Memory

 Memory refers to the process by which
past experience and learning can be used
in the present
 According to Fieldsman:
 The process by which we encode, store,
retain and retrieve information is called
Memory

Encoding
Storage
Retrieval

 When you form a memory code for a
word, you might emphasize how it
looks(Structural), how it
sounds(Phonemic) or what it
means(Semantic)
› the process by which we place the
things that we experience into memory.
Unless information is encoded, it
cannot be remembered

 Structural Encoding is a way that focuses
on the physical structure of the stimulus.
 E.g., By paying attention on capital
letters, words length

 Phonemic Encoding is an intermediate
level of processing which emphasizes
what a word sounds like
 Did the word rhyme with the word
“weight”?

 Semantic encoding is the deepest level of
processing which emphasizes the
meaning of verbal input.
 Information is analyzed in terms of its
meaning.
 Would the word fit in the sentence?

Level of
processing
Type of
encoding
Example
Shallow
processing
Structural
encoding:
emphasizes the
physical structure
of the stimulus
Is the word written
in capital letters?
Intermediate
processing
Phonemic
encoding:
emphasizes what a
word sounds like
Does the word
rhyme with weight?
Deep
processing
Semantic
encoding:
emphasizes the
meaning of verbal
input
Would the word fit
in the sentence:
“He met a
_____________on
the
street”?
Depth of
processing

 The process of holding information in
memory to be processed or used
 There are three memory stores
› Sensory memory
› Short Term memory
› Long term memory

Short term
memory
Long term
memory
Sensory
memory
Information
Repetitive
rehearsal
Elaborative
rehearsal
Forgetting
typically
within
1 second
Forgetting
within
15 to
25 seconds
Attention

 The sensory memory preserves
information in its original sensory
form for a brief time, usually only a
fraction of a second.
OR
 The initial, momentary storage of
information, lasting only an instant.

 Short-term memory (STM) is a limited-
capacity store that can maintain
unrehearsed information for up to almost
25 seconds.
 However, there is a way that you can
maintain information in your short-term
store indefinitely by engaging in
rehearsal.

 Rehearsal is the process of repetitively
verbalizing or thinking about the
information.
 Example
 when you look up a phone number, you
probably recite it over and over until you
can dial it.

 Short-term memory is also limited in the
number of items it can hold.
 Miller noticed that people could recall only
about 7 items in tasks that required the use
of STM.
 So, he gave the idea of “The Magical
Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two”

 You can increase the capacity of your
short-term memory by chunking.

 Chunk
 A meaningful grouping of stimuli that
can be stored as a unit in short-term
memory.
OR
 A chunk is a group of familiar stimuli
stored as a single unit.

 EXAMPLE
 Ask someone to recall a sequence of 12
letters grouped in the following way:
 FB INB CCIAIBM
 It will be difficult for your subject to
remember each letter separately because
there are no obvious groups or chunks

 Now present the same string of letters to
another person, but place the pauses in
the following locations:
 FBI - NBC - CIA - IBM
 The letters now form four familiar
chunks, resulting in successful recall.
 167156631
 1-67-15-66-31

 Long-term memory (LTM) is an
unlimited capacity store that can hold
information over lengthy periods of time.

 Unlike sensory and short-term
memory, which have very brief storage
durations, LTM can store information
indefinitely.
 In fact, one point of view is that all
information stored in long-term
memory is stored there permanently.

 Long-term memory has several
different components, or memory
modules .
1. Declarative memory/Explicit
i) Semantic memory
ii) Episodic memory
2.Non-declarative
memory/Implicit(procedural, skills)

 Memory for factual information: names,
faces, dates, and the like.
 Example
 “a bike has two wheels

 Memory for skills and habits and
information about how to do things is
stored in procedural memory.
 Example
 such as riding a bike or hitting a
baseball, typing, and tying one’s shoes.

 To illustrate the distinction, if you
know the rules of tennis (the number
of games in a set, scoring, and such),
this factual information is stored in
declarative memory. If you remember
how to hit a serve and swing through a
backhand, these are procedural
memories that are part of the non
declarative system (procedural
memory).

 Semantic memory
 Memory for general knowledge and facts
about the world and it is not tied to the
time when the information was learned.

 Semantic memory contains information
such as Christmas is December 25, and
dogs have four legs.
 You probably don’t remember when you
learned these facts. Such information is
usually stored undated.

 The episodic memory system is made up
of temporally dated, recollections of
personal experiences.
OR
 Memory for events that occur in a
particular time, place, or context.

 For example, recall of learning to ride a bike,
or arranging a surprise 21st birthday party for
our brother, how you celebrated 25th
December is based on episodic memories.
 Episodic memory is a record of things you’ve
done, seen, and heard. It includes information
about when you did these things, saw them, or
heard them. It contains recollections about
being in a ninth-grade play, attending any
concert, or going to a movie last weekend.

 The function of episodic memory is
“time travel”—that is, to allow one to re
experience the past.
 Episodic memory may be unique to
humans.

