1. RESEARCH PROCESS

2. Research Process
– The Research Problem
– Formulation of Research Objectives
– Review of Related Literature
– Delimitation of the Research Problem
– Formulation of Testable Hypothesis
– Identification of Research Variables
– Construction of Research Design
– Designing Tools for Data Collection
– Designing Plan for Data Analysis
– Collection of Data
– Data Processing
– Data Analysis and Interpretation
– Drawing Conclusions and
Recommendations
– Writing of Research Report
– Reporting of Research Findings

3. The Research Problem

4. Research Problem
• S - pecific
• M – easurable
• A – chievable
• R – ealistic
• T - imebound

5. Stating the Research Problem

6. Stating the Research Problem
• Research problem must be stated in a clear
and complete grammatical sentence in as few
words as possible

7. Effects of pharmaceuticals on
fish embryo

8. • Do environmentally-relevant concentrations of
diclofenac in freshwater systems exhibit
embryotoxic and stress protein (hsp 70)
responses to zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos?

9. FORMULATION OF RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES
• Reflect the questions whose answers the
investigator wants the study to yield.
• Can be expressed either in the form of a
statement or a question
• Serve as the “steering wheel” in the conduct
of a research project.

10. • Serve as guides in specifying the variables of
the study, the choice of the research design to
be used, the data to be collected, as well as
the interpretation of the results.
The study will determine the relationship
between sulfur dioxide levels and the rate of
photosynthesis among resistant species of
grasses.

11. Characteristics of Research Objectives
• Phrased clearly, unambiguously, and
specifically
• Stated in measurable terms and should not
involve value judgment

12. Objective
• to study diarrhea
• to determine the role of infant feeding in
diarrhea
• to compare the incidence of diarrhea between
bottle, breast-fed, and mixed-fed infant

13. Objective
• To study the effect of neem tree extract
• To investigate the histological effects of neem
seed kernel extract on mouse testis

14. • General Objective: a generic statement which
describes in broad terms what the study
wishes to accomplish.
• Specific Objectives: contain indicators on how
to accomplish the stated objectives and
therefore, gives direction to the research
process; identifies in detail and measureable
terms the aims of the research study.

15. HOW DO YOU FORMULATE
YOUR OBJECTIVES?
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
• summarize what is to be achieved by the
study.
• should be closely related to the research
question.
• EXAMPLE:
– Problem: low utilization of child protection units
(CPUs)
– General Objective: to identify the reasons for
this low utilization

16. HOW DO YOU FORMULATE YOUR
OBJECTIVES?
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE
– smaller, logically connected parts of a
general objective
– should systematically address the various
aspects (dimensions) of the general
objective
– should specify what you will do in your
study, where and for what purpose.

17. General Objectives:
To investigate the histological effects of neem seed kernel
extract on mouse testis
Specific Objectives:
1. To identify the changes in testes histology due to neem
seed kernel extract (NSKE) exposure.
2. To determine the relationship between neem seed kernel
extract (NSKE) and occurrence of abnormal sperm
morphology.
3. To provide a feasible physiological basis for the anti-libido
property of neem extract.

18. Objective
• General objective
1. To document plants used by Aeta as repellents
against hematophagous insects
• Specific objective
1. To identify plants used by Aeta as repellents
against hematophagous insects
2. To determine which parts of the plants are used
for such purpose
3. To determine the mode of application and
frequency of use of these plants

19. SAMPLE OBJECTIVES
• GENERAL: To evaluate if home-based care (CHBC) projects in
Zimbabwe provide adequate, affordable and sustainable care of
good quality to people with HIV/AIDS, and to identify ways in
which these services can be improved
• SPECIFIC
– To identify the full range of economic, psychosocial, health/nursing care and
other needs of patients and their families affected by AIDS.
– To determine the extent to which formal and informal support systems
address these needs from the viewpoint of service providers as well as
patients.
– To determine the economic costs of CHBC to the patient and family as well as
to the formal CHBC programmes themselves.
– To relate the calculated costs to the quality of care provided to the patient by
the family and to the family/patient by the CHBC programme.

20. PICKING THE RIGHT WORDS
• Clearly phrased in operational terms
• Use action verbs
– Examples:
explain, apply, predict, identify, employ,
evaluate, describe, illustrate, defend, integrate,
use, assess, contrast, interpret, distinguish,
sort, categorize, diagram, solve, formulate,
report, relate, organize, restate, recall,
prepare, review, list, arrange, classify, name,
construct, translate, recognize, create,
determine

21. WORDS TO AVOID
• To know
• To understand
• To really understand
• To fully appreciate
• To internalize
• To grasp the significance of
• To have an awareness of

22. FORMULATION OF TESTABLE
HYPOTHESIS
• Hypothesis Definition
• A tentative explanation for certain phenomena, or
events which have occurred or will occur (Gay,1976)
• States the researcher’s expectations concerning the
relationship between two or more variables in the
research problem
• Testable statement of a potential relationship between
two or more variables (McGuigan, 1978)

23. Characteristics of a Good
Hypothesis
• Stated in declarative form
• Stated in definite terms, the relationship
between variables
• Should reflect the theory or literature that it is
based on
• Should be brief and to the point
• Should be testable.

24. Two Types of Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis
• Ho
• Never true or established but can be possibly disproved
in the course of the experimentation
• Always a statement of _____________
• No difference relationship between the variables we
want to study
• May act as a starting point and as a benchmark against
which the researcher will measure the actual outcome
of the study once the researcher has collected the
data.

25. Research Hypothesis
• HA
• Alternative hypothesis
• Relationship is always positive
• Statement of ______________.

26. • Examples:
• Ho : Vitamin C does not inhibit chromosomal
lagging.
• HA : Vitamin C does inhibit chromosomal lagging
by 50% compared to placebo.
• Ho : Cerebral artery bypass is as effective as
standard medical therapy
• HA : Cerebral artery bypass is more effective
than standard medical therapy.

27. • Two Types of Research Hypothesis
– Non-directional – reflects a difference between
groups, but the direction of the difference
(unequal) is NOT specified.
– Directional – reflects a difference between groups
and the difference is specified.

28. IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH
VARIABLES
• Variable – any trait/characteristic that
manifest differences irrespective of whether
the differences are qualitative or quantitative.
• Qualitative – eye color, shape of teeth, sex
• Quantitative – weight, height, length, light
intensity, temperature

29. Types of Variables:
Independent – the treatment variable
- _________ in the course of an experiment in an effort to
understand the effects of this manipulation on some outcome (which you
know as the dependent variable)
- the variable which is presumed to cause,
effect, influence, or stimulate the outcome.
Dependent – outcome variables in a research study
- refers to the outcome or response variable
Extraneous Variable – by themselves produce changes which may be mistaken to
be the effect of the independent variable being
considered.
- Controlled, held constant or randomized – so the effects are
neutralized, cancelled out or equated for all conditions.

30. INTRODUCTION
• BACKGROUND/ RATIONALE
• OBJECTIVES
• HYPOTHESIS
• SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
• LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
Deadline on December 2

31. • Saccharum spontaneum flavonoid as a
potential food preservative
• Flavonoid as preservative
• Flavonoid