bahan rujukan

1. http://www.biography.com/people/george-handel-9327378
George Handel Biography
Songwriter(1685–1759)
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Quick Facts
Name
George Handel
Occupation
Songwriter
BirthDate
February23, 1685
DeathDate
April 14, 1759
Education
Universityof Halle
Place of Birth
Halle, Germany
Place of Death
London,UnitedKingdom
Originally
Georg FriedrichHändel

2. Georg FriedrichHaendel
 Synopsis
 Early Life
 Opera
 Oratorios
 HealthIssues
 Deathand Legacy
 Cite ThisPage
George Handel composedoperas,oratoriosandinstrumentals.His1741 work,Messiah,isthe most
famousoratorio.
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Synopsis
Baroque composer George Handel was born February 23, 1685, in Halle, Germany. In 1704
Handel made his debut as an opera composer with Almira. He produced several operas with the
Royal Academy of Music before forming the New Royal Academy of Music in 1727. When
Italian operas fell out of fashion, he started composing oratorios, including Messiah. George
Handel died April 14, 1759, in London, England.
Early Life
Baroque composer George Handel was born George Frederick Handel on February 23, 1685, to
Georg and Dorothea Handel of Halle, Saxony, Germany. From an early age, Handel longed to
study music, but his father objected, doubting that music was a realistic source of income. In
fact, his father would not even permit him to own a musical instrument. His mother was,
however, supportive, and encouraged him to develop his musical talent. With her cooperation,
Handel took to practicing on the sly.
When Handel was seven years old, he had the opportunity to play the organ for the duke’s court
in Weissenfels. It was there that Handel met composer and organist Friedrich Wilhelm Zachow.
Zachow was impressed with Handel’s potential, and invited Handel to become his pupil. Under
the tutelage of Zachow, Handel mastered composing for the organ, the oboe and the violin alike
by the time he was 10 years old. From the age of 11 to the time he was 16 or 17 years old,
Handel composed church cantatas and chamber music that, being written for a small audience,
failed to garner much attention and have since been lost to time.

4. Despite his dedication to his music, at his father’s insistence, Handel initially agreed to study
law. Not surprisingly, he did not remain enrolled in law courses for long. His passion for music
would not be suppressed.
In 1703, when Handel was 18 years old, he decided to pursue music in full force, by accepting a
violinist’s position at the Hamburg Opera’s Goosemarket Theater. During this time, he
supplemented his income by teaching private music lessons in his free time, passing on what he
had learned from his own mentor, Zachow.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach
Johann Sebastian Bach
From Wikipedia,the free encyclopedia
Thisarticle isabout the Baroque composer.Forhisgrandsonof the same name,see JohannSebastian
Bach (painter).Forotherusesof Bach, see Bach(disambiguation).
Portrait of Bach, aged 61, Haussmann, 1748
Johann Sebastian Bach[1] (31 March [O.S. 21 March] 1685 – 28 July 1750) was a German
composer and musician of the Baroque period. He enriched established German styles through

5. his skill in counterpoint, harmonic and motivic organisation, and the adaptation of rhythms,
forms, and textures from abroad, particularly from Italy and France. Bach's compositions include
the Brandenburg concertos, the Mass in B minor, The Well-Tempered Clavier, two Passions,
keyboard works, and more than 300 cantatas, of which nearly 100 cantatas have been lost to
posterity.[2] His music is revered for its intellectual depth, technical command, and artistic
beauty.
Bach was born in Eisenach, Saxe-Eisenach, into a great musical family; his father, Johann
Ambrosius Bach, was the director of the town musicians, and all of his uncles were professional
musicians. His father probably taught him to play violin and harpsichord, and his brother, Johann
Christoph Bach, taught him the clavichord and exposed him to much contemporary music.[3][4]
Apparently at his own initiative, Bach attended St Michael's School in Lüneburg for two years.
After graduating, he held several musical posts across Germany: he served as Kapellmeister
(director of music) to Leopold, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen, Cantor of the Thomasschule in Leipzig,
and Royal Court Composer to August III.[5][6] Bach's health and vision declined in 1749, and he
died on 28 July 1750. Modern historians believe that his death was caused by a combination of
stroke and pneumonia.[7][8][9]
Bach's abilities as an organist were highly respected throughout Europe during his lifetime,
although he was not widely recognised as a great composer until a revival of interest and
performances of his music in the first half of the nineteenth century. He is now generally
regarded as one of the main composers of the Baroque period, and as one of the greatest
composers of all time.[10]
Life
Childhood(1685–1703)
See also:Bach family
JohannAmbrosiusBach,Bach's father

6. Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach, Saxe-Eisenach, on 21 March 1685 O.S. (31 March
1685 N.S.). He was the son of Johann Ambrosius Bach, the director of the town musicians, and
Maria Elisabeth Lämmerhirt.[11] He was the eighth child of Johann Ambrosius, (the eldest son in
the family was 14 at the time of Bach's birth)[12] who probably taught him violin and the basics
of music theory.[13] His uncles were all professional musicians, whose posts included church
organists, court chamber musicians, and composers. One uncle, Johann Christoph Bach (1645–
93), introduced him to the organ, and an older second cousin, Johann Ludwig Bach (1677–1731),
was a well-known composer and violinist. Bach drafted a genealogy around 1735, titled "Origin
of the musical Bach family".[14]
Bach's mother died in 1694, and his father died eight months later.[6] Bach, aged 10, moved in
with his oldest brother, Johann Christoph Bach (1671–1721), the organist at St. Michael's
Church in Ohrdruf, Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg.[15] There he studied, performed, and copied music,
including his own brother's, despite being forbidden to do so because scores were so valuable
and private and blank ledger paper of that type was costly.[16][17] He received valuable teaching
from his brother, who instructed him on the clavichord. J.C. Bach exposed him to the works of
great composers of the day, including South German composers such as Johann Pachelbel (under
whom Johann Christoph had studied)[3] and Johann Jakob Froberger; North German
composers;[4] Frenchmen, such as Jean-Baptiste Lully, Louis Marchand, Marin Marais; and the
Italian clavierist Girolamo Frescobaldi. Also during this time, he was taught theology, Latin,
Greek, French, and Italian at the local gymnasium.[18]
At the age of 14, Bach, along with his older school friend George Erdmann, was awarded a
choral scholarship to study at the prestigious St. Michael's School in Lüneburg in the Principality
of Lüneburg.[19] Although it is not known for certain, the trip was likely taken mostly on foot.[18]
His two years there were critical in exposing him to a wider facet of European culture. In
addition to singing in the choir he played the School's three-manual organ and harpsichords.[18]
He came into contact with sons of noblemen from northern Germany sent to the highly selective
school to prepare for careers in other disciplines.
While in Lüneburg, Bach had access to St. John's Church and possibly used the church's famous
organ, built in 1549 by Jasper Johannsen, since it was played by his organ teacher Georg
Böhm.[2] Given his musical talent, Bach had significant contact with Böhm while a student in
Lüneburg, and also took trips to nearby Hamburg where he observed "the great North German
organist Johann Adam Reincken".[2][20] Stauffer reports the discovery in 2005 of the organ
tablatures that Bach wrote out when still in his teens of works by Reincken and Dieterich
Buxtehude showing "a disciplined, methodical, well-trained teenager deeply committed to
learning his craft".[2]

7. Weimar, Arnstadt, andMühlhausen(1703–08)
St. Boniface'sChurch, Arnstadt
In January 1703, shortly after graduating from St. Michael's and being turned down for the post
of organist at Sangerhausen,[21][22] Bach was appointed court musician in the chapel of Duke
Johann Ernst in Weimar. His role there is unclear, but likely included menial, non-musical
duties. During his seven-month tenure at Weimar, his reputation as a keyboardist spread so much
that he was invited to inspect the new organ, and give the inaugural recital, at St. Boniface's
Church in Arnstadt, located about 30 kilometres (19 mi) southwest of Weimar.[23] In August
1703, he became the organist at St Boniface's, with light duties, a relatively generous salary, and
a fine new organ tuned in the modern tempered system that allowed a wide range of keys to be
used.
St. Mary's Church, Lübeck
Despite strong family connections and a musically enthusiastic employer, tension built up
between Bach and the authorities after several years in the post. Bach was dissatisfied with the
standard of singers in the choir, while his employer was upset by his unauthorised absence from
Arnstadt; Bach was gone for several months in 1705–06, to visit the great organist and composer
Dieterich Buxtehude and his Abendmusiken at St. Mary's Church in the northern city of Lübeck.

8. The visit to Buxtehude involved a 400-kilometre (250 mi) journey on foot each way. The trip
reinforced Buxtehude's style as a foundation for Bach's earlier works. Bach wanted to become
amanuensis (assistant and successor) to Buxtehude, but did not want to marry his daughter,
which was a condition for his appointment.[24]
In 1706, Bach was offered a post as organist at St. Blasius's in Mühlhausen, which he took up the
following year. It included significantly higher remuneration, improved conditions, and a better
choir. Four months after arriving at Mühlhausen, Bach married Maria Barbara Bach, his second
cousin. They had seven children, four of whom survived to adulthood, including Wilhelm
Friedemann Bach and Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach who both became important composers as
well. Bach was able to convince the church and city government at Mühlhausen to fund an
expensive renovation of the organ at St. Blasius's. Bach, in turn, wrote an elaborate, festive
cantata—Gott ist mein König (BWV 71)—for the inauguration of the new council in 1708. The
council paid handsomely for its publication, and it was a major success.[18]
Returnto Weimar (1708–17)
Portraitof the youngBach (disputed)[25]
In 1708, Bach left Mühlhausen, returning to Weimar this time as organist and from 1714
Konzertmeister (director of music) at the ducal court, where he had an opportunity to work with
a large, well-funded contingent of professional musicians.[18] Bach moved with his family into an
apartment very close to the ducal palace. In the following year, their first child was born and
Maria Barbara's elder, unmarried sister joined them. She remained to help run the household
until her death in 1729.
Bach's time in Weimar was the start of a sustained period of composing keyboard and orchestral
works. He attained the proficiency and confidence to extend the prevailing structures and to
include influences from abroad. He learned to write dramatic openings and employ the dynamic
motor-rhythms and harmonic schemes found in the music of Italians such as Vivaldi, Corelli, and
Torelli. Bach absorbed these stylistic aspects in part by transcribing Vivaldi's string and wind
concertos for harpsichord and organ; many of these transcribed works are still played in concert

9. often. Bach was particularly attracted to the Italian style in which one or more solo instruments
alternate section-by-section with the full orchestra throughout a movement.[26]
In Weimar, Bach continued to play and compose for the organ, and to perform concert music
with the duke's ensemble.[18] He also began to write the preludes and fugues which were later
assembled into his monumental work The Well-Tempered Clavier (Das Wohltemperierte
Clavier—"Clavier" meaning clavichord or harpsichord),[27] consisting of two books, compiled in
1722 and 1744,[28] each containing a prelude and fugue in every major and minor key.
The autograph of Bach's ViolinSonataNo.1 inG minor (BWV 1001)
Also in Weimar Bach started work on the Little Organ Book for his eldest son, Wilhelm
Friedemann, containing traditional Lutheran chorales (hymn tunes) set in complex textures to
train organists. In 1713 Bach was offered a post in Halle when he advised the authorities during a
renovation by Christoph Cuntzius of the main organ in the west gallery of the Marktkirche Unser
Lieben Frauen. Johann Kuhnau and Bach played again when it was inaugurated in 1716.[29][30]
Musicologists debate whether his first Christmas cantata Christen, ätzet diesen Tag, BWV 63,
was premiered here in 1713,[31] or if it was performed for the bicentennial of the Reformation in
1717.[32]
In the spring of 1714, Bach was promoted to Konzertmeister, an honour that entailed performing
a church cantata monthly in the castle church.[33] The first three cantatas Bach composed in
Weimar were Himmelskönig, sei willkommen, BWV 182, for Palm Sunday, which coincided
with the Annunciation that year, Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen, BWV 12, for Jubilate Sunday,
and Erschallet, ihr Lieder, erklinget, ihr Saiten! BWV 172 for Pentecost.[34]
In 1717, Bach eventually fell out of favour in Weimar and was, according to a translation of the
court secretary's report, jailed for almost a month before being unfavourably dismissed: "On
November 6, [1717], the quondam concertmaster and organist Bach was confined to the County

