English for Academic Purposes (EAP): Introduction to Reading Comprehension

1. Academic English Skills:
Introduction to Reading Comprehension
By: Iwan Syahril

2. Questions
✤ What happens when we read?
✤ How do we construct meaning?

3. SchemaTheory
✤ A text does not by itself carry meaning.
✤ “The reader brings information, knowledge, emotion, experience, and
culture to the printed word.”
✤ Skills in reading depends on the efficient interaction between
linguistic knowledge and knowledge of the world.
Source: Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. New York:
Pearson Education.

4. Two categories of schemata
✤ CONTENT SCHEMATA
➡ What we know about people, the world, culture, and the
universe.
✤ FORMAL SCHEMATA
➡ What we know about the discourse structure.
Source: Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. New York:
Pearson Education.

5. So, what does
this mean?
Let’s do some practice.

6. Think-Aloud Exercise
✤ Reading and thinking are interrelated.
✤ If we work to think about what we are reading, we will remember a
lot more.
✤ When we read, we think by bringing our previous experience,
knowledge and understanding to make sense of the text.

7. Academic English Skills:
Skimming & Scanning
By: Iwan Syahril

8. Questions
✤ What kinds of difficulty do you encounter when you
read?
✤ How was your first Educational Psychology reading
assignment?

9. Common Myths in Reading
Myth 1: “Comprehension should happen all
at once.”
• Comprehension is usually a process. It is
achieved gradually.
Myth 2: “We must read every word in the
text.”
• If we have to read every word in the
text, we will not have time to study
what we have read.
Source: Langan, J. (2002). Reading and study skills. New York:
McGraw-Hill.

10. Two strategies in reading
✤ SKIMMING
➡ Reading quickly to get the general idea from a text (a book, an
article, a chapter, or just a paragraph).
✤ SCANNING
➡ Reading quickly to find information.
Source: Harrison, R. (2006). Academic skills: Reading, writing, and study skills. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.

11. So, what does
this mean?
Let’s do some practice. Take out your
Student Handbook.

12. 5 KEY SKILLS
✤ There are 5 key skills in recognizing and using important elements of
reading material.
1.Recognizing definitions and examples.
2.Recognizing enumerations.
3.Recognizing headings and subheadings.
4.Recognizing signal words.
5.Recognizing main ideas.

13. Recognizing
definitions &
examples

14. Let’s do this together. Locate the definitions and examples in
the following text.
✤ Much behavior is innate; that is, animals are born with
it. Their genes determine the animals’ behavior. In
other words, the behavior is a biological inheritance.
Some innate behaviors are simple, such as a reflex or a
fight-or-flight response. What happens if something
suddenly passes in front of your eyes? You blink - that
is, you quickly close your eyes and open your eyes.
This is a reflex. You have no control over it.

15. ✤ Much behavior is def {innate; that is, animals are born
with it.} Their genes determine the animals’ behavior.
In other words, the behavior is a biological inheritance.
Some innate behaviors are simple, ex {such as a reflex
or a fight-or-flight response}. What happens if
something suddenly passes in front of your eyes? You
blink - that is, ex {you quickly close your eyes and
open your eyes}. This is a def {reflex. You have no
control over it}.

16. ✤ One simple type of learned behavior is habituation. This
happens when an animal learns to feel comfortable to a
new situation and doesn’t pay attention to it anymore.
For example, young horses are often afraid of noisy
streets. But after a while, they learn to pay no attention
to the normal sights and sounds of a city.

17. “Let’s do more
exercises!”

18. Skill 2:
Recognizing
Enumerations

19. Recognizing Enumerations
✤ Enumerations are lists of items that may actually be numbered in the
text.
✤ They are usually signaled by words such as first of all, second, moreover,
next, also, finally and others.
✤ Typical phrases to introduce enumerations are: “There are three reasons
why...”, “Two causes of ......”, Five characteristics of ....”.
✤ Enumerations are keys to important ideas.

20. So, what does
this mean?
Let’s do some practice. Take out your
Student Handbook.

21. TEXT 1
Researchers have found two differences among parents
in the ways they relate to their children: their
expectations and their responsiveness. Some set high
expectations and insist that they’re met; others expect
little of their children and rarely try to influence them.
Responsive parents, for example, accept their children
and frequently interact with them; unresponsive
parents tend to be rejecting, negative, or indifferent.

