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supply,demand, and government policies
1.
Supply, Demand, and Government
Policies Copyright © 2004 South-Western 6
2.
Supply, Demand, and
Government Policies • In a free, unregulated market system, market forces establish equilibrium prices and exchange quantities. • While equilibrium conditions may be efficient, it may be true that not everyone is satisfied. • One of the roles of economists is to use their theories to assist in the development of policies. Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
3.
CONTROLS ON PRICES •
Are usually enacted when policymakers believe the market price is unfair to buyers or sellers. • Result in government-created price ceilings and floors. Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
4.
CONTROLS ON PRICES •
Price Ceiling • A legal maximum on the price at which a good can be sold. • Price Floor • A legal minimum on the price at which a good can be sold. Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
5.
How Price Ceilings
Affect Market Outcomes • Two outcomes are possible when the government imposes a price ceiling: • The price ceiling is not binding if set above the equilibrium price. • The price ceiling is binding if set below the equilibrium price, leading to a shortage. Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
6.
Figure 1 A
Market with a Price Ceiling (a) A Price Ceiling That Is Not Binding Price of Ice-Cream Cone Supply $4 Price ceiling 3 Equilibrium price Demand 0 100 Equilibrium quantity Quantity of Ice-Cream Cones
7.
Figure 1 A
Market with a Price Ceiling (b) A Price Ceiling That Is Binding Price of Ice-Cream Cone Supply Equilibrium price $3 2 Price ceiling Shortage Demand 0 75 125 Quantity supplied Quantity demanded Quantity of Ice-Cream Cones Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
8.
How Price Ceilings
Affect Market Outcomes • Effects of Price Ceilings • A binding price ceiling creates • shortages because QD > QS. • Example: Gasoline shortage of the 1970s • nonprice rationing • Examples: Long lines, discrimination by sellers Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
9.
CASE STUDY: Lines
at the Gas Pump • In 1973, OPEC raised the price of crude oil in world markets. Crude oil is the major input in gasoline, so the higher oil prices reduced the supply of gasoline. • What was responsible for the long gas lines? • Economists blame government regulations that limited the price oil companies could charge for gasoline. Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
10.
Figure 2 The
Market for Gasoline with a Price Ceiling (a) The Price Ceiling on Gasoline Is Not Binding Price of Gasoline Supply,S1 1. Initially, the price ceiling is not binding . . . Price ceiling P1 Demand 0 Q1 Quantity of Gasoline Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
11.
Figure 2 The
Market for Gasoline with a Price Ceiling (b) The Price Ceiling on Gasoline Is Binding Price of Gasoline S2 2. . . . but when supply falls . . . S1 P2 Price ceiling 3. . . . the price ceiling becomes binding . . . P1 4. . . . resulting in a shortage. Demand 0 QS QD Q1 Quantity of Gasoline Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
12.
CASE STUDY: Rent
Control in the Short Run and Long Run • Rent controls are ceilings placed on the rents that landlords may charge their tenants. • The goal of rent control policy is to help the poor by making housing more affordable. • One economist called rent control “the best way to destroy a city, other than bombing.” Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
13.
Figure 3 Rent
Control in the Short Run and in the Long Run (a) Rent Control in the Short Run (supply and demand are inelastic) Rental Price of Apartment Supply Controlled rent Shortage Demand 0 Quantity of Apartments Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
14.
Figure 3 Rent
Control in the Short Run and in the Long Run (b) Rent Control in the Long Run (supply and demand are elastic) Rental Price of Apartment Supply Controlled rent Shortage 0 Demand Quantity of Apartments Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
15.
How Price Floors
Affect Market Outcomes • When the government imposes a price floor, two outcomes are possible. • The price floor is not binding if set below the equilibrium price. • The price floor is binding if set above the equilibrium price, leading to a surplus. Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
16.
Figure 4 A
Market with a Price Floor (a) A Price Floor That Is Not Binding Price of Ice-Cream Cone Supply Equilibrium price $3 Price floor 2 Demand 0 100 Equilibrium quantity Quantity of Ice-Cream Cones Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
17.
Figure 4 A
Market with a Price Floor (b) A Price Floor That Is Binding Price of Ice-Cream Cone Supply Surplus $4 Price floor 3 Equilibrium price Demand 0 Quantity of Quantity Quantity Ice-Cream Cones demanded supplied 80 120 Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
18.
How Price Floors
Affect Market Outcomes • A price floor prevents supply and demand from moving toward the equilibrium price and quantity. • When the market price hits the floor, it can fall no further, and the market price equals the floor price. Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
19.