10. Judge's place of detention for too stubbornly forcing the issue of his dismissal and finally on
December 2 was freed from arrest with notice of his unfavourable discharge."[35]
Köthen(1717–23)
Leopold, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen hired Bach to serve as his Kapellmeister (director of music) in
1717. Prince Leopold, himself a musician, appreciated Bach's talents, paid him well, and gave
him considerable latitude in composing and performing. The prince was Calvinist and did not
use elaborate music in his worship; accordingly, most of Bach's work from this period was
secular,[36] including the orchestral suites, the cello suites, the sonatas and partitas for solo violin,
and the Brandenburg concertos.[37] Bach also composed secular cantatas for the court such as Die
Zeit, die Tag und Jahre macht, BWV 134a. At least one significant influence upon Bach's
musical development during his years with the Prince are recorded by Stauffer as Bach's
"complete embrace of dance music, perhaps the most important influence on his mature style
other than his adoption of Vivaldi's music in Weimar".[2]
Despite being born in the same year and only about 130 kilometres (81 mi) apart, Bach and
Handel never met. In 1719 Bach made the 35-kilometre (22 mi) journey from Köthen to Halle
with the intention of meeting Handel, however Handel had recently departed the city.[38] In 1730,
Bach's son Friedmann travelled to Halle to invite Handel to visit the Bach family in Leipzig, but
the visit did not come to pass.[39]
On 7 July 1720, while Bach was abroad with Prince Leopold, Bach's first wife suddenly died.
The following year, he met Anna Magdalena Wilcke, a young, highly gifted soprano 17 years his
junior, who performed at the court in Köthen; they married on 3 December 1721.[40] Together
they had 13 more children, six of whom survived into adulthood: Gottfried Heinrich, Johann
Christoph Friedrich, and Johann Christian, all of whom became significant musicians; Elisabeth
Juliane Friederica (1726–81), who married Bach's pupil Johann Christoph Altnickol; Johanna
Carolina (1737–81); and Regina Susanna (1742–1809).[41]
Leipzig(1723–50)

11. St. ThomasChurch,Leipzig
In 1723, Bach was appointed Cantor of the Thomasschule at the Thomaskirche in Leipzig, and
Director of Music in the principal churches in the town, namely the Nikolaikirche and the
Paulinerkirche, the church of the University of Leipzig.[6] This was a prestigious post in the
mercantile city in the Electorate of Saxony, which he held for 27 years until his death. It brought
him into contact with the political machinations of his employer, Leipzig's city council.
Nikolaikirche,Leipzig,c. 1850
Bach was required to instruct the students of the Thomasschule in singing and to provide church
music for the main churches in Leipzig. Bach was required to teach Latin, but he was allowed to
employ a deputy to do this instead. A cantata was required for the church services on Sundays
and additional church holidays during the liturgical year. He usually performed his own cantatas,
most of which were composed during his first three years in Leipzig. The first of these was Die
Elenden sollen essen, BWV 75, first performed in the Nikolaikirche on 30 May 1723, the first
Sunday after Trinity. Bach collected his cantatas in annual cycles. Five are mentioned in
obituaries, three are extant.[34] Of the over three hundred cantatas which Bach composed in
Leipzig, approximately one hundred have been lost to posterity.[2] Most of these concerted works
expound on the Gospel readings prescribed for every Sunday and feast day in the Lutheran year.
Bach started a second annual cycle the first Sunday after Trinity of 1724, and composed only
chorale cantatas, each based on a single church hymn. These include O Ewigkeit, du
Donnerwort, BWV 20, Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, BWV 140, Nun komm, der Heiden
Heiland, BWV 62, and Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern, BWV 1.
Bach drew the soprano and alto choristers from the School, and the tenors and basses from the
School and elsewhere in Leipzig. Performing at weddings and funerals provided extra income for
these groups; it was probably for this purpose, and for in-school training, that he wrote at least
six motets, at least five of which are for double choir.[42] As part of his regular church work, he
performed other composers' motets, which served as formal models for his own.[18]

12. Café Zimmermann,Leipzig,where the CollegiumMusicumperformed
Bach broadened his composing and performing beyond the liturgy by taking over, in March
1729, the directorship of the Collegium Musicum, a secular performance ensemble started by the
composer Georg Philipp Telemann. This was one of the dozens of private societies in the major
German-speaking cities that was established by musically active university students; these
societies had become increasingly important in public musical life and were typically led by the
most prominent professionals in a city. In the words of Christoph Wolff, assuming the
directorship was a shrewd move that "consolidated Bach's firm grip on Leipzig's principal
musical institutions".[43] Year round, the Leipzig's Collegium Musicum performed regularly in
venues such as the Café Zimmermann, a coffeehouse on Catherine Street off the main market
square. Many of Bach's works during the 1730s and 1740s were written for and performed by the
Collegium Musicum; among these were parts of his Clavier-Übung (Keyboard Practice) and
many of his violin and harpsichord concertos.[18]
In 1733, Bach composed a Missa of Kyrie and Gloria which he later incorporated in his Mass in
B minor. He presented the manuscript to the King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania and
Elector of Saxony, August III in an eventually successful bid to persuade the monarch to appoint
him as Royal Court Composer.[5] He later extended this work into a full Mass, by adding a
Credo, Sanctus and Agnus Dei, the music for which was partly based on his own cantatas, partly
new composed. Bach's appointment as court composer was part of his long-term struggle to
achieve greater bargaining power with the Leipzig Council. Although the complete mass was
probably never performed during the composer's lifetime,[44] it is considered to be among the
greatest choral works of all time. Between 1737 and 1739, Bach's former pupil Carl Gotthelf
Gerlach took over the directorship of the Collegium Musicum.

13. Placeswhere Bachlived
In 1747, Bach visited the court of King Frederick II of Prussia at Potsdam. The king played a
theme for Bach and challenged him to improvise a fugue based on his theme. Bach improvised a
three-part fugue on one of Frederick's fortepianos, then a novelty, and later presented the king
with a Musical Offering which consists of fugues, canons and a trio based on this theme. Its six-
part fugue includes a slightly altered subject more suitable for extensive elaboration.
In the same year Bach joined the Corresponding Society of the Musical Sciences
(Correspondierende Societät der musicalischen Wissenschaften) of Lorenz Christoph Mizler. On
the occasion of his entry into the Society Bach composed the Canonic Variations on "Vom
Himmel hoch da komm' ich her" (BWV 769).[45] A portrait had to be submitted by each member
of the Society, so in 1746, during the preparation of Bach's entry, the famous Bach-portrait was
painted by Elias Gottlob Haussmann.[46] The Canon triplex á 6 Voc. (BWV 1076) on this portrait
was dedicated to the Society.[47] Other late works by Bach may also have a connection with the
music theory based Society.[48] One of those works was The Art of Fugue, which consists of 18
complex fugues and canons based on a simple theme.[49] Bach never completed the final fugue.
The Art of Fugue was only published posthumously in 1751.[50]
Bach's last completed large work was the Mass in B minor (1748–49) which Stauffer describes
as "Bach's most universal church music. Consisting mainly of recycled movements from cantatas
written over a thirty-five year period, it allowed Bach to survey his vocal pieces one last time and
pick select movements for further revision and refinement."[2] The final work Bach completed
was a chorale prelude for organ, entitled Vor deinen Thron tret ich hiermit (Before thy throne I
now appear, BWV 668a) which he dictated to his son-in-law, Johann Christoph Altnickol, from
his deathbed. When the notes on the three staves of the final cadence are counted and mapped
onto the Roman alphabet, the initials "JSB" are found.[51]

14. Death(1750)
Bach's grave, St. ThomasChurch, Leipzig
Bach's health declined in 1749; on 2 June, Heinrich von Brühl wrote to one of the Leipzig
burgomasters to request that his music director, Gottlob Harrer, fill the Thomaskantor and
Director musices posts "upon the eventual ... decease of Mr. Bach".[52] Bach became increasingly
blind, so the British eye surgeon John Taylor operated on Bach while visiting Leipzig in March
or April 1750.[53]
On 28 July 1750 Bach died at the age of 65. A contemporary newspaper reported "the unhappy
consequences of the very unsuccessful eye operation" as the cause of death.[54] Modern historians
speculate that the cause of death was a stroke complicated by pneumonia.[7][8][9] His son Emanuel
and his pupil Johann Friedrich Agricola wrote an obituary of Bach.[55] In 1754, Lorenz Christoph
Mizler published a detailed obituary of Bach in the musical periodical Musikalische Bibliothek.
This obituary arguably remains "the richest and most trustworthy"[56] early source document
about Bach.
Bach's estate included five harpsichords, two lute-harpsichords, three violins, three violas, two
cellos, a viola da gamba, a lute and a spinet, and 52 "sacred books", including books by Martin
Luther and Josephus.[57] He was originally buried at Old St. John's Cemetery in Leipzig. His
grave went unmarked for nearly 150 years. In 1894 his coffin was finally found and moved to a
vault in St. John's Church. This building was destroyed by Allied bombing during World War II,
so in 1950 Bach's remains were taken to their present grave at Leipzig's Church of St.
Thomas.[18]
Legacy

15. Statue of Bach by Donndorf,Eisenach
After his death, Bach's reputation as a composer at first declined; his work was regarded as old-
fashioned compared to the emerging galant style, a movement which can be seen as the precursor
to the classical style of the late eighteenth century.[58] Initially he was remembered more as a
player and teacher.
During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, Bach was recognised by several
prominent composers for his keyboard work. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van
Beethoven, Frédéric Chopin, Robert Schumann, and Felix Mendelssohn were among his
admirers; they began writing in a more contrapuntal style after being exposed to Bach's music.[59]
Beethoven described him as "Urvater der Harmonie", the "original father of harmony".[60]
Statue of Bach, Leipzig

16. Bach's reputation among the wider public was enhanced in part by Johann Nikolaus Forkel's
1802 biography of the composer.[61] Felix Mendelssohn significantly contributed to the revival of
Bach's reputation with his 1829 Berlin performance of the St Matthew Passion.[62] In 1850, the
Bach-Gesellschaft (Bach Society) was founded to promote the works; in 1899 the Society
published a comprehensive edition of the composer's works with little editorial intervention.
During the twentieth century, the process of recognising the musical as well as the pedagogic
value of some of the works continued, perhaps most notably in the promotion of the cello suites
by Pablo Casals, the first major performer to record these suites.[63] Another development has
been the growth of the "authentic" or "period performance" movement, which attempts to present
music as the composer intended it. Examples include the playing of keyboard works on
harpsichord rather than modern grand piano and the use of small choirs or single voices instead
of the larger forces favoured by nineteenth- and early twentieth-century performers.[64]
Bach's music is frequently bracketed with the literature of William Shakespeare and the science
of Isaac Newton.[65] In Germany, during the twentieth century, many streets were named and
statues were erected in honour of Bach. His music features three times – more than any other
composer – on the Voyager Golden Record, a phonograph record containing a broad sample of
the images, common sounds, languages, and music of Earth, sent into outer space with the two
Voyager probes.[66]
A large crater in the Bach quadrangle on Mercury is named in Bach's honor[67] as are the main-
belt asteroids 1814 Bach and 1482 Sebastiana.[68]
Works
Main articles:BWV and Listof compositionsbyJohannSebastianBach
Music ofJohann Sebastian Bach
Wachetauf,ruftunsdie Stimme (BWV 140)
Menu
0:40
openingchorale tocantata BWV 140, performedbythe MIT ConcertChoir
Prelude No.1in C major(BWV 846)

