3), 303-316.
Robin, B. (2008). Digital storytelling: A powerful technology tool for the 21st century
classroom. Theory into Practice, 47(3), 220-228.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00405840802153916
Schön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. Basic Books.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.
Harvard University Press.
Wood, L. (2020). Participatory action learning and action research: Theory, practice and process.
Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429441318
Yocom, D., Bashaw, C., Price, D., & Cook, M. (2020). Perceptions of digital storytelling in
the classroom. Teaching and Learning in Nursing, 15(3), 164-197.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.teln.2020.01.010

17
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 17-41, November 2021
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.2
Received Aug 19, 2021; Revised Oct 31, 2021; Accepted Nov 08, 2021
Teachers’ Self-Efficacy and Online Teaching
during COVID-19 Pandemic in Qatari
Governmental Schools
Amani M. Allouh
Qatar University, Qatar
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8284-4009
Saba M. Qadhi
Core Curriculum Program, Qatar University, Qatar
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6087-5683
Mahmood A. Hasan
Institutional Research and Analytics Department, Strategy and Development
Office, Qatar University, Qatar
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1716-762X
Xiangyun Du
Education Research Center College of Education, Qatar University, Qatar
UNESCO PBL Center, Alborg University, Denmark
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9527-6795
Abstract. This study investigated primary school teachers’ self-efficacy
beliefs regarding online teaching during the Covid-19 pandemic and
whether it determines any significant differences in self-efficacy levels
based on different demographic data. A quantitative and qualitative
survey method was employed. The data was collected from primary
school teachers in Qatar public schools using a web-based survey that
assessed self-efficacy in three areas: Students Engagement, Classroom
Management, and Instructional Strategies. Four open-ended questions
were included in determining the challenges faced by teachers, coping
strategies, and the support needed and received. A total of 514 teachers
voluntarily completed the survey. The results showed that elementary
school teachers actively reported self-efficacy beliefs in online teaching.
T-test and ANOVA analysis revealed significant differences between
primary school teachers’ self-efficacy and years of experience in the three
fields. However, no significant differences were found between self-
efficacy, gender, and age in the area. Results indicated that the more years
of experience teachers have, the more self-efficacy they perceive. The
open-ended questions’ results showed that unmotivated students were
the most frustrating challenge primary teachers faced in online teaching.

18
Therefore, contacting parents was highly prioritized by teachers for
coping with this challenge. Besides, professional training was the main
support received, but more practical and interactive workshops are still
needed. This research can provide educators with insights on
implementing technology effectively in their online classrooms and
adapting to challenging times to achieve a smooth and effective learning
process.
Keywords. self-efficacy; online teaching; COVID-19 pandemic;
emergency online teaching; teachers’ self-efficacy
1. Introduction
The 2020 COVID-19 pandemic has exposed teachers to the pressures of potential
uncertainty. Rapid changes in educational delivery techniques have hampered
teachers’ ability to adapt to changing situations (Baloran & Hernan, 2020). Given
that the epidemic is far from over, online learning is seen as the best answer for
the time being since teachers will need to become proficient and adaptable to this
new standard in a pedagogical context. Therefore, educational researchers have
repeatedly stressed the importance of teaching efficacy, as it is the key contributor
to both students’ and schools’ academic achievement (Hodges et al., 2020).
One essential goal of Qatar’s educational reforms is to improve teaching quality
to ultimately develop student achievement (Al-Thani & Nasser, 2012). Since all
schools aim to offer quality education, it is essential to investigate personal
teaching efficacy regarding emergency online teaching (EOT). Research findings
have demonstrated that teachers’ effectiveness required for EOT is somewhat
different from that demanded by traditional face-to-face instruction (Loeb, 2020).
In EOT, mainly when teaching lower grades, it is much more challenging to
maintain students’ attention, carry out discussions, progress tracking, and
provide student assistance (Hallman, 2020; Hechter & Vermette, 2013).
Qatar’s Government Education system is comprised of four school levels:
preschool levels (aged 3-5); primary levels (age 6-12, grade 1-6); preparatory
(Grade 7-9), and secondary levels (Grade 10-12). The population of teachers in
Qatar’s government schools is nearly 12,500 (Planning and Statistics Authority,
2019). Almost half (52%) of Qatar’s government school teachers are primary
school teachers (Planning and Statistics Authority, 2019). According to the Qatar
Statistical Profile (Planning and Statistics Authority, 2019), there are 6500 primary
teachers in Qatar. 516 are male teachers, constituting just 8 percent of the total
population, while female teachers account for 5,984 of the targeted population or
92 percent. The primary government school teachers are divided across 122
government schools, with 63 boys’ schools and 59 girls’ schools (Planning and
Statistics Authority, 2019).
As for the Qatari government schools’ response to COVID- 19, the Ministry of
Education and Higher Education (MOEHE) adapted distance learning to
efficiently prevent the spread of COVID- 19, ensuring that all learners can
continue their education and that their studies are prioritized (MOEHE, 2020).