22. TEXT 1
Researchers have found two differences among
parents in the ways they relate to their children: 1) their
expectations and 2) their responsiveness. Some set high
expectations and insist that they’re met; others expect
little of their children and rarely try to influence them.
Responsive parents, for example, accept their children
and frequently interact with them; unresponsive
parents tend to be rejecting, negative, or indifferent.

23. TEXT 2
Erikson’s work was popular and influential in the 1960s and 1970s,
but since then, developmental theorists have taken issue with it on at
least three points. First, some researchers argue that Erikson didn’t
adequately address the role of culture in personal and social
development. For instance, some cultures discourage autonomy and
initiative in children, perhaps as a way of protecting them from
dangers in their environment. Second, critics point out that some
adolescents - and especially girls - establish a sense of intimacy with,
or even before, a focus on personal identity. This contrasts with
Erikson’s description of intimacy following the development of
identity. Third, as you’ll see in our discussion of identity development
in the next section, many people don’t achieve a sense of identity as
early as Erikson suggested.

24. TEXT 2
Erikson’s work was popular and influential in the 1960s and 1970s,
but since then, developmental theorists have taken issue with it on at
least three points. 1) First, some researchers argue that Erikson didn’t
adequately address the role of culture in personal and social
development. For instance, some cultures discourage autonomy and
initiative in children, perhaps as a way of protecting them from
dangers in their environment. 2) Second, critics point out that some
adolescents - and especially girls - establish a sense of intimacy with,
or even before, a focus on personal identity. This contrasts with
Erikson’s description of intimacy following the development of
identity. 3) Third, as you’ll see in our discussion of identity
development in the next section, many people don’t achieve a sense
of identity as early as Erikson suggested.

25. Skill 3:
Recognizing
Headings and
Subheadings

26. Recognizing Headings &
Subheadings
✤ Headings and subheadings are important visual aids that give us a
quick idea of how information in a chapter is organized.
✤ There are two methods for using headings to locate key ideas:
✤ Change headings into basic questions. (starting with what, why,
how, when, where, or who.
✤ See how subheads relate to main heads.

27. Skill 4:
Recognizing
SignalWords

28. Recognizing SignalWords
✤ Signal words help readers follow the direction of a writer’s thought.
✤ They are like signposts on the road that guide the traveller.
✤ Common signal words show emphasis, addition, comparison or contrast,
illustration, and cause and effect.

29. EmphasisWords
✤ The writer tells us that a particular detail or idea is important.
✤ Think of such words as red flags.
✤ Some typical emphasis words are:
important to note especially valuable the most ....... above all a key feature
a significant factor a major event especially relevant a vital force a central issue
✤ Let’s do some practice. Take out your Student Handbook.
Source: Langan, J. (2002). Reading and study skills. New York: McGraw-Hill.

30. Example:
Although the resources of our world are limited, the
wants of people are not. Indeed, one of the most
important assumptions of economics is that total human
wants can never be satisfied. No matter how much we
have, we seem to want more. As people’s incomes
increase, so does their desire for more and better goods

31. Text 1
To be happy, adolescents must be realistic about the
achievements they are capable of, about the social
acceptance they can expect to receive, and about the kind
and the amount of affection they will receive. Of the three,
social acceptance is the most crucial. Well-accepted
adolescents will automatically receive affection from those
who accept them, and their achievements will win
approval if not acclaim.

32. Text 1
To be happy, adolescents must be realistic about the
achievements they are capable of, about the social
acceptance they can expect to receive, and about the kind
and the amount of affection they will receive. Of the three,
social acceptance is the most crucial. Well-accepted
adolescents will automatically receive affection from those
who accept them, and their achievements will win
approval if not acclaim.

33. Text 2
As you see in Table 3.1, an authoritative parenting style,
one that combines high expectations and high levels of
responsiveness, is the most effective for promoting
healthy personal development. Children need challenge,
structure, and support in their lives, and authoritative
parents provide them. While providing support,
authoritative parents also encourage their children to
develop values and goals that guide their actions
(Soenens et al., 2007).

34. Text 2
As you see in Table 3.1, an authoritative parenting style,
one that combines high expectations and high levels of
responsiveness, is the most effective for promoting
healthy personal development. Children need challenge,
structure, and support in their lives, and authoritative
parents provide them. While providing support,
authoritative parents also encourage their children to
develop values and goals that guide their actions
(Soenens et al., 2007).