17. Menu
0:00
fromThe Well-Tempered Clavier,Book 1, performedonharpsichordbyRobertSchröter
Ariafrom the Goldberg Variations (BWV 988)
Menu
0:00
openingariato the Goldberg Variations,performedonpianoby KimikoIshizaka
Problems playing these files? See media help.
In 1950, a thematic catalogue called Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis (Bach Works Catalogue) was
compiled by Wolfgang Schmieder.[69] Schmieder largely followed the Bach-Gesellschaft-
Ausgabe, a comprehensive edition of the composer's works that was produced between 1850 and
1905: BWV 1–224 are cantatas; BWV 225–249, large-scale choral works including his Passions;
BWV 250–524, chorales and sacred songs; BWV 525–748, organ works; BWV 772–994, other
keyboard works; BWV 995–1000, lute music; BWV 1001–40, chamber music; BWV 1041–71,
orchestral music; and BWV 1072–1126, canons and fugues.[70]
Organ works
Bach was best known during his lifetime as an organist, organ consultant, and composer of organ
works in both the traditional German free genres—such as preludes, fantasias, and toccatas—and
stricter forms, such as chorale preludes and fugues.[18] At a young age, he established a

18. reputation for his great creativity and ability to integrate foreign styles into his organ works. A
decidedly North German influence was exerted by Georg Böhm, with whom Bach came into
contact in Lüneburg, and Dieterich Buxtehude, whom the young organist visited in Lübeck in
1704 on an extended leave of absence from his job in Arnstadt. Around this time, Bach copied
the works of numerous French and Italian composers to gain insights into their compositional
languages, and later arranged violin concertos by Vivaldi and others for organ and harpsichord.
During his most productive period (1708–14) he composed about a dozen pairs of preludes and
fugues, five toccatas and fugues, and the Little Organ Book, an unfinished collection of 46 short
chorale preludes that demonstrates compositional techniques in the setting of chorale tunes. After
leaving Weimar, Bach wrote less for organ, although some of his best-known works (the six trio
sonatas, the German Organ Mass in Clavier-Übung III from 1739, and the Great Eighteen
chorales, revised late in his life) were composed after his leaving Weimar. Bach was extensively
engaged later in his life in consulting on organ projects, testing newly built organs, and
dedicating organs in afternoon recitals.[71][72]
Other keyboardworks
Bach wrote many works for harpsichord, some of which may have been played on the
clavichord. Many of his keyboard works are anthologies that encompass whole theoretical
systems in an encyclopaedic fashion.
 The Well-Tempered Clavier,Books1 and 2 (BWV 846–893). Each book consistsof a prelude and
fugue ineachof the 24 major and minor keysinchromaticorderfrom C majorto B minor(thus,
the whole collection isoftenreferredtoas"the 48"). "Well-tempered"inthe title referstothe
temperament(systemof tuning);manytemperamentsbefore Bach'stime were notflexible
enoughtoallowcompositionstoutilise more thanjustafew keys.[73]
 The Inventionsand Sinfonias (BWV 772–801). These shorttwo- andthree-partcontrapuntal
worksare arrangedinthe same chromaticorderas The Well-Tempered Clavier, omittingsome
of the rarer keys.These pieceswere intendedbyBachfor instructional purposes.[74]
 Three collectionsof dance suites:the EnglishSuites (BWV 806–811), the FrenchSuites (BWV
812–817), and the Partitasfor keyboard (BWV 825–830). Each collectioncontainssix suitesbuilt
on the standardmodel (Allemande–Courante–Sarabande–(optional movement)–Gigue).The
EnglishSuitescloselyfollow the traditionalmodel,addingaprelude before the allemande and
includingasingle movementbetweenthe sarabande andthe gigue.[75]
The FrenchSuitesomit
preludes,buthave multiplemovementsbetweenthe sarabande andthe gigue.[76]
The partitas
expandthe model furtherwithelaborate introductorymovementsandmiscellaneous
movementsbetweenthe basicelementsof the model.[77]
 The Goldberg Variations (BWV 988), an aria withthirty variations.The collectionhasacomplex
and unconventional structure:the variationsbuildonthe bassline of the aria,rather thanits
melody,andmusical canons are interpolatedaccordingtoa grand plan.There are nine canons
withinthe thirtyvariations,everythirdvariationisacanon.[78]
These variationsmove in order
fromcanon at the unisontocanon at the ninth.The firsteightare in pairs(unisonandoctave,
secondandseventh,thirdandsixth,fourthandfifth).The ninthcanonstandsonitsowndue to
compositional dissimilarities.The final variation,insteadof beingthe expectedcanonatthe
tenth,isa quodlibet.
 Miscellaneouspiecessuchasthe Overturein theFrench Style(French Overture,BWV 831),
ChromaticFantasia and Fugue (BWV 903),and the Italian Concerto (BWV 971).

19. Among Bach's lesser known keyboard works are seven toccatas (BWV 910–916), four duets
(BWV 802–805), sonatas for keyboard (BWV 963–967), the Six Little Preludes (BWV 933–
938), and the Aria variata alla maniera italiana (BWV 989).
Orchestral and chambermusic
Bach wrote for single instruments, duets, and small ensembles. Many of his solo works, such as
his six sonatas and partitas for violin (BWV 1001–1006), six cello suites (BWV 1007–1012), and
partita for solo flute (BWV 1013), are widely considered among the most profound works in the
repertoire.[79] Bach composed a suite and several other works for solo lute. He wrote trio sonatas;
solo sonatas (accompanied by continuo) for the flute and for the viola da gamba; and a large
number of canons and ricercars, mostly with unspecified instrumentation. The most significant
examples of the latter are contained in The Art of Fugue and The Musical Offering.
Bach's best-known orchestral works are the Brandenburg concertos, so named because he
submitted them in the hope of gaining employment from Margrave Christian Ludwig of
Brandenburg-Schwedt in 1721; his application was unsuccessful.[18] These works are examples
of the concerto grosso genre. Other surviving works in the concerto form include two violin
concertos (BWV 1041 and BWV 1042); a concerto for two violins in D minor (BWV 1043),
often referred to as Bach's "double" concerto; and concertos for one to four harpsichords. It is
widely accepted that many of the harpsichord concertos were not original works, but
arrangements of his concertos for other instruments now lost.[80] A number of violin, oboe, and
flute concertos have been reconstructed from these. In addition to concertos, Bach wrote four
orchestral suites, and a series of stylised dances for orchestra, each preceded by a French
overture.[81]
Vocal andchoral works
Cantatas
As the Thomaskantor, beginning mid of 1723, Bach performed a cantata each Sunday and feast
day that corresponded to the lectionary readings of the week.[18] Although Bach performed
cantatas by other composers, he composed at least three entire annual cycles of cantatas at
Leipzig, in addition to those composed at Mühlhausen and Weimar.[18] In total he wrote more
than 300 sacred cantatas, of which approximately 200 survive.[82]
His cantatas vary greatly in form and instrumentation, including those for solo singers, single
choruses, small instrumental groups, and grand orchestras. Many consist of a large opening
chorus followed by one or more recitative-aria pairs for soloists (or duets) and a concluding
chorale. The recitative is part of the corresponding Bible reading for the week and the aria is a
contemporary reflection on it. The melody of the concluding chorale often appears as a cantus
firmus in the opening movement. Among his best known cantatas are:
 Christ lag in Todes Banden,BWV 4
 Ich hatteviel Bekümmernis,BWV 21
 Ein feste Burg ist unserGott,BWV 80
 Gottes Zeit ist die allerbesteZeit, BWV 106 (ActusTragicus)

20.  Wachetauf,ruftunsdie Stimme,BWV 140
 Herz und Mund und Tat und Leben,BWV 147
In addition, Bach wrote a number of secular cantatas, usually for civic events such as council
inaugurations. These include wedding cantatas, the Wedding Quodlibet, the Peasant Cantata,
and the Coffee Cantata.[83]
Motets
Bach's motets (BWV 225–231) are pieces on sacred themes for choir and basso continuo, with
instruments playing colla parte. Several of them were composed for funerals. The six motets
certainly composed by Bach are Singet dem Herrn ein neues Lied, Der Geist hilft unser
Schwachheit auf, Jesu, meine Freude, Fürchte dich nicht, Komm, Jesu, komm, and Lobet den
Herrn, alle Heiden. The motet Sei Lob und Preis mit Ehren (BWV 231) is spurious; it is part of
an incomplete cantata or motet by Telemann.[84]
Passions
Bach's large choral-orchestral works include the grand scale St Matthew Passion and St John
Passion, both written for Good Friday vesper services at the Thomaskirche and the Nikolaikirche
in alternate years, and the Christmas Oratorio (a set of six cantatas for use in the liturgical
season of Christmas).[85][86][87] The two versions of the Magnificat (one in E-flat major, with four
interpolated Christmas-related movements, and the later and better-known version in D major),
the Easter Oratorio, and the Ascension Oratorio are smaller and simpler than the Passions and
the Christmas Oratorio.
Mass inB minor
Main article:Mass inB minor
Bach assembled his last large work, the Mass in B minor, near the end of his life, between 1748
and 1749, mostly from pieces composed earlier (such as the cantatas Gloria in excelsis Deo,
BWV 191 and Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen, BWV 12). The mass was never performed in full
during Bach's lifetime.[88] All of these movements have substantial solo parts as well as choruses.
It is not known what direction of development Bach had intended for his last Mass to take. As
Stauffer states, "If Bach had lived longer, it is likely that he would have created a definitive fair
copy of the Mass, similar to those of the St. John and St. Matthew Passions... As Otto Bettmann
once remarked, Bach's 'music set in order what life cannot.'"[2]
Musical style
Bach's seal,usedthroughouthisLeipzigyears.Itcontainsthe letters JSB superimposedovertheir
mirrorimage toppedwitha crown.
Bach's musical style arose from his skill in contrapuntal invention and motivic control, his flair
for improvisation, his exposure to North and South German, Italian and French music, and his

21. devotion to the Lutheran liturgy. His access to musicians, scores and instruments as a child and a
young man and his emerging talent for writing tightly woven music of powerful sonority,
allowed him to develop an eclectic, energetic musical style in which foreign influences were
combined with an intensified version of the pre-existing German musical language. From the
period 1713–14 onward he learned much from the style of the Italians.[89]
During the Baroque period, many composers only wrote the framework, and performers
embellished this framework with ornaments and other elaboration.[90] This practice varied
considerably between the schools of European music; Bach notated most or all of the details of
his melodic lines, leaving little for performers to interpolate. This accounted for his control over
the dense contrapuntal textures that he favoured, and decreased leeway for spontaneous variation
of musical lines. At the same time, Bach left the instrumentation of major works including The
Art of Fugue open.[91]
Bach's devout relationship with the Christian God in the Lutheran tradition[92] and the high
demand for religious music of his times placed sacred music at the centre of his repertory. He
taught Luther's Small Catechism as the Thomaskantor in Leipzig,[93] and some of his pieces
represent it;[94] the Lutheran chorale hymn tune was the basis of much of his work. He wrote
more cogent, tightly integrated chorale preludes than most. The large-scale structure of some of
Bach's sacred works is evidence of subtle, elaborate planning. For example, the St Matthew
Passion illustrates the Passion with Bible text reflected in recitatives, arias, choruses, and
chorales.[95]
Bach's drive to display musical achievements was evident in his composition. He wrote much for
the keyboard and led its elevation from continuo to solo instrument with harpsichord concertos
and keyboard obbligato.[96] Virtuosity is a key element in other pieces, such as the Prelude and
Fugue in E minor (BWV 548) for organ in which virtuosic passages are mapped onto alternating
flute and reed solos within the fugal development.[97]
Bach produced collections of movements that explored the range of artistic and technical
possibilities inherent in various genres. The most famous example is The Well-Tempered
Clavier, in which each book presents a prelude and fugue in every major and minor key. Each
fugue displays a variety of contrapuntal and fugal techniques.[98]
Performances
Present-day Bach performers usually pursue one of two traditions: so-called "authentic
performance practice", utilising historical techniques; or the use of modern instruments and
playing techniques, often with larger ensembles. In Bach's time orchestras and choirs were
usually smaller than those of later composers, and even Bach's most ambitious choral works,
such as his Mass in B minor and Passions, were composed for relatively modest forces. Some of
Bach's important chamber music does not indicate instrumentation, which allows for a greater
variety of ensembles.
Easy listening realisations of Bach's music and their use in advertising contributed greatly to
Bach's popularisation in the second half of the twentieth century. Among these were the Swingle

22. Singers' versions of Bach pieces (for instance, the "Air" from Orchestral Suite No. 3, or the
Wachet Auf chorale prelude) and Wendy Carlos' 1968 Switched-On Bach, which used the Moog
electronic synthesiser. Jazz musicians have adopted Bach's music, with Jacques Loussier, Ian
Anderson, Uri Caine, and the Modern Jazz Quartet among those creating jazz versions of Bach
works.[80]
Johann Sebastian Bach
DaripadaWikipedia,ensiklopediabebas.
Johann SebastianBach
Johann Sebastian Bach (21 Mac 1685–28 Julai 1750) adalah seorang penggubah dan pemain
organ Jerman yang prolifik. Karya keagamaan dan sekularnya untuk alat-alat muzik koir,
orkestra dan solo menggabungkan elemen-elemen muzik era barok dan membawa muzik era
tersebut ke peringkat kematangan muktamad. Walaupun beliau tidak memperkenalkan sebarang
bentuk yang baru, beliau memperkayakan gaya Jerman yang lazim dengan teknik gaya gerak
imbang, pengawalan penyusunan harmonik dan motivik dari skala terkecil sehingga ke terbesar,
dan pemadanan irama dan jalinan dari luar negeri, khususnya dari Itali dan Perancis. Ramai
orang menganggap Bach sebagai penggubah Barok yang terutama, serta salah seorang
penggubah yang terutama dalam sejarah. Bersama-sama dengan tokoh-tokoh seperti George
Frideric Handel, beliau merupakan salah satu tokoh yang terkemuka dalam peralihan daripada
muzik era barok ke muzik era klasikal.