19
Accordingly, teachers had to acquire new skill sets quickly. Additionally, they
had to liaise with other educators to shed some light on the accelerated transition
from face-to-face teaching to distance learning (Loeb, 2020). In this regard, most
existing studies of teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs have mainly focused on the
traditional face-to-face classroom context. However, little is known about self-
efficacy in emergency online classrooms. This requires research in the online
teaching self-efficacy context. Thus, the research aimed to investigate primary
teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs related to full-scale online teaching in the context of
the Covid-19 pandemic. Furthermore, the study aimed to determine if there are
variations in self-efficacy in relation to variables such as gender, age, and teaching
experience.
2. Literature Review
The conceptual framework on which this study is based on Bandura’s theory
(1993) that describes teacher efficacy as a cognitive mechanism in which persons
build perceptions about their ability to succeed at a specified performance level.
In a similar sense, a person’s self-efficacy is confidence in their capability to
complete particular tasks (Goddard et al., 2004). Goddard et al. (2004) asserted
that it is not an evaluative judgment about what has been done; instead, it is a
judgment about what can be done. This study identifies teacher self-efficacy as
primary governmental school teachers’ perceptions about their abilities to
accomplish the professional tasks to facilitate the students’ knowledge
development.
Based on Bandura’s (1977) theory, four factors affect efficacy beliefs. First, the
mastery experiences act as ability indicators. The second factor that affects efficacy
beliefs is vicarious experiences that modify efficacy perceptions by
communicating qualifications and contrasting them with other people’s
achievements (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). A further efficacy impact factor is
verbal persuasion, which influences teachers’ self-efficacy by encouraging and
supporting their abilities (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Finally, the concluding
impact factor is states of physiology, both negative and positive emotions, such as
tension/stress and excitement/happiness, that can influence efficacy (Tschannen-
Moran et al., 1998).
2.1 Teacher efficacy
As Bandura’s (1977) self-efficacy construct began to spread, educators and
researchers observed a significant difference between Rotter’s theory, which
focused on effective behavior, and Bandura’s theory, which focused on efficacy
beliefs. Irrespective of their differences, both approaches are deemed equivalent
(Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Rotters’ self-efficacy discusses a person’s
perception of the impact of behavior on outcomes, in contrast to the theory of self-
efficacy, where Bandura discusses the assumption that a person’s acquired traits
can achieve such results (Bandura, 1977). Following both approaches, Tschannen-
Moran et al. (1998) conducted a teacher efficacy model. Within the integrated
model, the four critical factors of self-efficacy beliefs are assumed to influence
teacher efficacy. Moreover, it is within the social cognitive process, indicating that
teacher efficacy beliefs are developed within social parameters.