 In short, Subdivided declarative memory
into episodic and semantic memory. Both
contain factual information, but semantic
memory contains general facts and
episodic memory contains personal
facts.
 example,
 the fact itself (that 2+2=4) is a semantic
memory.
 Remembering when and how we learned
(that 2+2=4) would be an episodic
memory;

 Distinction between episodic and
semantic memory can be better
appreciated by drawing an analogy to
books:
 Semantic memory is like an
encyclopedia while episodic memory
is like an autobiography.

Long term memory
Declarative
memory
Non declarative
memory
Semantic memory Episodic memory

 Tip-of-the-tongue
 It is the temporary inability to remember
something you know, accompanied by a
feeling that it’s just out of reach.
OR
 The inability to recall information that
one realizes one knows—a result of the
difficulty of retrieving information from
long-term memory.

 The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon clearly
constitutes a failure in retrieval.
 Example
 while taking exams you blank out on a term that
you’re sure you know, but you can’t quite come
up with it. Later, perhaps while you’re driving
home, the term suddenly comes to you. “Of
course,” you may say to yourself, “how could I
forget that?”

 Retrieval cues
 It is the stimulus that help gain access to
memories.
 Example
 Study was conducted by Brown and McNeill
in which they gave subjects definitions of
obscure(unclear) words and asked them to
come up with the words. Brown and McNeill
found that subjects grouping for obscure
words were correct in guessing the first letter
of the missing word 57% of the time.

 To recall an event by putting yourself
back in the context in which it occurred
involves working with context cues to
aid retrieval

 Example # 1
 What did you have for breakfast two
days ago? If you can’t immediately
answer, you might begin by imagining
yourself sitting at the breakfast table.
Trying to recall an event by putting
yourself back in the context in which it
occurred involves working with context
cues to aid retrieval.

 Example # 2
 How often you have gone from one room
to another to get something (scissors,
perhaps), only to discover that you can’t
remember what you were after. However,
when you return to the first room (the
original context), you suddenly recall
what it was (“Of course, the scissors!”).

 Example # 3
 when people return after a number of
years to a place where they used to live,
they are typically flooded with long-
forgotten memories.
 These examples illustrate the potentially
powerful effects of context cues on
memory.

 Ineffective encoding
 Decay
 Interference
 Motivated forgetting

 Often, we don’t even encode the
features necessary to remember an
object/event.
 The information may never have been
inserted into memory in the first place.
Since you can’t really forget something
you never learned, this phenomenon is
sometimes called pseudo forgetting.

 Example
 People usually assume that they know
what a penny looks like, but most have
actually failed to encode this
information.
 Pseudo forgetting is usually due to
lack of attention.

 Decay theory proposes that forgetting
occurs because memory traces fade with
time.
 According to decay theory, the mere
passage of time produces forgetting.

 Interference theory proposes that people
forget information because of
competition from other material.
OR
 The phenomenon by which information
in memory disrupts the recall of other
information.

 Interference is assumed to be greatest
when intervening material is most
similar to the test material.
 Decreasing the similarity should reduce
interference and cause less forgetting.

 Retroactive interference (New learning
interferes with old)
 Proactive interference (old/previous
learning interferes with new)

 Retroactive interference occurs when
new information impairs the retention of
previously learned information.

 for example, you have difficulty on a
computer achievement test because new
information (psychology) interferes and
impairs the retention of previously
learned information (computer).
Study
computer
Study
psychology
Computer
Test
Interference

 Proactive interference occurs when
previously learned information interferes
with the retention of new information.

 Example
 You have difficulty on psychology
achievement test because previously
learned information (computer)
interferes and impairs the retention of
new information (psychology).
Study
computer
Study
psychology
Psychology
test
Interference

 The tendency to forget things one doesn’t
want to think about is called motivated
forgetting.
 Example
when you forget unpleasant things such
as a dental appointment, a promise to
help a friend move, or a term paper
deadline, motivated forgetting may be at
work.

 The three principal methods used to
measure forgetting are
1. Recall
2. Recognition
3. Relearning
 Measures of forgetting inevitably
measure retention as well.

 Refers to the proportion of material
retained (remembered).

 A recall measure of retention requires
subjects to reproduce information on their
own without any cues.

 Example
 If you were to take a recall test on a list
of 25 words you had memorized, you
would simply be told to write down as
many of the words as you could
remember.
 In educational testing, essay questions
and fill-in-the-blanks questions are recall
measures of retention.

 A recognition measure of retention
requires subjects to select previously
learned information from an array of
options.
 Subjects not only have cues to work
with, they have the answers right in
front of them.

 Example
 In a recognition test you might be shown
a list of 100 words and asked to choose
the 25 words that you had memorized.
 In educational testing, Multiple choice,
true-false, and match the columns are
recognition measures.

 A relearning measure of retention
requires a subject to memorize
information a second time to determine
how much time or how many practice
trials are saved by having learned it
before.
 Subjects’ savings scores provide an
estimate of their retention.

Memory

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