23. Karya-karya Bach yang dihormati kerana mempunyai sifat intelektual yang mendalam,
penguasaan teknik, dan keindahan seni, telah mengilhami kesemua ahli muzik dalam tradisi
Eropah, daripada Mozart sehingga ke Arnold Schoenberg. Antara karya-karyanya ialah:
 KonsertoBrandenburg
 Suitpapan nadadan ragam lagu
 Mass dalam nadaB Minor
 KeghairahanSt.Matthew
 PenawaranMuzik
 Seni Fiug
http://cmed.faculty.ku.edu/private/hyltonbar.html
 From Hylton, J.B. (1995) Comprehensive Choral Music Education Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 171-176.
 THE BAROQUE PERIOD (1600-1750)
 The transition from Renaissance to Baroque musical style began in the late sixteenth
century. The polychoral motets of the Venetian school, with two or more independent
choirs juxtaposed to exploit the resulting contrast in color, provided the seedbed for the
Baroque notion of conflict. Composers of the Venetian school also employed large
performing forces, including choirs of instrumentalists, in their music. This led to the
development of concertato style, in which the playing of a soloist or small group of
players was contrasted with that of the full ensemble. This style of composition led to the
development of the concerto. The concerto, of course, is an instrumental form, and during
the Baroque era, instrumental music assumed far greater prominence than previously.
 An examination of the madrigals of Monteverdi, written over a fifty year period, reveals
many of the stylistic changes that signaled the transition from Renaissance to Baroque.
Monteverdi's early madrigals (written 1587-1603) were composed in the style of the high
Renaissance. Similar in character to the works of Marenzio in their use of chromaticism,
they nevertheless begin a departure from the ideal of equality of voices and moved
toward the Baroque notion of soprano-bass polarity. In contrast, his last four books of
madrigals (written 1605-1638) include independent instrumental sections contrasted with
choral interludes (concertato style) and increasing use of figured bass.
 Several pairs of contrasting terms have been applied to the "old style"of Renaissance
music versus the "new style" of the Baroque. Stile antico andstile moderno is one such
pair. Another, used by Monteverdi, was prima prattica and seconda prattica. In the first
half of the seventeenth century the two styles coexisted, with the earlier style employed
most frequently in sacred music, while the new style was evident in secular music, most
notably in the operas of the early Baroque.
 Text was of extreme importance to composers of both the Renaissance and Baroque eras.
However, the manner in which it was approached differed markedly. The Renaissance
ideal was of several independent vocal lines, each with its own inflections and
accentuation. In the early to mid seventeenth century, the trend was away from this
polyphonic ideal, toward soprano-bass polarity, in which a single melody was sung and a

24. figured bass line was played by an accompanying instrument or instruments. By the late
Baroque era, in the first half of the eighteenth century, polyphony had returned to
popularity. The polyphony of the late Baroque differed from that of the Renaissance: It
was rooted in tonal harmony and characterized by an energetic, metrically conceived,
driving rhythm.
 The tradition of requiring full participation by the performer in decisions concerning
tempo, articulation, ornamentation, and other matters continued from the Renaissance
into the Baroque era. Keyboard players presented with a figured bass line were expected
to "realize" it, filling in chords, adding ornaments, and otherwise embellishing their
playing. Singers, particularly soloists, were expected to improvise ornamentation and
elaboration for a melody found in the score.
 Although all of the stylistic changes mentioned here occurred over a period of decades,
the year 1600 is widely accepted as a convenient if somewhat arbitrary date to mark the
end of the Renaissance and the beginning of the Baroque. It should also be noted that
many if not all of these changes ere interrelated. For example, the move away from
polyphonic texture toward an accompanied melody was closely related to the shift from
modality toward the major-minor key system and the use of figured bass. The increasing
significance of new instrumental forms grew out of the employment of dependent
instrumental parts, contrasted with choral sections. The total impact of all of these
changes taken together propelled music forward into e new era.
 Important Forms
 In the Baroque period, some of the important choral forms, such as the ass and the motet,
represented the continued development of Renaissance ideas. Others, such as the cantata
and the oratorio, were newly created or assumed a new importance in terms of stylistic
development. Some forms crossed the boundaries of sacred and secular. The cantatas of
Bach, for example, inclucled both classifications. For the purposes of this discussion,
opera is not considered. A brief definition of each of the important Baroque choral forms
is presented here.
 Anthem. The anthem tradition begun in Elizabethan England by Gibbons, Byrd, Tallis
and others continued in the Baroque, reaching its highest state in the anthems of Purcell
and Handel. The Baroque anthem was more elaborate than that of the Renaissance,
utilizing recitatives, instrumental accompaniments with continuo, independent
instrumental sections and interludes, and elaborate solo passages.
 Cantata. Derived from the Italian word cantare meaning "to sing," the cantata developed
in the seventeenth century as an extended piece of accompanied secular music with
recitatives and arias. In Germany, the Lutheran chorale formed the basis for extended
treatment in the "chorale cantata," a sacred work written for soloists, chorus, and
orchestra, and brought to its highest development by J.S. Bach.
 Madrigal. In the Baroque era, the madrigal continued to be popular and came to embody
the "new style" in the form of the continuo madrigal developed by Monteverdi, using
figured bass, and incorporating sections for solo, duet, or trio with continuo and
contrasting sections for instruments with those for choir.
 Magnificat. A musical setting of the canticle of the Virgin Mary found in the first chapter
of the Gospel of Luke. Polyphonic settings were written as early as the fourteenth
century. The Magnificat is a part of the Catholic service of Vespers and the Anglican

25. service of Evensong. Monteverdi, Hassler, Purcell, and most importantly Bach, wrote
significant settings of this text.
 Mass. During the early Baroque, the mass tended to be a conservative musical form,
similar in style to the Franco-Flemish mass of the sixteenth century. As the seventeenth
century progressed, masses began to incorporate concertato style and to have
instrumental accompaniments. These developments led to the five masses of J.S. Bach,
whose B Minor Mass is one of the towering monuments of Western music. Unlike his
other masses, the B Minor Mass is two hours in length and divides the ordinary into
twenty-five separate movements characterized by a wide range of expressive and musical
devices.
 Motet. The motets of the Venetian school were written in concertato style, exploiting the
colors of contrasting choral and instrumental forces. Schutz, Monteverdi, and Lully wrote
motets that included a wide variety of forces, textures, and emotions. This led to the
multimovement motet of the late Baroque, exemplified by the works of Bach and
Buxtehude.
 Oratorio. The setting of a sacred or heroic text for chorus, soloists, and orchestra. The
details of the story are conveyed through recitative. Similar in character to opera, an
oratorio is not staged, nor are the singers costumed. The first important composer of
oratorio was Carissimi. The Baroque oratorio reached its highest point in the works of
Handel.
 Passion. The passion is a musical setting of the events at the end of Christ's life, from the
Last Supper to the Crucifixion. The story is carried in recitatives sung by the Evangelist.
Other soloists perform recitatives and arias, and the role of the chorus varies from the
singing of chorales, more complex contemplative choral sections, and turba sections in
which the chorus assumes the identity of the crowd.
 Te Deum. The opening words of this text, "Te deum laudamus," mean "We Praise Thee,
God." It is sung at the Roman Catholic office of Matins, at Anglican Morning Prayer, and
for other festive sacred and secular occasions. Purcell and Handel each wrote significant
musical settings of the Te Deum.
 Vespers. Evening worship in the Roman Catholic rite. Vespers includes a series of
psalms, a hymn, and the Magnificat. Monteverdi's Vespers of 1610 utilized choir,
instrumentalists, and was written in concertato style. It is the most important Baroque
example of the form.
 Composers
 Two composers predominated in the first half of the Baroque period. Their music
embodies many of the elements of the transition from Renaissance to Baroque style.
These two composers were Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643) and Heinrich Schutz (1585-
1672).
 Born in Cremona, Italy, Monteverdi composed eight books of madrigals, three masses,
vespers, magnificats, and motels. He wrote at least twelve operas, three of which have
been preserved. As mentioned earlier, Monteverdi's music illustrates the transition from
the prima prattica to the seconda prattica, from Renaissance polyphony to Baroque
homophony.
 Schutz was the greatest German composer of the seventeenth century. Born in Saxony, he
studied with Gabrieli in Venice. Schutz's music is diverse, reflecting his long life and the
varied conditions under which he worked. His first published compositions were Italian

26. madrigals. He was Lutheran, and his sacred compositions were written for the Lutheran
church. Schutz wrote several highly varied collections of motets as well as oratorios and
passions.
 Other important composers of the early Baroque include Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632-
1687), Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck (1591-1652), Johann Hermann Schein (1586-1630),
and Ciacomo Carissimi (1605-1674). Carissimi's fifteen oratorios are of particular
importance. They contain recitatives, arias, choral sections, and instrumental interludes,
utilizing a variety of textures.
 In the late Baroque period, the works of Bach and Handel predominated and constitute an
important part of the choral repertoire performed today. Other major composers of this
period include Dietrich Buxtehude (1637-1701), Marc-Antoine Charpentier (1634-1704),
Henry Purcell (1659-1695), Georg Philip Telemann (1681-1767), and Antonio Vivaldi
(1675-1741).
 The music of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) represents the culmination of the two
centuries of musical development that preceded it. Bach's choral, orchestral, and
keyboard music display an amazing variety of expressive quality, technique, and
organization. His choral output includes six motets, a magnificat, five masses, three
hundred cantatas, and two complete passions.
 While all of Bach's choral works constitute an important part of the repertoire, two works
are choral monuments: the B Minor Mass and the St. Matthew Passion. In addition, the
hundreds of Bach cantatas include a wide variety of difficulty levels, and some are
performable by choirs with limited experience and resources. The relatively modest
resources required for the performance of many Bach cantatas is understandable, since he
wrote the majority of them for performance by his church choir in Leipzig and was
limited by the available finances and personnel. Although his singers were regularly
under his instruction, the instrumentalists who constituted the orchestra were recruited on
an ad hoc basis and in fact were probably sightreading the music in performance.
 George Frideric Handel (1685-1759) was born in Halle, Germany. Handel was a
cosmopolitan man, traveling to Italy for three years in 1707 and living in London from
1711 until his death. His choral output included twenty-one oratorios, three Te Deums,
fourteen anthems, and two passions. His oratorios were designed for concert presentation
rather than for use in the church. They were musical narratives of the lives of heroic
figures from the Bible and mythology. Handel's best known oratorio, Messiah, is atypical
of the rest in that it presents a series of meditations on the life of Christ and its
significance rather than a dramatic narrative of a sequence of events.
 Baroque Style
 The performance of Baroque choral music requires life and energy. It is music that is full
of emotion. In Baroque music there tends to be unity of emotion within a given section of
a composition. This stems from the Baroque idea that an individual is controlled by a
single affect or emotion at any given time. But this does not mean the music should be
emotionless. More overt emotion may be displayed in a Baroque choral piece than in
music from the Renaissance. Contrast in emotion must be achieved as one section ends
and another begins in a new tempo and with new dynamics.
 Terraced dynamics, wherein dynamic changes occur between sections of music (as
opposed to long crescendos and decrescendos within sections) is a typically Baroque