20
Regarding the teacher efficacy model, Tschannen-Moran et al. (1998)
recommended that the teacher efficacy measurement assess two central
components: analysis of teaching tasks and assessment of personal teaching
competency. Teachers primarily analyze the required tasks and then evaluate
their teaching competency to judge their efficacy (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998).
One of the most powerful features of this model is its cyclical nature, as every
newly mastered experience influences potential expectations regarding self-
efficacy. Higher efficacy expectations lead to better efforts and perseverance,
which ultimately leads to improved outcomes. Hence, it can be concluded that
better short-term effects contribute to higher long-term efficacy expectations
(Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998).
Several studies have demonstrated the importance of teachers’ self-efficacy as the
main factor of education quality and learning outcomes (Affouneh et al., 2020;
Allinder, 1994; Infurna, 2016; Lin & Zheng, 2015; Riggs & Enochs, 1990;). Teachers’
perception of their self-efficacy can affect students’ success (Lin, & Zheng, 2015),
as teachers’ self-efficacy affects their decisions in choosing learning activities
within the classroom (Sahertian & Soetjipto, 2011). The stronger the belief in self-
efficacy, the more successful one’s coping attempts (Bandura & Adams, 1977).
Highly officious teachers tackle disruptive situations with the belief and
confidence that they will exert power to reduce disruption. They tend to put extra
effort into displaying higher organizational and planning skills (Allinder, 1994).
In contrast, a low level of teaching efficacy correlates with teachers’ attitudes
regarding their ability to positively influence their students and improve their
learning skills (Robinia & Anderson, 2010). Less assertive teachers can feel
hopeless, avoid complex tasks, and often give up quickly because they do not
believe in a successful outcome (Riggs, 1995; Lin & Zheng, 2015). As a result, the
lower the teachers’ self-efficacy, the less time they devote to their duties (Wong,
2003).
2.2 Teacher self-efficacy and Online Teaching
Extensive studies have examined teachers’ self-efficacy in the face-to-face
teaching mode (Alhasni, 2017; Mehdinezhad, 2012; Infurna, 2016; Lumpe et al.,
2012; Voris, 2011). Positive results were reported in some studies, such as Voris’
(2011) study carried out on special education teachers in Kentucky, Kim and
Kim’s (2010) survey on early childhood teachers’ self-efficacy in South Korea, and
Chang et al. (2001) survey on university teachers in Taiwan. However, these
studies pose a direct conflict with Wong’s (2003) study, which revealed low self-
efficacy levels when undertaking online tasks.
Although numerous studies have explored teachers’ self-efficacy, there has been
little study on self-efficacy in an online setting. However, in Canada, school and
university teachers reported low to intermediate levels of self-efficacy in both
educational methods and student interaction domains (Sokal et al., 2020). while
teachers revealed low self-efficacy levels in undertaking online tasks during the
pandemic in United States (Pressley & Ha, 2021) and Italy (Cataudella et al., 2021)

21
Several studies have been conducted to explore the relationship between specific
demographic variables and teacher self-efficacy. Several researchers have
observed a positive relationship between self-efficacy levels and the number of
years in teaching experience. It was discovered that more experienced teachers
perceived themselves as highly efficient in teaching compared to those with less
experience (Alhasni, 2017; Mehdinezhad, 2012; Chang et al., 2011; Infurna, 2016).
In contrast, Lee and Tsai (2010) found a significantly greater self-efficacy among
less experienced teachers than those with more experience.
Several studies indicated no notable correlation between teachers’ age, gender,
and their levels of self-efficacy in the online learning environment (Mehdinezhad,
2012; Wee-Loon’s, 2011; Robinia & Anderson, 2010). On the other hand, some
studies revealed that female teachers displayed higher self-efficacy than males
(Chang et al., 2011), whereas another study found that males exhibited higher self-
efficacy beliefs than females counterparts (Lumpe et al., 2012). In addition, Chang
et al. (2011) reported a significantly greater self-efficacy among younger teachers
than older ones.
Based on what has been discussed so far, although teachers’ self-efficacy is not a
new topic, there are no apparent patterns regarding population demographic
information, gender, age, and years of experience in an EOT setting. This study,
therefore, sought to analyze the burnout levels of teachers in Qatar by
answering the following research questions:
1. How do Qatari primary government school teachers report their level of self-
efficacy in emergency online teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic?
2. How does the level of self-efficacy vary according to gender, age, and years of
experience?
3. Research method
3.1 Participants
Study participants included government primary school teachers in Qatar, which
take up almost half (52%) of Qatar government school teachers (Planning and
Statistics Authority, 2019). Participants in this study were male and female who
were selected randomly. The research had a total of 514 teachers as participants
who responded and completed the questionnaire. The questionnaire survey was
conducted online using Survey Monkey, and the link was emailed to
all governmental primary school teachers.
The total population of primary teachers is 6500 divided across 122 government
schools (92% female, n=5,984; 8% male, n= 516). The primary government schools
are 122, with 63 boys’ schools and 59 girls’ schools (Planning and Statistics
Authority, 2019). According to the demographic data are shown in table 1, the
response rate was 8%, resulting in a 2.3% sampling error.
Table 1. Demographic Data
Characteristic Levels Frequency Percent
Gender Female 458 89.1%

