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Unit 1: The Exam! 25/05/2011 ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Cognitive Experiments Social Surveys ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Study or Theory? ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
APRC: Describing a STUDY ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
GRAVE: Evaluating a STUDY ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Cognitive Psychology ,[object Object]
ASSUMPTION1: Information Processing ,[object Object],[object Object]
Information Processing Decision  making Memory
ASSUMPTION 2: Computer Analogy ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
 
ASSUMPTON 3: Active ,[object Object],[object Object]
Evaluation of Cognitive Approach ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Cognitive Psychology ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Memory & Forgetting… The same thing? ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Failure at any of these 3 stages can lead to forgetting.   All 3 processes depend upon one another; they are  interdependent . Memory involves three main  Processes: ENCODING STORAGE RETRIEVAL The process of  changing  sensory input into a memory trace so that it can be stored. The process of  maintaining  a   record  of the memory trace so that it can be retrieved in the future. The process of  accessing  and  recovering stored information so that it can be recalled.
Multi-Store Model [Theory]
 
AO2 Evaluation of Atkinson & Shiffrin ’ s  Multi-store Model of Memory ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Craik and Lockhart ’s Levels of Processing (1972) [Theory] ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Levels of Processing ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Evaluation of LoP (AO2) ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Craik and Tulvin (1975) [Study] ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Craik and Tulvin (1975) [Study] ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Is the word in capital letters? C hair Does this word rhyme with GREEN? BEAN Does the word fit this sentence?   ‘The soldier picked up his _____.’  rifle Is this word in lower-case letters?  FLOWER Does the word fit this sentence?  ‘The woman _________ on the train.’ slept Does the word rhyme with MEND?   pool Is the word in capital letters? MEANING Does the word fit this sentence?  ‘Yesterday we saw a _______.’   fence Does the word rhyme with HOUSE?   MOUSE Does the word fit into this sentence?  ‘There are _______ growing in my garden.’ DOORS Is the word in lower-case letters? spend Does the word rhyme with TABLE?   GENERAL Is this word in capital letters? article Does this word fit this sentence?  ‘The _____ should not be more than 1000 words.’ castle Does this word rhyme with STOOL? POND
Craik and Tulvin (1975) [Study] ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Craik and Tulvin (1975) A02 ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
 
Trace Decay Theory ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
AO2 STRENGHTS Trace Decay Theory ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
AO2 LIMITATIONS Trace Decay Theory ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Cue Dependent Theory  Tulvin (1975) ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Cue Dependent Theory (AO2)  Tulvin (1975)  ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Godden & Baddley (1975) [Study] ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Godden & Baddley (1975) AO2 ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Key Issue: EWT & Memory Reconstructive Hypothesis  Loftus & Palmer Our perception of the event.
How does it help us explain the issues with eyewitness testimony? Multi-Store Model Atkinson & Shiffrin  Information is only passed into the STM from the SM is we attend to it. If we are not attending to an event in the environment information about it will decay from the SM and will not be processed further (encoded) – no memory. Levels of Processing Craik and Lockheart We remember things well when they have been deeply processed, that is anaylsyed for meaning rather than for structural or phonetic information. Most questions following an event usually refer to apperance (structural processing). Cue-dependency  Tulvin  Research has shown that both our internal state and our surroundings when we store a new memory serve as memory cues. If these cues are not present at recall we will be unable to recall the event accurately.  Reconstructive Memory Loftus & Palmer The active process of reconstruction takes place as we retrieve memories. We tend to include post-event information when reconstruct memories. Therefore, memories can be easily distorted by using leading questions.
The Cognitive Interview Fisher &  Geiselman  (1992) ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],46%  Increase !
How Science Works: EXPERIMENTS ,[object Object]
Experiments ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Experiments Independent  Variable  (IV) Dependent  Variable  (DV) Confounding Variable : a variable that  effects  the DV Extraneous Variable : a variable that  could  affect the DV but  has  been  controlled for  so it doesn ’t.
Experiments ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Experiments ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Condition 1 Condition 2 Condition 1 Condition 2 Counter balancing  – alter order of Pp ’s
Experiments ,[object Object],Condition 1 Condition 2 Male 21 IQ = 105 Male 21 IQ = 105 Female 25 IQ = 115 Female 25 IQ = 115
Evaluation of Experimental Designs. Strength Weakness Independent Measures No Order Effects Fewer Demand Characteristics Individual Differences Repeated  Measures No Individual Differences Order Effects (counter balancing) Matched  Pairs Controls for Individual Differences Can be difficult and costly.
Experiments  – Hypotheses Participants memory will be much worse when there is a distraction in the room than when there is no distraction. Participants  memory  will be  much worse  when there is a  distraction in the room  than when there is no distraction. How are we measuring memory? What ’s better or worse? Higher / Lower? More / Less? What is the distraction? How are we manipulating it? Operationalising your hypothesis How have you manipulated your IV? How have you measured your DV?
Experiments  – Hypotheses Participants  memory  will be  much worse  when there is a  distraction in the room  than when there is no distraction. Participants will remember significantly more words from a list of 20 presented for 60 seconds when they are in a room with no distractions than participants who are in a room where rock music is playing in the background.
Experiments  – Hypotheses  Participants who [ do something ] will be significantly [ faster/better/quicker etc ] at [ something ] than participants who [ do something else ]. There will be no significant difference between participants who [ do something ] and those who [ do something else ]. Any difference will be down to chance. Alternate Null
Experiments  – Hypotheses  Participants who [ do something ] will be significantly [ faster/better/quicker etc ] at [ something ] than participants who [ do something else ]. There will be a significant difference between participants who [ do something ] and those who [ do something else ].  1Tailed 2Tailed
Key Terms  - Experiments ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Data Analysis ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Data Analysis ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Strength Weakness Mean Makes use of all the values in a data set. Not good for ordinal or nominal data.  Can be distorted by extreme values.  Median Unaffected by extreme values.  Not good for nominal data.  Ignores extreme outliers.  Mode Can be used with any data type.  Isn ’t useful for small data sets.
Ethics ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Social Psychology ,[object Object]
 