27. musical characteristic. Similarly, the tempo of a Baroque composition should be steady
within each section of a work. Sharp contrasts in tempo occur between sections.
 The tone to be used in a Baroque mass is bigger and more dramatic than what would be
appropriate for a sixteenth-century setting of the same text. A freer approach to vibrato
along with a wider dynamic range help distinguish the two styles.
 The use of an orchestra to accompany Baroque choral music adds to the variety of color
available and accentuates the need for choir members 0 sing with warmth and projection.
As was the case in the Renaissance, it was quite common and accepted to double the
vocal lines in a composition with instruments. In the Baroque period, in addition to the
instrumental doubling, compositions also typically contained an independent orchestral
accompaniment, often calling for strings, trumpets, oboes, and a keyboard instrument
(harpsichord or organ) providing the continuo.
 Some Baroque choral music tends to be "instrumental" in conception. Such music is
characterized by driving dotted rhythms, and it must be infused with life, energy, and a
sense of propulsion. Slower sections should be distinctly contrasting.
History of Baroque Era of Music
 introduction
 composers
 see also:
o Historyof Music
o Historyof Medieval Eraof Music
o Historyof Renaissance Eraof Music
o Historyof the Classical Periodof Music
o Historyof the RomanticEra of Music
Introduction:
 baroque isthe Frenchterm appliedtoornate architecture of Germany& Austriaduring17th &
18thC & borrowedto describe comparable musicdevelopmentsfrom~1600 to the deathsof
Bach & Handel in1750 & 1759 respectively.
 it wasa periodinwhichharmoniccomplexitygrew alongside emphasisoncontrast:
o inopera,interestwastransferredfromrecital toaria
o inchurch music,the contrasts of solovoices,choir& orchestrawere developedtoahigh
degree
o mostbaroque musicusesbassocontinuo
 in18thC, the termwas usedto pejorativelydenote "coarse"or"old-fashionedintaste"
 new instruments:
o glockenspiel - 1stused1739 byHandel in Saul where he calledita carillon
o baroque trumpet

28. o baroque oboe
o musette - type of Frenchbagpipe,popularincourtcirclesin17th & 18thC
o orchestra:
 haphazardin 17thC oftenconsistingof viols,flutes,oboes,cornetts,trombone,
drums& harpsichord
 by 18thC, violinshadoustedviols,baroque trumpet&oboe displacedcornetts,
and accompaniedbyharpsichordororgan
o baroque organ:
 18thC type,more brilliantintone &flexible thanits19thC counterpart
 new musicstyles:
o sonata
o the suite - eg. partita
o concertogrosso
o cantata da camera (secular)
o cantata da chiesa(sacred)
o the art of counterpoint,developedgraduallyfrom9thC,reachesitspeakbybeginningof
17thC:
 strictestformof contrapuntal imitationisacanon
 contrapuntal voicessuccessivelyenteringinimitationiscalledafugue
o toccata - a shortprelude todisplayamusician's'touch'throughrapidity& delicacy
o gavotte:
 oldFrenchdance incommontime beginningon3rd beatof bar
 originatedinPaysde Gap where inhabitantswere knownasgavots
 popularisedatcourtof LouisXIV in17thC & became an optional movementof
baroque suite
o march usedinart musicbyCouperin&Lully,althoughhadbeenusedbyByrdearlier
Composers:
 Lully,Jean-Baptiste (1632-87):
o Italian-bornFrenchcomposertoLouisXIV,diedwhenstabbedfootwithhisstaff whilst
conducting,ledtogangrene
o introducedprofessional female dancersintoballet
o made Frenchoperaa popularart
o musiccompositions:
 operas
 comedyballets
 choral:Miserere, Te Deum,motets
 Corelli,Arcangelo(1653-1713):
o Italianviolinist,composer
o musical compositions:
 mainlysonatasdacamera & concerti grossi
 Pachelbel,Johann(1653-1706):
o Germanorganist& composer
o
 Albinoni,Tomaso (1671-1751):
o Italiancomposerof 81 operas,99 sonatas,59 concertos,& 9 sinfonias

29. o hispopularAdagioinGminowesverylittle tohimself asitwas constructedfroma
manuscriptfragmentin20thC by ItalianmusicologistRemoGiazottowhoownsthe
copyright!
 Vivaldi,Antonio(1678-1741):
o Italianviolinist,composer
o musical compositions:
 operas:
 Griselda(1735)
 sonatas,sacredmusic
 Bach, Johann Sebastian(1685-1750):
o Germancomposer& organist,orphanedatage 10, thenlivedwithelderbrother
o musical compositions:
 orchestral:
 Brandenburg Concertos
 chambermusic:
 sonatas,fugues
 keyboard:
 Fantasias,Fugues,Suites,Partitas
 organ:
 preludes,toccata& fugues
 chorale preludes
 cantatas
 oratorios
 Handel,George Frideric(1685-1759):
o Germancomposer& organist,son of a barber-surgeon,movedtoLondon
o musiccompositions:
 operas:
 orchestrals:
 Water Music(1717)
 Music forRoyalFireworks (1749)
 dramaticoratorios:
 Messiah (1741)
 JudasMaccabaeus (1746)
 cantatas & chamberduets
 church music:
 Gloria Patri (1707)
 ZadokthePriest (1727)
 instrumental &chambermusic:
 HarmoniousBlacksmith (1720)
The Early Baroque
THE BAROQUE
 The term baroquewasfirstcoinedinthe mid18th century(around 1750) bythe travelerCharles
de Brosseswhocomplainedthatthe a buildinginRome hadtoomany filigree ornaments more
suitable foratableware thana buildingof architectural importance

30. o The word itself comesfromthe portuguese barocco,meaningadeformed pearl
o The term laterassumeda negative conotation,meaningabnormal,bizarre,exaggerated,
grotesque,badtaste,orwhat Germansmightcall kitsch (bador cheapimitationof
artworks) or even schund,tresh,garbage
 1920s: the termwas broughtback by musicologistswhoappliedittomeana periodof some
centuryand a half inhistoryof Europeanmusic,spanningthe 17th andthe firsthalf of the 18th
centuriesor roughlybetween 1600-1750
 Like inthe Renaissance, Italywasthe main regionof musical influence,although France
developeditsownstyle,aswell as Germany
Patronage
 European courts, such as that of LouisXIV of France (r. 1643-1715)
 City-states,suchas Venice andmanyGermancities
 Church
 Academies,a newtype of private urbanassociations whichpromotedarts,music,'highculture
and learning',sciences,somethinglikeelitistsalonsbasedonotherthanaristocraticmeritsor
membership
 Publicconcerts, a newwayof promotingmusic
o the firstpublic concertopen to all by purchasing a ticket was held in England in 1672
Literature,Arts, Sciences
 The Baroque era was the time partiallysimultaneoustothe 18th century Enlightenment,during
whichsciences,arts,andliterature saw agreat productionof works,new scientificinventions
and discoveries,andagreat pleadof outstandingpersonalities
o England:Milton,F.Bacon, Newton
o Spain:Cervantes,Velásquez, Murillo
o France:Corneille,Racine,Molière,Descartes
o The Netherlands: Rubens,Rembrandt, Kepler
o Italy:Bernini,Borromini, Galileo
o Germany:Leibniz
New Practices and ExperimentationinMusic
 1605: Monteverdi distinquishesbetween:
1. Primapratica, the 'firstpractice',whichwasalso knownas Stile antico,the 'old style'
2. Secondapratica,the 'secondpractice',alsoknownas Stilemoderno,the 'modernstyle'
 Divisionof musicinto:
0. Church music
1. Chamber music
2. Thater music
Theory of Affects
 Expressionand representationof awide range of feelingoraffacts became a prominantfeature
of the baroque music

31. The Basso Continuo
 Lit.in It.,the 'continual bass',in Englishknownas Thorough Bass or FiguredBass
o thiswas one of the typical texturesof a greatpart of the Baroque music,anda new
emphasisonthe firm,i.e.fixedandemphasized bass,andthe floridtreble
o composerswouldprovide the bassandtreble (cantus orsoprano) lines,andthe rest,i.e.
the intermediaryvoices,wouldbe filledinbyperformersinawayof improvisation
o a newsystemof notation was inventedforbasso continuo:
 the main melodyin the treble wasusuallyasolosinging,while the basspart
was playedas an accompanimentona continuo instrument,suchas
harpsichord, organ or lute
 composerwouldthenputthe numbersor figuresbelow the bassline -- hence
the name, figured bass
 these figuresstoodforthe tonesimprovisedaschordal fillersontopof the bass
line whichwas'thoroughly'writtenout,andwhichusuallyrepresentedthe root
tonesof the chords played
 performerswouldthenfill inthe remainingtonesof chords,makingharmonies
to accompanythe mainmelodyinthe treble
 this'filling'of chordswasknownas ripieno,whichinItalianmeans'stuffing'
 Music Example -- Madrigal (NRAWMCD3:35-36)
 Perfidissimo volto,"[O] Most PerfidiousFace," byGiulioCaccini
Dissonanceand Chromaticism
o CarloGesualdo da Venosa'sorClaudio Monteverdi'smadrigals
 Girolamo Frescobaldi's(1583-1643) and Johann Jakob Froberger's (1616-1667) toccatas
Tonality:Major-Minor
 The basso continuo wasa natural musical phenomenoninthe processtowardsdeveloping tonal
harmony
 The processbegunas earlyas the 15th centurycontinuedthroughthe Renaissanceand
culminatedinthe Baroque period
 See Rameau and his Traité de l'harmonie, and J.S. Bach and his Das wohltemperierte
Clavier (below)
 Tonalityand basso continuo were probblythe mostcrucial musical conceptsandpracticesthat
changedthe texture andgeneral charactersiticsof Europeanmusicfromits contrapuntal,
polyphonicand linear-melodictexture tohomophonicandchordal-harmonictexture (see Equal
Temperament,below)
Early Opera
 Operais a musical-theatrical form

32.  As such,operamay be understoodas musical drama withnarratives,actionsandaffections
expressedinmusicalmonologues,dialoguesandchoral sections,usuallywith
instrumental/ensemble accompanimentorwithindependentinstrumental/ensemble sections,
includingscenesandcostumes
 Althoughthe musical developmentsinthe Renaissance,especiallythe madrigal,aswellasthe
typicallyRenaissance ideasabout humanismandthe 'revival'of ancientGreekclassical culture,
have preparedthe roadfor the creationof operaas a new musical theatrical form, itis
commonlyunderstoodthatthe beginningsof operabelongtothe Baroque,a periodwhich
ushereditslaterdevelopmentin Europe
Influences
1. AncientGreek Tragedy
o AncientGreektragediesof suchauthorsasSophoclesandEuripideswere widelyread
and discussedinlearnedcirclesand academiesinItaly
 Concerningmusic,these discussionswere mostlyonwhetherancientGreek
tragedieshadthe whole textsungduringtheirperformance orwhetheronlythe
chorus parts were sung
 It is possiblethatthe whole texts in ancientGreek tragedies were either sung
throughout or maybe intoned with heightened pitches and emphatic
intonation, which was not justa plain declamation or readingof text
 In many Orthodox churches throughout the world, the Orthodox Liturgy, for
example, is still performed exclusively musically,with all its textbeing sung,
either by the priestor the choir (chorus),without a singleliturgical text, hymn,
or prayer being justread
 Epic songs from the Balkans are also exclusively sung,although they, like
ancientGreek tragedies or Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, are long narratives. If
asked to justread these epic songs,the peasants from the Balkans usually
make errors and change the text. Only in their musical performances do these
text become fully and clearly uttered
 It isobviousthatthe renaissance ideasaboutthe ancientGreektragedyhave
influencedthe waythe renaissance playswere performed
2. MedievalMusicDramas andPlays
o However,itwasnot onlythe ancientGreektragediesthatinfluencedthe development
of opera
 The medieval periodhad alsoknownvarioustypesof musical plays,and other
dramatical-theatrical forms,eitherreligiousorsecular
 Sacred Music Drama Ordo virtutum, by the German nun Hildegard von Bingen
(1098-1179) (see Palisca's NAWM, 1996:33-35, and NRAWM CD 1:17 [CD1:7])
 The 11th-12th century monophonic conductus
 The troubadours and trouvères pastourelle
 Adam de la Halle's (c.1237 - c. 1287) musical play Jeu de Robin et de Marion
 The 13th century polyphonic conductus
 The 15th century English conductus