22
Male 56 10.9%
Age 21- 30 112 21.8%
31- 40 226 44.0%
41- above 176 34.2%
Teaching Experience 5- 10 Years 135 26.3%
Less than 5 years 94 18.3%
More than 10 years 285 55.4%
3.2 Research design, instrument, and procedures
A quantitative and qualitative survey method was employed to gain insight into
personal teaching efficacy regarding EOT as emergency online classrooms using
a questionnaire. After obtaining permission from the primary researcher, the
Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES) was used as a survey instrument in the
present study. The social cognitive theory of Albert Bandura (1977), which the
current research is based on, was used to direct TSES items. Besides, four open-
ended questions were introduced after the survey within the qualitative part of
this study to allow for further elaboration.
After finalizing the scale, Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001) tested it in three trials.
Teachers and preservice teachers were polled on three different studies. The scale
was lowered from 52 to 32 items in the first study, then to 18 items in the second
study. Consequently, 18 new items were created and reviewed. Following the
completion of the scale, Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001) developed a scale with
24 items and three sections: Student Engagement, Classroom Management, and
Instructional Strategies.
The questionnaire items were graded on a 9-point frequency rating scale ranging
from (1) “nothing” to (9) “a lot.” It was written in English as well as Arabic.
We developed the survey in English and then translated it into Arabic to fit the
Qatari framework since Arabic is the native language of the majority of the
targeted participants. Two expert translators translated the Arabic version back
to English to ensure that ideas and concepts had the same meaning in both
languages.
3.2.1 Validity
Specialists fluent in Arabic and English at the College of Education evaluated
the content validity; two professors were experts in schoolwork; Senior
Professional Development Specialists at the National Center for Educational
Development. Professors and experts were given the survey to evaluate, and they
remarked on the issues regarding clarity in connection to the study’s goals.
Minor changes were made to the questionnaire based on the experts’ advice.
Some statements have been changed to make them more relevant to the duties of
teachers in Qatari schools in the online environment (19, 22, 23). Changes were

23
also made to the wording of the items to make them more appropriate for use in
an online environment, with an emphasis on altering statements like “in your
classroom” to “in your online class.” Statement (24) has been removed, and other
statements have been reduced to eliminate repetition and make them simpler to
comprehend and apply (2, 3, 7, 13, 14). In addition, statement 17 has been
modified from “How much can you do to adjust your online lessons for various
learning styles?” to “How much can you do to make your online lessons match
learning styles?”
Confirmative Factor Analysis (CFA) was used to ensure construct validity using
AMOS software 26. The factor loadings for all subcategories were significant and
above the recommended cutoff level of 0.5, as shown in Table 2 below for all
factors (F1 online student engagement, F2 online classroom management, and F3
online instructional methods) (Hasan, 2019).
Table 2. Items loading to each factor based on Confirmative factor Analysis using
AMOS program.
Item factor Load
Q1.1 How much can you do to help your students think
critically in an online class?
<-
--
F1 0.51
Q1.2 How much can you do to get through to students in an
online class?
<-
--
F1 0.584
Q1.3 How much can you do to motivate students who show
low interest in online work?
<-
--
F1 0.724
Q1.4 How much can you get students to believe that they can
do well in an online class?
<-
--
F1 0.795
Q1.5 How much can you do to help students’ value online
learning?
<-
--
F1 0.775
Q1.6 How much can you do to foster individual student
creativity in an online course?
<-
--
F1 0.698
Q1.7 How much can you do to improve lower achievers in an
online class?”
<-
--
F1 0.546
Q1.8 How well can you facilitate collaborative learning
online?
<-
--
F1 0.540
Q2.1 How much can you control disruptive behavior (e.g.,
disrespectful posting or failure to adhere to outline
policies for posting online)?
<-
--
F2 0.693
Q2.2 To what extent can you make your expectations clear
about student behavior in an online class?
<-
--
F2 0.642
Q2.3 How well can you establish routines (e.g., facilitate or
moderate student participation) in coursework to keep
online activities running smoothly?
<-
--
F2 0.649