35. AdditionWords
✤ These words tell us that the writer’s thought is going to continue in
the same direction or to add more points of details of the same kind.
✤ Addition words are also used to signal enumerations.
✤ Some typical addition words are:
also first of all last of all for one thing likewise moreover finally
and first second next the third reason another in addition
✤ Let’s do some practice. Take out your Student Handbook.
Source: Langan, J. (2002). Reading and study skills. New York: McGraw-Hill.

36. Text 1
As adolescents struggle with their identities, two processes occur
(Luyckx, Goosesens, & Soenens, 2006). The first, identity
formation, involves the creation of commitments based on
conviction or belief. This was illustrated in Taylor’s comment, “it
feels really good to work with people and help them.” The
second process, evaluation, occurs when they consider
alternative identities and weigh the pros and cons of each. For
example, you may have asked yourself whether or not you want
to be a teacher or perhaps work instead in the business world.
These deliberations are your attempt to evaluate different
options.

37. As adolescents struggle with their identities, two
processes occur (Luyckx, Goosesens, & Soenens, 2006).
The first, identity formation, involves the creation of
commitments based on conviction or belief. This was
illustrated in Taylor’s comment, “it feels really good to
work with people and help them.” The second process,
evaluation, occurs when they consider alternative
identities and weigh the pros and cons of each. For
example, you may have asked yourself whether or not
you want to be a teacher or perhaps work instead in the
business world. These deliberations are your attempt to
evaluate different options.

38. Text 2
There are several criticisms toward Kohlberg’s theory. For one thing
it appears to focus strongly on Western thinking (Snary, 1995).
Post-conventional reasoning isn’t seen in all cultures. Moral
reasoning also depends on context (Turiel, 2006). For example,
people are more likely to believe that breaking a traffic law is
immoral if it can cause someone harm. Finally, Kohlberg’s work
has been criticized for focusing on moral reasoning instead of
moral behavior. People may reason at one stage and behave at
another, influenced by context and personal history (Krebs &
Denton, 2005). For example, an adolescent trying to decide
whether to drink alcohol when out with friends will be influenced
by family and cultural values as well as peer pressure. Kohlberg’s
work ignores these factors.

39. There are several criticisms toward Kohlberg’s theory. For one
thing it appears to focus strongly on Western thinking (Snary,
1995). Post-conventional reasoning isn’t seen in all cultures.
Moral reasoning also depends on context (Turiel, 2006). For
example, people are more likely to believe that breaking a
traffic law is immoral if it can cause someone harm. Finally,
Kohlberg’s work has been criticized for focusing on moral
reasoning instead of moral behavior. People may reason at one
stage and behave at another, influenced by context and
personal history (Krebs & Denton, 2005). For example, an
adolescent trying to decide whether to drink alcohol when out
with friends will be influenced by family and cultural values
as well as peer pressure. Kohlberg’s work ignores these
factors.

40. Comparison and ContrastWords
✤ Comparison words tell us a similarity between two subjects or
statements. Some typical comparison words are:
like just as in the same way similarly likewise in like manner
alike just like equally in a similar fashion similarity as
✤ Contrast Words tell us a difference between two subjects or statements.
Some typical contrast words are:
but yet however in contrast on the contrary difference
still conversely otherwise differ on the other hand
✤ Let’s do some practice. Take out your Student Handbook.

41. Text 1
Sleep has always been a fascinating topic. We spend
about one-third of our adult life sleeping. Most animals
sleep in a similar fashion – they collapse and relax their
muscles. In contrast, birds and horses sleep upright, with
their antigravity muscles at work.

42. Text 1
Sleep has always been a fascinating topic. We spend
about one-third of our adult life sleeping. Most animals
sleep in a similar fashion – they collapse and relax their
muscles. In contrast, birds and horses sleep upright, with
their antigravity muscles at work.

43. Text 2
The term self-concept and self-esteem are often used
interchangeably, but they are actually quite different. In
contrast with self-concept, which is cognitive, self-
esteem, or self-worth, is an emotional reaction to, or an
evaluation of, the self (Schunk et al., 2008). People who
have high self-esteem believe that they are inherently
worthy people and feel good about themselves.