33. 3. The MadrigalComedy
o Many leadingItalianmadrigalists fromthe secondhalf of the 16th centurycomposed
musicthat includeddramaticscenesand even dialogues(see forexampleMonteverdi's
madrigal Cruda Amarilli), full of contrastingmoods,withshortsolosorduets
o Whensuch madrigalsincludedcomicandhumoroussituations,plots,andcharacters,a
newgenre developed,the madrigalcomedy
o Orazio Vecchi (1550-1605) was the well-knowncomposerof madrigal comedies, the
mostfamousof whichishis L'Amfiparnaso,'The Slopesof Parnassus', 1597
4. Intermedio
o The Renaissance theatrical plays hadmusical sectionsinterpolatedinthem, called
intermedi or intermezzi (pl.of intermedio and intermezzo)
o 1589: one of the early intermedios wasperformedin Florence forthe weddingof a
memberof the powerful Florentine Medici family,GrandDuke Ferdinandde'Medici of
Tuscany,and Catherine of Lorraine
 The Roman nobleman Emiliode' Cavalieri (c.1550-1602) producedthis
intermedio
 The Florentine Count Giovanni Bardi (1534-1612) wasthe director
o Many leadingItalianmadrigalistsfromthe secondhalf of the 16th centurycomposed
musicfor intermedios
CamerataFiorentina--The Florentine Camerata
 The learnedcirclesinItalyinthe secondhalf of the 16th centuryorganizedtheirowninformal
academies andgatheringcircles,inwhichtheydiscussedquestionsonliterature,science,and
the arts, includingmusic
o One such circle,latertobe knownasthe camerata,was establishedinFlorence
o Thiscamerata washeldinthe Florentine home of the CountBardi,andone of its
members, GiulioCaccini,nameditthe Cameratadi Bardi, the 'Camerata of Bardi'
o Later writersreferredtoitas the Camerta Fiorentina,the 'Florentine Camerata'
 ThisCamertaFiorentina includedseveral musicianswhodiscussedwhether ancientGreek
tragedies hadthe whole textsungduringtheirperformance orwhetheronlythe chorusparts
were sung(see above)
o 1. GirolamoMei (1519-1594) arguedthat the textof Greektragedywassungand he put
thisforwardinhis treatise:
 De modismusicis,'Onthe Modes of Music', 1570s
 Amongothermembersof the Camerata Fiorentina were:
o 2. Giovanni Bardi (1534-1612), composerof intermedios (see above)
o 3. VincenzoGalilei (d.1591),the fatherof the famousastronomerGalileoGalilei
 InfluencedbyMei'sdoctrine onthe role of music inGreektragedy,V.Galilei
wrote a treatise:
 Dialogodellamusicaanticaet dellamoderna,'Dialogue OnOldand
ModernMusic', 1581, inwhichhe attacked the theoryandpractice of
vocal counterpointinthe Italianmadrigal which,he argued,blurredthe
meaningof itstextand itssmoothunderstanding

34. o
 4. GiulioCaccini (1551-1618), singer,composer,andBardi'sprotégé
The FirstOperas inFlorence
1. Dafne
 1597: The firstknownopera, Dafne,whose fragmentsonlysurvived,
was producedinFlorence
 Jacopo Peri (1561-1633), wrote the music
 Ottavio Rinuccini (1562-1621), wrote itslibretto(text) basingonhis
poemDafne
 In agreementwith Mei'sdoctrine (seeabove),Peri andRinuccini
were convincedthatthe textinGreektragedywassung
throughout
2. Euridice
 1600: The secondknownandthe firstcomplete operatosurvive is
L'Euridice,alsoproducedinFlorence forthe occasionof the weddingof
HenryIV of France andMaria de'Medici
 The music forEuridice wasseparatelywrittenbytwocomposers:
1. JacopoPeri,whowrote the musicfor Dafne
2. GiulioCaccini (see above)
 The librettowaswrittenagainby OttavioRinuccini,basingonhis
anotherpoemcalled L'Euridice
 Emiliode'Cavalieri,whowrote intermedios,alsoexperimentedwith
wiritingmusicforopera,andhe claimedthathe was the firstopera
writerever
 Music Example -- Opera (NRAWMCD3:37-41)
 L'Euridice, "Euridice,"byJacopoPeri
Operetic Singing: Aria, Bel canto,and Recitative
 Newstylesof solosinginginopera:
0. Aria
 thisstyle isusedto bringforwardthe melodyand lyrical
qualities,usuallyinanembellishedstyle,whichlater
became knownas bel canto, 'beautiful singing'
1. Strophic Aria
 Usedin Peri's Euridice
2. Recitative,alsoknownas stilerecitativo,'recitative style'

35.  thisstyle of singingisusedforspeech,dialogueand
more dramatic conversationbetweenthe main
actresses/actors
 It has repeatedtones,andisperformedinfree rhythm
and intempo rubato
Monody
 Opereticstyle of solosinging,i.e. ariasandrecitatives,as well asthe
solomadrigals,and virtuallyall othersolosingingisgenericallyknown
as monody
 Gr. monos,'one',and aidein, 'to sing'
 Monodicstyle wasverymuch suitable fortheatrical purposes,suchas
carryingthe dialogue
Claudio Monteverdi:Mantua
L'Orfeo
o 1607: producedinMantua
o AlessandroStriggio (c.1573-1630) wrote the librettistbasedonhisfive-actdrama
o Thisoperafeatures:
 orchestral ritornellos,playedbetweensingingandsometimesmakingalmost
self-standingshortmusical pieces
 soloarias
 duets
 dances
 madrigal-type choruses
 Music Example -- Opera (NRAWMCD3:42-56 [CD2:13-21])
 L'Orfeo,"Orfeus,"byClaudioMonteverdi
VenetianOpera
 Abundance of theaters andstage productions
 Publicperformances
 Rich merchantsassponsors
 ClaudioMonteverdi (see above)
Monteverdi:Venice
L'incoronazionedi Poppea
o 1642: ProducedinVenice
o Giovanni FrancescoBusenello (1598-1659), libretto
o Features:

36.  More lyrical monody
 Speech-likerecitative
 Lyrical arias
 Depictioninmusicof passions,suchasa love scene betweenNeroandPoppea,
twomain protagonists
 Music Example -- Opera (NRAWMCD4:1-5)
 L'incoronazionediPoppea,"The Coronationof Poppea," by Claudio
Monteverdi
Vocal ChamberMusic
 The Baroque periodsawa newemphasisonthe developmentof chambermusic
 Monody and the basso continuo contributedtothisdevelopment
 Strophicsongand strophicaria became popular
Romanesca and Basso ostinato
 Typical strophicpoeticformwas romanesca,whichconsistedof eighteleven-syllable lines,with
the eighthrhymingwiththe seventhline,afeature knownas ottaverime,'octave rhyme'
 Romanesca alsoconsistedof atreble melodywhichwasrepeatedlike amelodicformula
 If the basspart was also givenasa formula,thenitwouldbe referredtoasthe ground bass or
bassoostinato,'repeatedbass'
The Concertato and theMadrigals
 The Italianadverb concertato,comesform the verb concertare,'to reach agreement'
o Englishconsort,fromthe verbto concert
 The concept of the concertato consistsinthe ideaof writingindividual solopartsorseveral
instrumental partsagainstthe mainbodyof ensemble,sothatthe general impressionisan
instrumental 'agreement'or'competition'
 The noun concerto,is alsodervide fromthe concertare,meaningseveral instrumentsplayingin
ensemblecreatingone textureandsound
 Instrumental concerto inthe Baroque erawas a musical piece inwhichavarietyof instruments,
sometime includingone ormore soloinstruments,orseveral ensemblesections,compete with
each otherandorchestra
o Later inthe Baroque and Classical periods,the word concertowouldcome tomeana
musical forminwhicha soloinstrumentisplayingthe mainmusical partaccompanied
by the whole ensemble,i.e.orchestra
The Concertato Madrigal and Stile concitato:Monteverdi
 A type of the earlyBaroque madrigal inwhichthe instrumental parts are treated equallyasthe
vocal parts
o Thus the conceptof concerto impliesinstruments
 Good example of thisnewtrendin'instrumentalisation'of madrigal are laterMonteverdi's
madrigalscollectedinthe SeventhandEighthBooks

37. o In theirconcertato style,Monteverdi'sSeventhandEighthBooksof Madrigalsdiffer
fromhis firstFive Books
 The featuresof Monteverdi'slatermadrigalsare:
o basso continuo
o basso ostinato
o instrumental solos,duets,trios
o the renaissance formof these madrigalsstartedtodisintergrate,evolvingintoamore
free type ofsong
Madrigaliguerreriet amorosi,'Madrigalsof War and Love'
 The title of Monteverdi's EighthBook of Madrigals,examplifyingthisnewstyle
of madrigals
o Anotherstyle of expressive madrigals,alsousedinthe EighthBook,isthe so-calledstile
concitato,the 'excitedstyle'
o The famousMonteverdi'smadrigal in stileconcitato is:
 Il combattimento diTancredi e Clorinda,'The Combat of Tancred andClorinda'
o The purpose and the mainconceptbehind stile concitato wasto expresscertain
extramusical feelingsinmusicandpaintanddepictwithmusic
 Music Example -- Romanesca (NRAWMCD4:8-11)
 Ohimèdov'è il mio ben,"Alas,Where isMy Love,"fromthe Seventh
Book of Madrigals by ClaudioMonteverdi
The Early Baroque: Instrumental Music
 Purelyinstrumental musical formsinthe firsthalf of the 17th centurycan be classifiedaccording
to theircompositionaltreatmentandtechniques:
1. Fugal forms, i.e.pieceswhichused continuousimitative counterpoint:
o Ricercare
 In the early17th century,usuallyabrief andsimplercompositionforthe
keyboards -- organ or clavier-- withone theme developedin imitation
 itssimplicityseparatesitfromthe more complex fantasia
 GirolamoFrescobaldi (1583-1643): Fiori musicali ("Musical Flowers,"1635),a
collectionof organpiecesforuse inchurches
o Fantasia (see below)
o Fancy(England)
 piecesforConsort,i.e.ensemble,musicforviols
 John Jenkins(1592-1678)
 Matthew Locke (1621-1677)
 Henry Purcell (1659-1695)
o Capriccio

38. o Fuga
o Verset
2. Canzona-type forms,usingdiscontinuousimitative counterpoint:
o Canzona
 ensembleandkeyboard canzonas
 GirolamoFrescobaldi (1583-1643)
 Johann Jakob Froberger(1616-1667), a studentof G. Frescobaldi
o Sonata
 a compositionresembling canzona
 Solocanzona:one ortwomelodicinstruments,usuallyviolins,andabasso
continuo
 Ensemble canzona:withorwithoutacontinuo
 by the endof the 17th c. the term sonata stoodforboth the canzona andthe
sonata
o Sonatada chiesa
o Trio Sonata
3. Variation-type forms,i.e.piecesusingatheme anditsvariations:
o Partita
o Passacaglia
o Chaconneor Ciaconna
o Choralepartita
o Choraleprelude
4. Dance forms,usingstylizeddance rhythms,i.e.eitheraloose seriesof dancesora stringof
connecteddances putina single piece:
o Suite
 several movements,basedondances,ordistinctmoods,ordance rhythms,put
together:
1. Allemande("German"dance)
2. Courante(Frenchdance)
3. Sarabande(Spanishdance)
4. Gigue ((English-Irishdance)
 Keyboard Suite:
 French suitesforthe clavecin (harpsichord) andthe lute:
 EnnemondGaultier(1575-1651)
 Music Example -- Suite for the lute and clavecin(NRAWMI, CD4:31-32)
 Gigue La posteby EnnemondGaultier
 a) Lute

39.  b) Arrangementforthe clavecin (harpsichord) by Jean-Henri
d'Anglebert
 Germansuites,partitas,for the clavier:
 Johann Jakob Froberger(1616-1667)
 style brisé, "brisk,crispstyle"
 Music Example -- Tombeau (NRAWMI, CD4:33-34)
 Lamentation faitesurla mort très douloureusedeSa MajestéImpérial
Ferdinand le troisième et se jouelentementavec discretion
("Lamentationonthe verysorrowful deathof HisImperial Majesty
Ferdinandthe Thirdtobe playedslowlyandwithdiscretion") by Johann
JakobFroberger
 Ensemble Suite
5. Improvisatory formsforsolo keyboard instruments:
o Toccata
 GirolamoFrescobaldi (1583-1643)
 Music Example -- Toccata (NRAWMI,CD4:35 [CD2:24]))
 Toccata No.3 byGirolamoFrescobaldi
o Fantasia
 more complex thanthe ricercare
 Jan PieterszoonSweelinck(1562-1621), the Amsterdamorganist
 Sweelinck'spupils:
 Samuel Scheidt (1587-1654), Halle
 HeinrichScheidemann(ca.1596-1663)
o Prelude
The Late 17th Century Baroque - Opera
Opera in Italy: Venice and Naples
I. VenetianOpera
 Venice (northernItaly) wasthe principle centerof the ItalianOperainthe secondhalf of the
17th c.