24
Q2.4 How much can you get students to follow the
established rules for assignments during an online class?
<-
--
F2 0.635
Q2.5 How much can you do to control students dominating
online discussions?
<-
--
F2 0.731
Q2.6 How well can you organize an online course (e.g.,
convey expectations; standards; course rules) with each
group of students?
<-
--
F2 0.676
Q2.7 How well can you facilitate student responsibility for
online learning?
<-
--
F2 0.649
Q2.8 How well can you respond to defiant students in an
online setting?
<-
--
F2 0.565
Q3.1 How well can you respond to questions from online
students
<-
--
F3 0.508
Q3.2 How much can you do to gauge student comprehension
of what you have taught in an online mode?
<-
--
F3 0.604
Q3.3 How well can you craft questions or assignments that
require students to think by relating ideas to previous
knowledge and experience?
<-
--
F3 0.685
Q3.4 How much can you do to make your online meet
learning styles?
<-
--
F3 0.75
Q3.5 How much can you do to use a variety of assessment
strategies for an online course?
<-
--
F3 0.765
Q3.6 To what extent can you provide an alternative
explanation or example when students in an online class
seem to be confused?
<-
--
F3 0.671
Q3.7 How well can we provide good online learning
experiences for students?
<-
--
F3 0.535
3.2.2 Reliability
Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001), the scale’s developers, reported the following
about the scale’s reliability: Cronbach’s alpha of .94 indicates complete score
dependability. Teachers’ self-efficacy subscale Cronbach’s alpha coefficient
values varied from.87 to.91, suggesting a good level of internal consistency (see
Table 3). The factor analysis showed three reasonably linked variables,
including Efficacy in instructional methods was 0.91, student management was
0.90, and student engagement and interaction was 0.87.

25
Table 3. Internal consistency of the TSES (Tschannen-Moran and Hoy’s, 2001)
After the instrument modifications, we have tested the reliability, and Cronbach’s
alpha was .92 for the entire survey, with subscale reliabilities of self-efficacy in
student engagement at .83, efficacy in classroom management at .86, and efficacy
in instructional strategies at .81 (see table 4).
Table 4. Reliability Statistics of the survey.
Self-efficacy domains Cronbach’s Alpha N of Items
Student Engagement 0.83 8
Classroom management 0.86 8
Instructional Strategies 0.81 7
Whole Survey 0.92 23
3.3 Data Collection
The data for this study were collected using a web-based data collection system.
Primary teachers in Qatari government schools received a survey link via emails
in October 2020. After two weeks, a follow-up message was sent to the non-
respondents to remind them about the importance of their participation. We
contacted primary school principals via emails to receive their permission to
administer the survey to their teachers and encourage them to participate in the
study.
3.4 Data analysis
Descriptive statistics are processed using version 26 of the Social Science Statistics
Package (SPSS). Tables were used to define the data; the mean, standard deviation,
and weighted average of the measured item were reported. Quantitative tests
such as t-test, ANOVA, and post hoc tests (Multiple comparisons based on LSD
tests) were used to discuss relationships between teacher efficacy scores and the
demographic variables. Furthermore, Alpha Cronbach was used for reliability,
and Confirmative factor analysis was used for Constructive validity.
4. Results
The results of the research questions within three aspects of self-efficacy are
recorded in this section: student engagement, classroom management, and
instructional strategies.

26
4.1 Quantitative data results
To address question one, we utilized the SPSS software to obtain descriptive
statistics. The scores were divided into five groups, ranging from extremely low
to very high, on a nine-point scale ranging from nothing (1) to a great deal (9).
(Very Low: 1- 2.59, low: 2.60- 4.19, Middle: 4.20- 5.79, High: 5.80- 7.39, and very
High: 7.40 -9).
Table 5 shows the mean (M), standard deviations (SD), and weighted average
(WA) scores for the three domains from participants (N=514). Table 5 shows that
the overall findings in the three categories correlated to the high self-efficacy
category among instructors, with a mean of 6.69 and 74 percent of the total.
Teacher self-efficacy, on the other hand, differed across the three areas.
Table 5. Means, Standard Deviations and Weighted Average of self-efficacy domains
N Mean/9
Std.
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
Weighted
Average
Student Engagement 514 6.78 1.329 0.059 75%
Classroom Management 514 6.46 1.544 0.068 72%
Instructional Strategies 514 6.84 1.314 0.058 76%
Total 514 6.69 1.215 0.054 74%
We used a t-test, ANOVA with post hoc testing to determine any important
differences between demographic variables on self-efficacy levels.
Teacher self-efficacy and Gender
The t-test findings on teachers' self-efficacy beliefs by gender are shown in Table
6. There was no gender difference in any of the three factors studied: student
engagement (t= -0.99, df=512, p=0.3180 >0.05), classroom management (t=-0.96,
df=512, p=0.3340 >0.05), and instructional strategies (t=-1.01, df=512,
p=0.3100 >0.05).
Table 6. Independent Sample T-test results of teacher self-efficacy beliefs by gender
(group samples test)
Domain
Gender
N Mean
Weighted
Average
Std.
Deviation t Df
Sig.
(2-
tailed)
Student
Engagement
Male 56 6.61 73% 1.1254 -
0.999
512 0.318
Female 458 6.80 76% 1.3519
Classroom
Management
Male 56 6.27 70% 1.6386 -
0.968
512 0.334
Female 458 6.49 72% 1.5324
Instructional
Strategies
Male 56 6.67 74% 1.3247 -
1.016
512 0.310
Female 458 6.86 76% 1.3123
Overall
self-efficacy
Male 56 6.51 72% 1.1771 -
1.143
512 0.254
Female 458 6.71 75% 1.2193