44. Text 2
The term self-concept and self-esteem are often used
interchangeably, but they are actually quite different. In
contrast with self-concept, which is cognitive, self-
esteem, or self-worth, is an emotional reaction to, or an
evaluation of, the self (Schunk et al., 2008). People who
have high self-esteem believe that they are inherently
worthy people and feel good about themselves.

45. Text 3
Kohlberg (1963, 1969, 1981, 1984) used responses to moral
dilemmas, such as this one, as a basis of his research,
which he later developed into his theory of moral
development. Like Piaget, he concluded that moral
reasoning exists in stages, and development occurs when
people’s reasoning advances to a higher stage.

46. Text 3
Kohlberg (1963, 1969, 1981, 1984) used responses to moral
dilemmas, such as this one, as a basis of his research,
which he later developed into his theory of moral
development. Like Piaget, he concluded that moral
reasoning exists in stages, and development occurs when
people’s reasoning advances to a higher stage.

47. IllustrationWords
✤ They tell us that an example or illustration will be given to make an
idea clear.
✤ They are typically used in textbooks that present a number of
definitions and examples of those definitions.
✤ Some typical illustration words are:
for example for instance to illustrate such as specifically
✤ Let’s do some practice. Take out your Student Handbook.
Source: Langan, J. (2002). Reading and study skills. New York: McGraw-Hill.

48. Text 1
The mesosystem consists of the interactions between the
elements of the microsystem, and healthy development
depends on how effectively the elements work together.
For example, research suggests that effective teachers
involve parents in their children’s education, creating
links between two important elements in the microsystem
(Epstein, 2001). In a similar way, effective schools open
their doors to the community to create a web of support
for the developing child (Comer, Joyner, & Ben-Avie,
2004).

49. Text 1
The mesosystem consists of the interactions between the
elements of the microsystem, and healthy development
depends on how effectively the elements work together.
For example, research suggests that effective teachers
involve parents in their children’s education, creating
links between two important elements in the microsystem
(Epstein, 2001). In a similar way, effective schools open
their doors to the community to create a web of support
for the developing child (Comer, Joyner, & Ben-Avie,
2004).

50. Text 2
Moral issues are also embedded in the school curriculum.
History is not a mere chronology of events; it is also a
study of people’s responses to moral issues, such as
poverty, human suffering, peace, justice, and whether
decisions to go to war are justified.

51. Text 2
Moral issues are also embedded in the school curriculum.
History is not a mere chronology of events; it is also a
study of people’s responses to moral issues, such as
poverty, human suffering, peace, justice, and whether
decisions to go to war are justified.

52. Text 3
Ethical issues are also found in literature written for
young people. For instance in E. B. White’s (1974)
children classic Charlotte’s Web, moral issues are involved
when Charlotte, the spider, devises an ingenious plan to
save Wilbur the pig from slaughter. And teachers
commonly choose books such as The Yearling (Rawlings,
1938), The Scarlet Letter (Hawthorne, 1850), and A Tale of
Two Cities (Dickens, 1859), not only because they are good
literature but also because they examine moral issues.

53. Text 3
Ethical issues are also found in literature written for
young people. For instance, in E. B. White’s (1974)
children classic Charlotte’s Web, moral issues are involved
when Charlotte, the spider, devises an ingenious plan to
save Wilbur the pig from slaughter. And teachers
commonly choose books such as The Yearling (Rawlings,
1938), The Scarlet Letter (Hawthorne, 1850), and A Tale of
Two Cities (Dickens, 1859), not only because they are good
literature but also because they examine moral issues.

54. Cause-and-effectWords
✤ These words signal that the author is going to describe results and
effects.
✤ Some typical cause-and-effect words are:
because therefore thus since as a result consequently
reason effect so that if.....then cause result in
✤ Let’s do some practice. Take out your Student Handbook.
Source: Langan, J. (2002). Reading and study skills. New York: McGraw-Hill.

55. Text 1
Steve, a high school senior, works at a night job to help
support his mother, a single parent of three. Steve is
conscientious and works hard in his classes, but he
doesn’t have enough time to study. Because of his night
work, and because he isn’t fond of history, he is barely
passing. If he fails the final exam, he will fail the course
and won’t graduate.

56. Text 1
Steve, a high school senior, works at a night job to help
support his mother, a single parent of three. Steve is
conscientious and works hard in his classes, but he
doesn’t have enough time to study. Because of his night
work, and because he isn’t fond of history, he is barely
passing. If he fails the final exam, he will fail the course
and won’t graduate.