40.  Greateremphasisonthe singer-- opereticdivas,virtuosity,andthe aria,than on drama and
spectacle
VenetianArias
o Strophicaria
o Refrains
o Dance type arias(inrhythmsof suite movements)
o quasi-ostinato orthe runningbass accompaniment,i.e.withabasso ostinato type of
accompaniment
o continuoaria,accompaniedbythe harpsichordor bass,i.e. basso continuo
II. NeapolitanOpera
 The late 17th centuryin Naples(SouthernItaly)
 Emphasisonthe beautyof music and the more stylizedmusical language
 Recitative:renewedattentiononthe recitative
Italian Recitative
o Recitativo semplice,"simple recitative,"and recitativosecco,"dry recitative,"
accompaniedbythe basso continuo
o Recitativo accompagnato,the "accompaniedrecitative,"and recitativostromentato,
"stirringrecitative,"accompaniedbythe orchestra
o Recitativo arioso or simply arioso,the "arialike recitative,"in betweenthe free
recitative andthe rhythmicallystrictaria
AlessandroScarlatti (1660-1725)
o Operas:
 Mitridate (Venice,1707)
 Tigrane (Naples,1715)
 Griselda (Rome,1721)
Dacapo aria
o Da capo,It."fromthe head" -- a two sectionmelody(AB) inwhichthe singer,atthe end
of the B section,returnstothe beginningof the Asectionandrepeatsit,so that the
final musical formis ABA
 Music Example -- Da capoaria (NRAWMI, CD4:36-38 [CD2:24])
 Da capo aria, "Mi riverdi,""Yousee me again,"ActII,Scene 1, fromthe
operaLa Griselda by AlessandroScarlatti

41. Opera in France
 1670s: Frenchoperawas startedunderthe patronage of LouisXIV
 It became knownas tragédie lyrique,'lyrictragedy'
o Frenchemphasison poetryand drama, on moderation andbon goût,'good taste',in
contrast to Italianmelodramaticsandemotionalexcesses
 Two traditionsinfluencedFrenchopera:
1. Frenchcourt ballet
2. French tragedy representedbywriterssuchas Pierre Corneille (1606-1684) and Jean
Racine (1639-1699)
Jean-BaptisteLully(1632-1687)
 The firstcomposerof Frenchoperaswhocombinedelementsof drama,music and ballet,and
thusestablishedanewmusical genre inFrance
 Born inItalybut movedtoParisat an earlyage
 1653: becomesamemberof LouisXIV's Vingt-quatreviolonsduroy,'Twenty-fourviolinsof the
king',the court stringensemble
 1672: a royal previlege gave Lully's Académieroyalede musique,the Royal Academyof Music,a
monopolyinthe sungdrama,i.e.opera
Divertissement
 longinterludesinLully'soperas:
o pompousandgraciousmusic
o showingthe splendorof the Frenchroyal court
o idealsof courtlylove
o chivalry
o spectacularchoruses
o balletsceneswithlivelydances
o instrumental portions, divertissements,becameseparate piecesarrangedas orchestral
suites(see above )
 Lully'slibrettistwas Jean-PhilppeQuinault
French Recitative
 LullyadoptedItalianrecitativeandadaptedittothe Frenchlanguage andpoetry
 Italiantypesof recitative,i.e.the rapidanddry recitativo secco or more melodramaticrecitativo
arioso (see above),didnotsuite the rhythmandaccentsof Frenchlanguage
1. récitatif simple,the 'simple recitative',withashiftbetweendupleandtriple meters
2. récitatif mesuré,the 'measuredrecitative',alsosometimesmarkedas Air,'aria', i.e.more
songlike anduniformstyleof singing

42. o Music Example -- French Opera Monologue(NRAWMI,CD4:42-44)
 Monologue "Enfinil estenmapuissance," "Finallyhe ismypower,"ActII, Scene
5, from the operaArmide (1686) by Jean-Baptiste Lully,librettoby Jean-Philippe
Quinault
The French Ouverture
 Before itbecame the opera ouverture,Lullycomposed ouvertures forhisballets
 Consistsof twoparts:
1. Homophonic part,slowand majestic,withdottedrhythms
2. Fugal-Imitative part,infast tempo
 Sometimesthe firstpartwouldbe repeatedatthe end,makingthe ABAform
o Music Example -- French Opera Ouverture (NRAWMI,CD4:39-41)
 Ouverture fromthe operaArmideby Jean-BaptisteLully
The Masque and Opera in England
 In 17th centuryEngland,the masquewasa musical-theatricalgenre,similartoFrenchcourt
ballets,intendedforentertainmentof aristocraticcircles
 Englishoperabeganinthe secondhalf of the 17th c., duringthe Commonwealth(1649-1660)
(see below)
 Stage playswere prohibitdduringthisperiod,onlytobe allowedagainafterthe Restorationby
KingCharlesII(r. 1660-1685) (see below)
 However,musicplays,whichcouldbe calledconcerts,were notbanned,sothatmusicdramas,
i.e.operas,continuedthroughoutthe CommonwealthandRestoration
o In English history, Restoration refers to the period after the fall (1660) of the republican
Commonwealth and Protectorate, when the monarchy was restored in the person of Charles II.
Early in 1660 the Convention Parliamentinvited Charles to return from exile on condition thathe
grant an amnesty to his former enemies (excepting those responsiblefor the execution of his
father, Charles I) and guarantee religious toleration.Havingmet these conditions in the
Declaration of Breda, Charles landed in England on May 25, 1660. The promiseof religious
toleration was broken when the royalistCavalier Parliamentadopted the Clarendon Code (1661-
65) imposingsevere restrictions on dissenters from the Church of England. (Grolier Multimedia
Encyclopedia, 1998)

43. o The reopening of London theaters by Charles II in 1660 began the 40-year period of Restoration
drama, noted for such theatrical innovationsas movablescenery,opera, the introduction of
actresses--and especially its satiric comedy and bombastic and violenttragedy. The era's drama
had closeties to the court, an association reflected in the licentiousness and linguistic vitality of
the so-called comedy of wit, or comedy of manners.
o Although criticized for its libertinismand narrowsocial focus,atits bestRestoration comedy
intelligently explores the social and sexual gamesmanship of fashionablesociety,whether as
comic spectacle,as in the plays of Aphra Behn, Sir George Etherege, and George Farquhar;as
questionings of personal and social morality,exemplified by the work of WilliamCongreve and
Thomas Otway; or as evidence of man's moral self-betrayal by hypocrisy and lust--an aspectof
the drama of WilliamWycherley.Restoration tragedy, however, is generally undistinguished.
John Dryden championed the heroic, or rhymed, couplet as a tragic form early in his career but
later abandoned it. (Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, 1998)
HenryPurcell (1659-1695)
 organistof WestminsterAbbey,London
 incidental musicfor some 49 plays
 airs for semi-operasand/ormasques
 Music Example -- Air (NRAWMI,CD5:5)
 Air, "Hark! the ech'ingair a triumphsings," forthe masque /semi-opera
The Fairy Queen (1692) byHenry Purcell
 operaDido andAeneas
o librettobyNahumTate on the story fromVergil's Aeneid
o fourmain roles
o basso ostinato arias(see above)
 Music Example -- English Opera (NRAWMI, CD5:1-4 [CD2:25-27])
 Act III,Scene 2, fromthe opera Dido and Aeneas (1689) by Henry
Purcell,librettoby NahumTate
 a) Dido'sAria/Lament, "ThyHand, Belinda/WhenI am laidin
earth"
o short three act operawiththe Frenchoverture, dancesandhomohonic choruses with
dance rhythms
o orchestraconsistsof stringsand continuo

44.  Music Example -- English Opera (NRAWMI, CD5:1-4 [CD2:25-27])
 Act III,Scene 2, fromthe opera Dido and Aeneas (1689) by Henry
Purcell,librettoby NahumTate
 b) Chorus, "With droopingwings"
Singspiel and Opera inGermany
 1678-1738: Opera in Hamburg, the firstpublicoperahouse outsideVenice,Italy
o Operain Hamburgwas the firstGermanopera,influencedbyItalianandFrenchoperas
o Germanopera developedfromthe typicallyGermantraditionof the Singspiel,lit.'sing-
play',whichconsistedof songsand spokendialogues
o spokendialogueseventuallyassumedthe formof recitatives
 Richard Keiser(1674-1739) composedmanyworksforthe Hamburg Opera,combiningItalian
and Germanoperaticelements
Vocal Chamber Music
TheCantata in Italy
 The early17th c.: The cantata grew outof the monodicstrophicvariationswithmanyshort,
contrastingsections
 The secondhalf of the 17th c.: The cantata developedintoanew musical formwithalternating
recitativesand arias for solovoice andbasso continuo
 unlike opera,the cantata wasnotperformedonstage,anditsperformance didnotinvovle
costumesandstage sceneray,butdidhave dramatic elementsof an opera
 beyondhisoperaticoutput, AlessandroScarlatti (see above),composed cantatas aswell,more
than 600 of them
The Serenatain Italy
 A melodramatic form midway between cantata and opera
CatholicChurchMusic
 Strict contraputal style continuedinthe Baroque musicof the CatholicChurch
 Usedboth the oldstyle à la Palestrina,andthe new Baroque style of the basso continuo,
concertatomedium withmultiple choirs,andsolosinging

45. Italy
o Basilicaof San Petronio, Bologna
o The Masses consisted of choral and solo parts, as well as duets,which alternated in a concertato
fashion,i.e. with a concertino or tutti againsta ripieno (see below), or even with trumpets and
strings
o Composers:
 Maurizio Cazzati (ca.1620-1677)
 Giovanni Paolo Colonna (1637-1695)
 Giacomo Antonio Petri (1661-1756)
South Germany
o Johann Josef Fux (1660-1741),composer of church music
o Codified the somewhat modernized Palestrina typeof counterpoint in a treatise, Gradus ad
Parnassum, "Steps to Parnassus,"1725
 this treatisewill remain the classical textbook for teaching counterpoint in the next two
centuries
 it exemplified the stile moderno, the 'new style', of the church music,as opposed to
Palestrina's stileantico, the 'old style'
Austria: Vienna
o Antonio Caldara (ca.1670-1736)
Oratorio
o performed in churches, but also in the palaces of princes and cardinals,in academies,and other
secular places
o substitute for operas duringthe Lent, the forty day period of fastingand penitence preceding
Easter, observed by Christians asa remembrance of Jesus' fastingin the wilderness
o usually consisted of two parts, which in churches were divided by a sermon, and in private
secular settingby an intermission with refreshments
o biblical or non-biblical themes, with a verse libretto,likein opera
LutheranChurchMusic
 1650-1750: the 'goldenage' of Lutheranchurch music
1. Chorale
o Continuationof the Lutheranchorale,fromthe 16th century Reformation
o a centurylater,inthe Baroque,the congragational chorale singingbecame
accompanied by organ (see below)
o Johann Crüger (1598-1662), Berlin,composerof Lutheranchorales
2. Sacred concerto
o included concertedchoruses (concertatostyle),solo arias,chorales