27
Teacher self-efficacy and age
Table 7 shows the results of the ANOVA test, which was used to evaluate teachers’
perceptions in relation to the years of age. Age was classified into 21-30 years old,
31-40 years old, and 41- above. The findings of the ANOVA test revealed no
significant differences between the three domains, overall self-efficacy, and years
of age (F=0.133, p=0.875> 0.05). (See table 7)
Table 7. ANOVA test result of teacher self-efficacy believes by age
Age
N Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std.
Error
Weighted
Average F Sig
Student
Engagement
21- 30 110 6.64 1.183 0.113 74%
1.770 0.171
31- 40 226 6.75 1.415 0.094 75%
41- above 176 6.93 1.288 0.097 77%
Classroom
Managemen
t
21- 30 110 6.30 1.375 0.131 70%
0.874 0.418
31- 40 226 6.54 1.532 0.102 73%
41- above 176 6.47 1.664 0.125 72%
Instructiona
l Strategies
21- 30 110 6.80 1.202 0.115 76%
0.133 0.875
31- 40 226 6.84 1.364 0.091 76%
41- above 176 6.88 1.319 0.099 76%
Overall
self-efficacy
21- 30 110 6.57 1.055 0.101 73%
0.133 0.875
31- 40 226 6.70 1.283 0.085 74%
41- above 176 6.75 1.223 0.092 75%
Teacher self-efficacy and years of teaching experience
Table 8 shows the ANOVA test results for teaching experience, which were used
to examine the relationship between teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs and years
of experience. Years of experience were classified into three categories: Less than
five years, five to ten years, and more than ten years.
The results of the ANOVA test revealed a significant difference in overall self-
efficacy across the three levels of teaching experience (F=8.522, p=0.000 <0.05).
(See table 8). The differences in general self-efficacy across the three levels of
teaching experience were determined using LSD post hoc test (see table 9).
Differences were found between teachers with more than ten years of experience
and those with five to ten years of experience (mean contrast =0.41498,
p=0.001<0.05). A substantial difference existed between instructors with more
than ten years of experience and those less than five years (mean difference
=0.46947, p=0.001<0.05). It may be inferred from this that the longer a teacher has
been teaching, the higher their self-efficacy.
Table 8. ANOFA-test result of teacher self-efficacy beliefs by years of experience.
Experience N Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std.
Error
F
Sig
(p)
Student
Engagement
Less than 5
years
94 6.4548 1.36917 0.14122
7.752 0.000
5- 10 years 135 6.5852 1.34851 0.11606