Social Psychology ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Terms You Need ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Agency Theory (1974) ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Milgram coined the term ‘ agentic state ’  to explain the obedience seen in his famous experiments; the individual acted purely as agent, or on behalf of the authority figure,  ‘ the experimenter ’ , and absolved himself of his moral responsibility to protect the learner.
Agency Theory AO2 ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Milgram (1963) ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Milgram: Why so obedient? ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Change of venue:  run down office building ,[object Object],Bridgeport Study
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Milgram AO2  ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Meeus and Raaijmakers (1986) ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Hofling (1966) ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Hofling Evaluation AO2 ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],AL2: Activate
Social Identity Theory Tajfel & Turner (1979) ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],AL2: Activate
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Social Identity Theory Tajfel & Turner (1979) AL2: Activate
Social Identity Theory AO2 Tajfel & Turner (1979) ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],AL2: Activate
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Reicher & Haslam (2006) The Aims ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
For ethical reasons only people who were  well-adjusted  and  pro-social , scoring at low levels on all social and clinical measures were included in the study. From an initial pool of  332  applicants the researchers reduced the sample to  27  men. Men were chosen so that the results could be compared with the SPE and because it was thought by the researchers to cause less ethical problems than using women. The final sample of 15 was chosen to ensure diversity of  age, social class,  and  ethnic background .
15 Males 3 matched participants 2 prisoners 1 Guard 3 matched participants 2 prisoners 1 Guard 3 matched participants 2 prisoners 1 Guard 3 matched participants 2 prisoners 1 Guard 3 matched participants 2 prisoners 1 Guard One prisoner was not involved at the  beginning of filming and was introduced  later on in the experiment. 15 males, first divided into five matched groups of three on traits such as racism, authoritarianism and social dominance.
The Interventions ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
AL2: Activate
The Conclusions  ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Reicher & Haslam AO2 ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
How Science Works:  SURVEYS & SELF-REPORTS ,[object Object]
Types of Data ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Surveys ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Survey Types Hand Out (Q) Face-to-face (I) Phone (I) Email / Internet (Q) Postal (Q)
Issues to Consider (AO2) ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Split-Half Method
Reliability and Validity in Self-Reports / Survey Method Improve Check Reliability Closed  Questions (less ambiguous) Split-Half Method or  Replicate  Validity Open  Questions (no interpretation needed) Conduct an Observation