46. 3. Concerted Church Music
o variation form inchorale-basedconcertatocompositions
o althoughGermanwasthe predominantlanguage,some of thismusichad Latintexts
o DietrichBuxtehude (ca. 1637-1707), Lübeck
 variationsonchorale with instrumental prelude, sinfonia
 Abendmusiken
 lit.'nightmusics'(Gr. Abend,night),i.e.publicconcerts followingthe
afternoonchurchservicesinLübeckduringthe Advent(Lat.'coming',
i.e.the 'comingof Christ'),a seasoninthe Christianchurchcalendar
encompassingthe fourSundaysbeforeChristmas
 quasi-dramaticeventsincluding oratorioswithrecitativesandstrophic
arias,chorales,organand orchestral music
o Johann Pachelbel (1653-1706), Nuremberg
4. The LutheranChurch Cantata
o Erdmann Neumeister(1671-1756), Hamburg
 introducedthisnew formof musicwithreligioustextssetpoetically(inverses)
 inariosoor ariastyles
 a precursorof J.S.Bach's cantatas
o Johann Kuhnau (1660-1722), Leipzig
o FriedrichWilhelmZachow(1663-1712), Halle
o GeorgPhilippTelemann (1681-1767), Leipzig,Eisenach,Frankfurt,Hamburg
5. The Passion
o a type of historia,'story',whichwere typicallyGermanmedieval plainchantsettings
basedon some biblical narrative,usuallythe Gospel interpretationsof jesus'suffering
o inthe 15th century,these plaichantsettingsbecame polyphonicallytreated,and
became knowas the dramaticor scenic Passion
o inthe 17th century,the concertatostyle influencedthe creationof anew style of the
Passion,the oratorioPassion,basedonthe formof the Baroque oratorio
o thistype of the Passionwasprecursorof J.S.Bach's Passions
The Late Baroque Instrumental Music
 Developmentof newinstrumentswhichinfluencedthe creationof new musical formsand
genres
1. the keyboardinstruments:the modernchurch organ and harpsichord
2. the stringedinstruments:the violinfamily
 Four typesof of instrumental music:
1. Organ Music
2. ClavichordandHarpsichordMusic
3. Ensemble Music
4. Large Ensemble -- Orchestral -- Music

47. I. OrganMusic
 The 18th centuryBaroque organ builders:
o Arp Schnitger (1648-1718)
o GottfriedSilbermann (1683-1753)
 Varietyof registrations(registers)
o principal orflue pipes
o mixtures
o reeds
o Werks (sing. Werk,pl. Werke)-- divisionof pipesof asingle organ
 each Werk havingitsownsetof pipeswithitsowncharacterand function,
givingimpressionof severalorgansinsteadof asingle instrument
1. Brunstwerk, infront of the player
2. Hauptwerk, immediatelyabovethe player,orthe greatorgan
3. Oberwerk, the upperchestabove the greatorgan
4. Pedal organ
5. Rückpositiv,chairorgan, behindthe player,onlyinthe largestGerman
organs
Composers
o Georg Böhm(1661-1733), Lüneburg
o DietrichBuxtehude(ca.1637-1707), Lübeck
o FriedrichWilhelmZachow (1663-1712), Halle
o JohannKuhnau (1660-1722), Leipzig
o JohannChristophBach(1642-1703), Eisenach
o
 JohannPachelbel (1653-1706), Nuremberg
The Toccata/ Präludium
 alsosometimesknownas Präludium,suchinBuxtehude (see below),or
Praeludium,Prelude,Preambulum
 successionof fugal andnon-fugal sections
 improvisation
 virtuosity,displayof performer'sskills
 figuration
 Fugal sections:
 Imitative counterpoint
 Rhapsodicapproach
 Precursorof the laterbaroque fuge
 Several fugues followingeachotherafterafteraninterlude ora
solidcadence
 Variationsof a fugal theme/subject
 Music Example -- Praeludium(Toccata) (NRAWMI, CD5:6-10)

48.  E-Dur Präludium,PraeludiuminEMajor,Bux WV 141,
for organby DietrichBuxtehude
 fourfugal sections
The Fuga(Fugue)
 Both an independentpiece andasectionof the Prelude
 By the late 17th century,the fugue has replacedthe early17thcentury
ricercare (see above)
 Dux:
 the melodictheme of the fugue isknownasthe subject
or dux (Lat.'leader')
 it isstatedinthe tonicof the key
 Comes:
 the answer to the dux isknownas the comes (Lat.
'companion')
 it isstatedinthe dominant
 Exposition:
 the firststatementof the dux andcomes inall voices,
eithertwo,three orfour,dependingonthe piece
 Episodes:
 sectionsorpassageswhichseparate furtherfugal
expositions
 inthese sectionsthe full statementof the subjectdoes
not appear,althoughvariationsonitsmelodyormotivic
workbasedon the subjectmaybe
 modulationstovariouskeysmayoccurin the episodes,
withreturnto the tonicof the mainkeyat theirends
 the returnto the tonicisemphasizedby pedal point
knownas the stretto, or fugastretta, withquick
statementsof the subject
 pedal pointmaybe alsostatedas augmentation,in
whichthe note valuesof the subjectmelodyare
doubled
 Beyondtheirchurchuse, preludesandfugueswere alsouseful pieces
for trainingstudentsincompositionandperformance,andtothisend
the baroque composerswrote collectionsof keyboardpreludesand
fugues
 J.K.F.Fischer(ca.1665-1746): Ariadne musica (1715), a
collectionof keyboardpreludesandfuguesin19 differentmajor
and minorkeys
Equal Temperament
o The processof developmentof tonal harmony, basedon major and minor keys,started
inthe 15th centurywiththe basso continuo andculminatedinthe Baroque period

49. o The keyboardcollectionsof preludesandfugues (see above) contributedtothis
developmentof tonalityandequal temperament
o Contraryto the Renaissance divisionbetweenthe perfectandimperfectintervals,based
on nonequal divisionof the octave, equal temperamentdividesthe octave into 12
eqaul half-stepsor semitones,resultinginintervalsthatare not mathematically'true'
but instead'soundgood'
o Thisnewtemperamentof musical intervalsbecamethe basisforthe newconceptof
tonality that will be the main feature of Westernmusicuntil the early20thcentury
1. Traitéde l'harmonie
 1722: The French composer, Jean-PhilippeRameau (1683-1764), formulatedthe
ideaandtheoryof tonal musicand publisheditinhis Traité de l'harmonie,
'Treatise onHarmony'
2. DaswohltemperierteClavier
 1722-1740: The Germancomposer, JohannSebastianBach (1685-1750), a
contemporaryof Rameau,composed,inthe same yearRameau'streatise
appeared,the firstpart fromthe setof 24 preludes and24 fuguesforclavier
(piano),andentitleditas DaswohltemperierteClavier, 'The Well-Tempered
Clavier'
 Each of the two parts from the Well-Tempered Piano consists of 12
preludes followed by 12 fugues chromatically set in 12 different major
and minor keys, startingwith C-major Prelude and Fugue
The Organ Chorale
o Unlike the purelyinstrumentaltoccata,preludeandfugue,the choralewasinitiallya
vocal Lutheranchurch musical form
o Organ: In the 17th century,the organ accompanimentof the choraleslowlyevolved
intoa separate instrumental form
o 1. Choralevariations
 or chorale partita or chorale prelude: the melodyof choralewasa
theme/subjectwithasetof variations,sometimesona cantusfirmus inlong
note values
 Composers:
 Jan PieterszoonSweelinck (1562-1621)
 Samuel Scheidt(1587-1654)
 DietrichBuxtehude (ca.1637-1707)
 Music Example -- Chorale Praeludium(NRAWMI,CD5:11-13)
 Chorale Prelude:DanketdemHerrn,denn er ist sehrfreundlich,"Thank
the Lord, for He is verykind," Bux WV 181, for organ by Dietrich
Buxtehude
 the chorale as a cantusfirmus withvariations

50. o 2. ChoraleFantasia
 the chorale melodyisfragmented,withvirtuosodisplayandornamentation
o 3. ChoralePrelude
 a chorale-basedshortorganpiece
II. KeyboardMusic:ClavichordandHarpsichord
 Two importantgenres:
1. theme and variations
2. suite
 Suite composersinFrance:
o Elisabeth-Claude Jacquetde LaGuerre (1665-1729)
o FrançoisCouperin(1668-1733)
FrançoisCouperin (1668-1733)
 Composed Vingt-septordres, twenty-sevenordres,i.e.setsof suite-like pieces
for the clavecin (harpsichord)
 1716: wrote a musical treatise L'artde toucher le clavecin,"The Art of Playing
the Clavecin"
 The treatise containsdetailedinstructionsforfingeringandplayingthe
agréments,a special type of ornamentsforthe clavecin workedoutby
Couperin(see GroutandPalisca1996:370-371)
 Music Example -- Ordre (NRAWMI, CD5:14-19 [CD2:28-30])
 Vingt-cinquièmeordre, "The Twenty-fifthOrdre,"fromthe collection
Vingt-septordres, "Twenty-sevenordres,"forclavecin (harpsichord) by
FrançoisCouperin
 La visionaire,"The Dreamer"
 La misterieuse,"The MysteriousOne [woman]"
 La monflambert,"The Monflambert"(gigue)
 La musevictorieuse,"The VictoriousMuse"
 Les ombreserrantes,"The RovingShadows"
III. EnsembleMusic
 The late 17th and early18th centuries:the violinmakersofCremona,Italy:
o NicolòAmati (1596-1684)
o AntonioStradivari (1644-1737)
o Giuseppe Bartolomeo Guarneri (1698-1744)

51. The EnsembleSonata
 the early sonata evolvedfromthe canzona (see above)
 the term sonata wasinterchangeablewiththe sinfonia,andinthe early17th centuryboth
termsmeantinstrumental prelude or interlude invocal pieces
 The late 17th and early18th century sonata isa formwhichconsistsof:
o several movements
o the movementsare in contrasting tempos
o performedby twoor four soloinstruments and the bassocontinuo
 The main typesof the baroque sonata:
o 1. Sonatada chiesa,"the church sonata"
 a mixture of movements,bothof dance andothercharacter, intendedforuse in
churches
o 2. Sonatada camera,"the chamber sonata"
 a suite of stylizeddance movements
 alsovariouslyknownas trattenimento,divertimento,concertino,concerto,ballo,
balletto
o 3. Trio sonata,"sonatafor a trio"of instruments
 Both typesof the sonatas, da chiesa and da camera,were playedon two treble
instruments,usuallyviolins,and bass,i.e.the basso continuo
 the treble voicescouldbe eithervocal orinstrumental,orboth
 the basso continuo partwas playedonthe harpsichord or organ, which
providedharmonicfillings,whilethe maincontinuolinewasusuallydoubledby
the cello
 thistotaledto four musicians playingthe trio sonata:twotreble playersand
twobass players
o 4. Solosonata
 violin,flute,orvioladagambawith continuo
 gainedpopularityafter1700
 see alsothe early17th centurysonata,above
 SonatacomposersinItaly:
o Giovanni Legrenzi (1626-1690), the teacherof AntonioVivaldi (seebelow)
o Giovanni Battista Vitali (ca.1644-1692)
o Tommaso Antonio Vitali (ca. 1665-1747)
o MaurizioCazzati (ca. 1620-1677)
 Music Example -- Trio sonata (NRAWMI, CD5:20-21)
 La raspona,triosonatafortwoviolinsand basso continuo (harpsichord
and violadagamba) by Giovanni Legrenzi
 Allegro - "Adaggio"
Archangelo Corelli (1653-1713)