28
Experience N Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std.
Error
F
Sig
(p)
More than 10
years
285 6.9820 1.27530 0.07554
Classroom
Management
Less than 5
years
94 6.2354 1.47946 0.15259
7.419 0.001
5- 10 years 135 6.1352 1.45077 0.12486
More than 10
years
285 6.6934 1.57327 0.09319
Instructional
Strategies
Less than 5
years
94 6.5729 1.33954 0.13816
4.433 0.012
5- 10 years 135 6.7175 1.32578 0.11410
More than 10
years
285 6.9895 1.28341 0.07602
Overall
Less than 5
years
94 6.4144 1.18721 0.12245
8.522 0.000
5- 10 years 135 6.4689 1.18502 0.10199
More than 10
years
285 6.8839 1.20713 0.07150
Table 9. Multiple Comparisons based on LSD Test.
Dependent
Variable
Years of
Experience
Years of
Experience
Mean
Difference (I-J)
Std.
Error Sig.
Student
Engagement
More than 10
years
Less than 5
years
.52723* 0.15608 0.001
5- 10 years .39683* 0.13710 0.004
Classroom
Management
More than 10
years
Less than 5
years
.45805* 0.18140 0.012
5- 10 years .55824* 0.15934 0.000
Instructional
Strategies
More than 10
years
Less than 5
years
.41653* 0.15521 0.008
5- 10 years .27201* 0.13634 0.047
Overall
self-efficacy
More than 10
years
Less than 5
years
.46947* 0.14246 0.001
5- 10 years .41498* 0.12514 0.001
As far as student engagement is concerned, the results of the ANOVA test also
revealed a significant difference in student engagement among teachers based on
their years of experience t (F=7.752, p=0.000<0.05). Less than five years of teaching
experience (M=6.45, SD=1.36), 5-10 years of teaching experience (M=6.58, Sd=1.34),
more than ten years of teaching experience (M=6.98, SD) = 1.27)
According to the LSD test (Table 9), it is found that there is a difference between
teachers with more than ten years of experience and 5-10 years of experience
(average difference=0.39683, p=0.004<0.05). In addition, there are also significant
differences between teachers with more than ten years of experience and those with
less than five years of experience (mean difference=0.52723, p=0.001<0.05).
According to this data, the more years of work, the higher the sense of self-efficacy.

29
Based on tables (8 & 9), the classroom management domain differs significantly
across the three levels of teaching experience (F=7.419, p=0.001 <0.05). The
differences were found between teachers with more than ten years of experience
and those with 5-10 years of experience (mean difference =0. 55824, p=0.000<0.05).
There is also a significant difference between teachers with more than ten years of
experience and less than five years of experience (mean difference =0. 45805,
p=0.012<0.05).
In the classroom management domain, teachers with more than ten years of
experience (M=6.45, SD=1.36) had greater levels of self-efficacy than teachers with
five to ten years of experience (M=6.58, SD=1.34) and teachers with fewer than five
years of experience (M= 6.98, SD= 1.27).
There are also significant differences among the three years of expertise in teaching
strategies (F=4.433, p=0.012<0.05). The LSD test (Table 9) reveals a distinction
between teachers with more than ten years of experience and those with 5-10 years
of experience (average difference = 0.27201, p=0.047<0.05). There is also a significant
difference between instructors with more than ten years of experience and those
less than five years (average difference=0.41653, p=0.008<0.05).
4.2 Qualitative data Results
As part of the study’s qualitative aspect, four open-ended questions were included
towards the end of the questionnaire to acquire a more elaborated perspective from
the participants involved.
4.2.1 Challenges teachers encountered in online teaching during the pandemic period
Being cognizant of the challenges teachers face in online teaching is essential for
understanding the key factors that affect self-efficacy levels and scoping the future
landscape regarding these challenges. An in-depth examination of the first open-
ended question revealed three significant themes teachers face while
conducting online classes: unmotivated students, uncooperative parents, and
technical issues. (See figure 1).
Figure 1. Main challenges faced by teachers in online teaching

30
Unmotivated students were a recurrent theme in primary teachers’ responses, as
shown in figure 1. The responses of 48% of inexperienced teachers, 47% of expert
teachers, and 52% of teachers with 5 to 10 years of experience were in unison,
suggesting that their students were unmotivated to learn and complete online
tasks.
4.2.2 Strategies teachers used to cope with online teaching challenges during the
pandemic period
Figure 2. Frequently addressed coping strategies with challenges in online teaching
Figure 2 reflects that problem solving was the most considered option, with the
participants strongly affirming that they strive to overcome these challenges in
every way possible. The majority of participants selected contact with parents as
the first option for bridging the distance between teachers and their students
caused by physical barriers. Teachers interact with parents in various ways,
including phone calls and text messages to their students before and after school
hours. Teachers have met with parents for several reasons involving their children.
4.2.3 Support teachers received in online teaching during the pandemic period
Figure 3. Main support teachers received in online teaching