How Price Floors
Affect Market Outcomes • A binding price floor causes . . . • a surplus because QS > QD. • nonprice rationing is an alternative mechanism for rationing the good, using discrimination criteria. • Examples: The minimum wage, agricultural price supports Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
20.
The Minimum Wage •
An important example of a price floor is the minimum wage. Minimum wage laws dictate the lowest price possible for labor that any employer may pay. Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
21.
Figure 5 How
the Minimum Wage Affects the Labor Market Wage Labor Supply Equilibrium wage Labor demand 0 Equilibrium employment Quantity of Labor Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
22.
Figure 5 How
the Minimum Wage Affects the Labor Market Wage Labor surplus (unemployment) Labor Supply Minimum wage Labor demand 0 Quantity demanded Quantity supplied Quantity of Labor Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
23.
TAXES • Governments levy
taxes to raise revenue for public projects. Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
24.
How Taxes on
Buyers (and Sellers) Affect Market Outcomes • Taxes discourage market activity. • When a good is taxed, the quantity sold is smaller. • Buyers and sellers share the tax burden. Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
25.
Elasticity and Tax
Incidence • Tax incidence is the manner in which the burden of a tax is shared among participants in a market. Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
26.
Elasticity and Tax
Incidence • Tax incidence is the study of who bears the burden of a tax. • Taxes result in a change in market equilibrium. • Buyers pay more and sellers receive less, regardless of whom the tax is levied on. Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
27.
Figure 6 A
Tax on Buyers Price of Ice-Cream Price Cone buyers pay $3.30 Price 3.00 2.80 without tax Price sellers receive Supply, S1 Equilibrium without tax Tax ($0.50) A tax on buyers shifts the demand curve downward by the size of the tax ($0.50). Equilibrium with tax D1 D2 0 90 100 Quantity of Ice-Cream Cones Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
28.
Elasticity and Tax
Incidence • What was the impact of tax? • Taxes discourage market activity. • When a good is taxed, the quantity sold is smaller. • Buyers and sellers share the tax burden. Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
29.
Figure 7 A
Tax on Sellers Price of Ice-Cream Price Cone buyers pay $3.30 3.00 Price 2.80 without tax S2 Equilibrium with tax S1 Tax ($0.50) A tax on sellers shifts the supply curve upward by the amount of the tax ($0.50). Equilibrium without tax Price sellers receive Demand, D1 0 90 100 Quantity of Ice-Cream Cones Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
30.
Figure 8 A
Payroll Tax Wage Labor supply Wage firms pay Tax wedge Wage without tax Wage workers receive Labor demand 0 Quantity of Labor Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
31.
Elasticity and Tax
Incidence • In what proportions is the burden of the tax divided? • How do the effects of taxes on sellers compare to those levied on buyers? • The answers to these questions depend on the elasticity of demand and the elasticity of supply. Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
32.
Figure 9 How
the Burden of a Tax Is Divided (a) Elastic Supply, Inelastic Demand Price 1. When supply is more elastic than demand . . . Price buyers pay Supply Tax 2. . . . the incidence of the tax falls more heavily on consumers . . . Price without tax Price sellers receive 3. . . . than on producers. 0 Demand Quantity Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
33.
Figure 9 How
the Burden of a Tax Is Divided (b) Inelastic Supply, Elastic Demand Price 1. When demand is more elastic than supply . . . Price buyers pay Supply Price without tax 3. . . . than on consumers. Tax Price sellers receive 0 2. . . . the incidence of the tax falls more heavily on producers . . . Demand Quantity Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning
34.
ELASTICITY AND TAX
INCIDENCE So, how is the burden of the tax divided? • The burden of a tax falls more heavily on the side of the market that is less elastic. Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
35.
Summary • Price controls
include price ceilings and price floors. • A price ceiling is a legal maximum on the price of a good or service. An example is rent control. • A price floor is a legal minimum on the price of a good or a service. An example is the minimum wage. Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
36.
Summary • Taxes are
used to raise revenue for public purposes. • When the government levies a tax on a good, the equilibrium quantity of the good falls. • A tax on a good places a wedge between the price paid by buyers and the price received by sellers. Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
37.
Summary • The incidence
of a tax refers to who bears the burden of a tax. • The incidence of a tax does not depend on whether the tax is levied on buyers or sellers. • The incidence of the tax depends on the price elasticities of supply and demand. • The burden tends to fall on the side of the market that is less elastic. Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
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