57. Text 2
If he cheats, he will pass the test, but cheating is morally
wrong. On the other hand, if he doesn’t cheat, he will
likely fail the course and not graduate.

58. Text 2
If he cheats, he will pass the test, but cheating is morally
wrong. On the other hand, if he doesn’t cheat, he will
likely fail the course and not graduate.

59. Let’s do more
practice.
Review Exercises on Signal Words from
Student Handbook.

60. for example in addition as a result alike
therefore for instance especially valuable
similarly moreover just as such as
differ most important consequently
however also but most significant

61. ✤ Emphasis: most important, most significant, especially
valuable.
✤ Addition: moreover, also, in addition.
✤ Comparison: alike, just as, similarly.
✤ Contrast: but, differ, however.
✤ Illustration: for example, for instance, such as.
✤ Cause and effect: therefore, as a result, consequently.

62. Text 1
While positive resolution of the crisis at one stage better
prepares people for a positive resolution at the next,
Erikson didn’t believe that it is always ideal. For instance,
while learning to trust people is desirable, we cannot
trust all people under all circumstances. However, when
psychological development is healthy, the positive
resolution predominates at each stage. In addition, when
positive resolution doesn’t occur at a particular stage,
individuals often revisit earlier stages to rework these
crises.

63. Text 1
While positive resolution of the crisis at one stage better
prepares people for a positive resolution at the next,
Erikson didn’t believe that it is always ideal. For instance,
while learning to trust people is desirable, we cannot
trust all people under all circumstances. However, when
psychological development is healthy, the positive
resolution predominates at each stage. In addition, when
positive resolution doesn’t occur at a particular stage,
individuals often revisit earlier stages to rework these
crises.

64. Text 2
More recent research suggests that African American children
who grow up in a warm and supportive environments, both at
home and school, actually possess higher levels of self-esteem
than their Caucasian American counterparts (C. Carlson,
Uppal, & Posser, 2000; S. French et al., 2006; Gray-Little &
Hafdahl, 2000). However, some cultural minorities experience
hardships linked to poverty, crime, and drug use (Dwyer &
Osher, 2000). In addition, schools unresponsive to the needs of
minority children can retard the development of self-concept
and self-esteem (Ferguson, 2003; Noguera, 2003a). These
findings suggest that unique challenges can exist for students
who are members of ethnic minorities.

65. Text 2
More recent research suggests that African American children
who grow up in a warm and supportive environments, both at
home and school, actually possess higher levels of self-esteem
than their Caucasian American counterparts (C. Carlson,
Uppal, & Posser, 2000; S. French et al., 2006; Gray-Little &
Hafdahl, 2000). However, some cultural minorities experience
hardships linked to poverty, crime, and drug use (Dwyer &
Osher, 2000). In addition, schools unresponsive to the needs of
minority children can retard the development of self-concept
and self-esteem (Ferguson, 2003; Noguera, 2003a). These
findings suggest that unique challenges can exist for students
who are members of ethnic minorities.

66. Skill 5:
Recognizing the
Main Idea

67. Recognizing the Main Idea
✤ The basic structure of a textbook: A point is mentioned and then
supported with specific reasons, details, and facts.
✤ Finding the main idea is a key to understanding a paragraph or short
selection.
✤ The main idea is often located in the first sentence of a paragraph. It
may also be located at the end, in the middle, or any other place in the
paragraph.

68. What does it
mean?
Let’s do some practice.

69. Academic English Skills:
Guessing the Meaning from the Context
By: Iwan Syahril

70. DEALING WITH NEW WORDS
INTHETEXT
• It’s important not to use a dictionary for every new word.
• You can understand the main ideas of reading without
knowing the meaning of every word in it.
• The rest of the sentence or paragraph can usually help us to
find the meaning of the new word.
• Sometimes you don’t need to know the meaning of a new
word because the word isn’t important.

71. •Can I guess the meaning of the word from its
context?
Yes
Stop. Don’t
use a
dictionary
No
Ask yourself: Is the
word important?
Yes No
Use a dictionary to look up
the meaning.
Don’t worry. Keep reading.
Remember: It’s OK not to
know the exact meaning of
every word.

72. Take out your Student
Handbook.
PRACTICE
TIME