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Unit1 revision

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  • 14. Failure at any of these 3 stages can lead to forgetting.   All 3 processes depend upon one another; they are interdependent . Memory involves three main Processes: ENCODING STORAGE RETRIEVAL The process of changing sensory input into a memory trace so that it can be stored. The process of maintaining a record of the memory trace so that it can be retrieved in the future. The process of accessing and recovering stored information so that it can be recalled.
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  • 23. Is the word in capital letters? C hair Does this word rhyme with GREEN? BEAN Does the word fit this sentence? ‘The soldier picked up his _____.’ rifle Is this word in lower-case letters? FLOWER Does the word fit this sentence? ‘The woman _________ on the train.’ slept Does the word rhyme with MEND? pool Is the word in capital letters? MEANING Does the word fit this sentence? ‘Yesterday we saw a _______.’ fence Does the word rhyme with HOUSE? MOUSE Does the word fit into this sentence? ‘There are _______ growing in my garden.’ DOORS Is the word in lower-case letters? spend Does the word rhyme with TABLE? GENERAL Is this word in capital letters? article Does this word fit this sentence? ‘The _____ should not be more than 1000 words.’ castle Does this word rhyme with STOOL? POND
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  • 34. Key Issue: EWT & Memory Reconstructive Hypothesis Loftus & Palmer Our perception of the event.
  • 35. How does it help us explain the issues with eyewitness testimony? Multi-Store Model Atkinson & Shiffrin Information is only passed into the STM from the SM is we attend to it. If we are not attending to an event in the environment information about it will decay from the SM and will not be processed further (encoded) – no memory. Levels of Processing Craik and Lockheart We remember things well when they have been deeply processed, that is anaylsyed for meaning rather than for structural or phonetic information. Most questions following an event usually refer to apperance (structural processing). Cue-dependency Tulvin Research has shown that both our internal state and our surroundings when we store a new memory serve as memory cues. If these cues are not present at recall we will be unable to recall the event accurately. Reconstructive Memory Loftus & Palmer The active process of reconstruction takes place as we retrieve memories. We tend to include post-event information when reconstruct memories. Therefore, memories can be easily distorted by using leading questions.
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  • 39. Experiments Independent Variable (IV) Dependent Variable (DV) Confounding Variable : a variable that effects the DV Extraneous Variable : a variable that could affect the DV but has been controlled for so it doesn ’t.
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  • 43. Evaluation of Experimental Designs. Strength Weakness Independent Measures No Order Effects Fewer Demand Characteristics Individual Differences Repeated Measures No Individual Differences Order Effects (counter balancing) Matched Pairs Controls for Individual Differences Can be difficult and costly.
  • 44. Experiments – Hypotheses Participants memory will be much worse when there is a distraction in the room than when there is no distraction. Participants memory will be much worse when there is a distraction in the room than when there is no distraction. How are we measuring memory? What ’s better or worse? Higher / Lower? More / Less? What is the distraction? How are we manipulating it? Operationalising your hypothesis How have you manipulated your IV? How have you measured your DV?
  • 45. Experiments – Hypotheses Participants memory will be much worse when there is a distraction in the room than when there is no distraction. Participants will remember significantly more words from a list of 20 presented for 60 seconds when they are in a room with no distractions than participants who are in a room where rock music is playing in the background.
  • 46. Experiments – Hypotheses Participants who [ do something ] will be significantly [ faster/better/quicker etc ] at [ something ] than participants who [ do something else ]. There will be no significant difference between participants who [ do something ] and those who [ do something else ]. Any difference will be down to chance. Alternate Null
  • 47. Experiments – Hypotheses Participants who [ do something ] will be significantly [ faster/better/quicker etc ] at [ something ] than participants who [ do something else ]. There will be a significant difference between participants who [ do something ] and those who [ do something else ]. 1Tailed 2Tailed
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  • 51. Strength Weakness Mean Makes use of all the values in a data set. Not good for ordinal or nominal data. Can be distorted by extreme values. Median Unaffected by extreme values. Not good for nominal data. Ignores extreme outliers. Mode Can be used with any data type. Isn ’t useful for small data sets.
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  • 74. For ethical reasons only people who were well-adjusted and pro-social , scoring at low levels on all social and clinical measures were included in the study. From an initial pool of 332 applicants the researchers reduced the sample to 27 men. Men were chosen so that the results could be compared with the SPE and because it was thought by the researchers to cause less ethical problems than using women. The final sample of 15 was chosen to ensure diversity of age, social class, and ethnic background .
  • 75. 15 Males 3 matched participants 2 prisoners 1 Guard 3 matched participants 2 prisoners 1 Guard 3 matched participants 2 prisoners 1 Guard 3 matched participants 2 prisoners 1 Guard 3 matched participants 2 prisoners 1 Guard One prisoner was not involved at the beginning of filming and was introduced later on in the experiment. 15 males, first divided into five matched groups of three on traits such as racism, authoritarianism and social dominance.
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  • 84. Reliability and Validity in Self-Reports / Survey Method Improve Check Reliability Closed Questions (less ambiguous) Split-Half Method or Replicate Validity Open Questions (no interpretation needed) Conduct an Observation

Notas del editor

  1. Run down building – down to 47.5%