31
From figure 3, it is clear that the workshops provided to teachers, and the
cooperation of school faculty members such as administrators, coordinators, and
the IT department, proved to be a critical support system in assisting teachers in
adapting to the new pedagogical life. The school administrators and coordinators
spent time assisting teachers and students to ensure that the system operated
smoothly and that parental expectations were met.
4.2.4 Support teachers need to develop their self-efficacy in distance education
Figure 4. The primary support teachers require in online teaching
The survey findings reveal that over 54% of teachers believe that interactive and
practical technological professional development is required to develop self-
efficacy in online teaching and overcome challenges. Participants suggest
providing training workshops to coach teachers on utilizing and practicing online
teaching techniques effectively (See figure 4).
5. Discussion `
This study aimed to investigate primary level teachers’ perceptions concerning
self-efficacy in online teaching amidst a pandemic setting within the three
domains: instructional strategies, student engagement, and classroom
management. Teachers in primary schools indicated high levels of self-efficacy in
online teaching, with mean scores ranging from 5.80 to 7.39 in the three areas of
student engagement, classroom management, and instructional strategies.
Results also did not report any correlation between self-efficacy and demographic
variables, including age and gender. However, it is noteworthy that a higher self-
efficacy level was more prominent among teachers with more years of experience
than those with much less experience.
5.1 Teacher efficacy
The high self-efficacy beliefs are found in Horvitz et al. (2015) ’s study of online
instructors from various universities. Other research on face-to-face education,
such as Voris’ (2011) study on special education teachers in Kentucky, Kim and
Kim’s (2010) study on early childhood teachers’ self-efficacy in South Korea, and
Chang et al. (2001) study on university teachers in Taiwan, all reported positive
results. However, Sokal et al. (2020) research on online teachers’ self-efficacy in
the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada, Robinia and Anderson’s (2010) study, and
Wong’s (2003) study all reported the opposite, low self-efficacy levels.

32
Bandura (1977) identified two major factors that had a substantial impact on
teacher efficacy. Vicarious experience, in which teachers observe other
successful teachers. Observing successful people, according to Bandura (1977),
increases the belief in achieving professional success. Teachers responded in the
open-ended questions that they were encouraged by workshops and attending
external training programs outside work hours. This shows that vicarious
experiences and self-efficacy are correlated.
Verbal persuasion is the second factor that influences teachers’ self-efficacy.
Teachers are often convinced of their self-belief in their ability to overcome
obstacles by vocal support from others. Verbal persuasion enhances teachers’ self-
efficacy by encouraging and supporting their skills and providing strategies for
dealing with difficulties (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Numerous teachers
reported getting verbal influence from their school officials, supervisors, and
colleagues in response to the open-ended questions.
The self-efficacy beliefs of primary school teachers were investigated to see any
significant differences between self-efficacy scores and demographic factors.
Surprisingly, the results of this research revealed a statistically significant
correlation between self-efficacy and years of teaching experience. Indicating that
the more years of experience teachers have, the greater their self-efficacy in online
teaching. Experienced teachers had better mean scores, which is not surprising
given that research has shown that experienced teachers are well-versed in
subjects and specialists in creative teaching techniques. As a result, they had a lot
of time to perfect their teaching methods (Dinc, 2019). Furthermore, these findings
corroborate with Tschannen-Moran and Hoy’s (2007) hypothesis that experienced
teachers demonstrate higher self-efficacy than novice teachers due to variations
in teaching techniques.
There was no significant difference between gender and self-efficacy in online
teaching in this research. One possible reason for this result is that, in contrast to
earlier decades, computers are now more widely available and simpler to use for
both men and women (Dinc, 2019). This result is consistent with Mehdinezhad’s
(2012) research on university teachers’ self-efficacy in Iran, Wee-(2011), Loon’s
research on primary science teachers’ self-efficacy in Singapore, and Robinia &
Anderson’s (2010) Michigan research on nurse educators’ self-efficacy in online
teaching in Michigan.
The previous research differs in terms of Gender showed more significant levels
of self-efficacy. Female teachers had greater self-efficacy than male teachers in
specific research (Chang et al., 2011), while men had firmer self-efficacy beliefs
than females in another study (Chang et al. 2011, and Lumpe et al., 2012). This
research also shows no notable link between teachers’ age and their levels of self-
efficacy in any of the three areas; all three age groups had high levels of self-
efficacy.
Many of the studies discussed in the literature review did not consider differences
in teachers’ self-efficacy based on their age. Similar results were observed in

IJLTER.ORG Vol 20 No 11 November 2021

IJLTER.ORG Vol 20 No 11 November 2021

Recomendados

Recomendados

Más contenido relacionado

Similar a IJLTER.ORG Vol 20 No 11 November 2021

Similar a IJLTER.ORG Vol 20 No 11 November 2021 (20)

Más de ijlterorg

Más de ijlterorg (11)

Último

Último (20)

IJLTER.ORG Vol 20 No 11 November 2021