2. Order can be found in
atomic structure. Changes
in this order are the result
of energy changes in the
system.
3. Matter is composed of a limited number of
elements created through nuclear events in the
universe involving tremendous amounts of energy.
Modern atomic theory of the structure and behavior
of atoms rests on the combined work of many
scientists.
Properties, which are a result of structure, can be
used to identify matter and predict its behavior.
The fundamental unit for measuring amount of
substance is the mole.
4. How does our current
understanding of the
atom explain the world
around us?
7. Matter is anything that has mass and
occupies space.
Chemistry is the study of the composition
and properties of matter and the changes
that matter undergoes.
1.1
8. Because living and
nonliving things are made
of matter, chemistry
affects all aspects of life
and most natural events.
1.1
15. Physical chemistry
is the area that deals
with the mechanism,
the rate, and the
energy transfer that
occurs when matter
undergoes a change.
16. Pure and Applied Chemistry
How are pure and applied
chemistry related?
1.1
17. Pure chemistry is the pursuit of
chemical knowledge for its own
sake.
Applied chemistry is research that
is directed toward a practical goal or
application.
1.1
18. Pure research can lead directly to
an application, but an application
can exist before research is done to
explain how it works.
1.1
19. Nylon
In the early 1930’s,
Wallace Carothers
produced nylon while
researching cotton and
silk.
A team of scientists and
engineers applied
Carothers’s research to
the commercial
production of nylon.
1.1
20. Aspirin
▪ Long before researchers figured out how aspirin
works, people used it to relieve pain, and
doctors prescribed it for patients who were at
risk for a heart attack.
▪ In 1971, it was discovered that aspirin can block
the production of a group of chemicals that
cause pain and lead to the formation of blood
clots. This is an example of pure research.
1.1
21. Technology is the means by which a
society provides its members with those
things needed and desired.
▪Technology allows humans to do
some things more quickly or with less
effort.
▪There are debates about the risks and
benefits of technology.
1.1
23. Chemistry can be useful in
explaining the natural world,
preparing people for career
opportunities, and producing
informed citizens.
1.1
24. Explaining the Natural World
Chemistry can help you satisfy
your natural desire to understand
how things work.
1.1
25. Preparing For a Career
Many careers require knowledge of chemistry. A
photographer uses chemical processes to control
the development of photographs in a darkroom.
1.1
26. Being an Informed Citizen
Knowledge of chemistry
and other sciences can
help you evaluate the
data presented, arrive at
an informed opinion, and
take appropriate action.
1.1
27. Materials
What impact do chemists have on
materials, energy, medicine,
agriculture, the environment, and
the study of the universe?
1.2
29. In 1948, George de Mestral took
a close look at the burrs that
stuck to his clothing. He saw
that each burr was covered with
many tiny hooks.
In 1955, de Mestral patented
the design for the hook-and-
loop tapes. These are used as
fasteners in shoes and gloves.
1.2
30. This story illustrates two ways of looking
at the world—the macroscopic view and
the microscopic view.
Burrs belong to the macroscopic world, the
world of objects that are large enough to
see with the unaided eye.
The hooks belong to the microscopic
world, or the world of objects that can be
seen only under magnification.
1.2
31. Energy
Chemists play an essential
role in finding ways to
conserve energy, produce
energy, and store energy.
1.2
32. Conservation
One of the easiest ways to conserve
energy is through insulation. Insulation
acts as a barrier to heat flow from the
inside to the outside of a house or from
the outside to the inside of a freezer.
1.2
33. ▪ SEAgel is a modern insulation that is light
enough to float on soap bubbles.
1.2
34. Production
▪ The burning of coal, petroleum, and natural gas
is a major source of energy. These materials are
called fossil fuels. Oil from the soybeans is used
to make biodiesel.
1.2
35. Storage
▪ Batteries are devices that use chemicals
to store energy that will be released as
electric current.
▪ For some applications, it important to
have batteries that can be recharged
rather than thrown away. Digital cameras,
wireless phones, and laptop computers
use rechargeable batteries.
1.2
36. Medicine and Biotechnology
Chemistry supplies the
medicines, materials, and
technology that doctors
use to treat their patients.
1.2
37. Medicines
There are over 2000 prescription
drugs. Many drugs are effective
because they interact in a specific way
with chemicals in cells. Knowledge of
the structure and function of these
target chemicals helps a chemist
design safe and effective drugs.
1.2
38. Materials
Chemistry can supply materials to
repair or replace body parts. Artificial
hips and knees made from metals and
plastics can replace worn-out joints
and allow people to walk again without
pain.
1.2
39. Biotechnology
From 1990 to 2003, scientists
worldwide worked on the
Human Genome Project.
They identified the genes
that comprise human DNA—
about 30,000. The discovery
of the structure of DNA led to
the development of
biotechnology.
1.2
42. Productivity
One way to track productivity is to
measure the amount of edible food
that is grown on a given unit of land.
Chemists test soil to see if it contains
the right chemicals to grow a particular
crop and recommend ways to improve
the soil.
1.2
43. Chemists also help
determine when a
crop needs water.
If the genes from a
jellyfish that glows
are transferred to a
potato plant, the
plant glows when it
needs to be watered.
1.2
44. Crop Protection
Chemists sometimes use chemicals produced by
insects to fight insect pests. The plastic tube
wrapped around the stem of the tomato plant
contains a chemical that a female pinworm moth
emits to attract male moths. It interferes with the
mating process so that fewer pinworms are
produced.
1.2
45. The Environment
▪A pollutant is a material found in
air, water, or soil that is harmful
to humans or other organisms.
▪Chemists help to identify
pollutants and prevent pollution.
1.2
46. Identify Pollutants
Until the mid-1900s, lead was used in many
products, including paints and gasoline.
A study done in 1971 showed that the level of
lead that is harmful to humans is much lower
than had been thought, especially for
children. Even low levels of lead in the blood
can permanently damage the nervous
system of a growing child.
1.2
47. Prevent Pollution
The strategies used to
prevent lead poisoning
include testing
children’s blood for
lead, regulation of
home sales to families
with young children,
and public awareness
campaigns with
posters.
1.2
48. The percentage of children with elevated
blood levels has decreased since the 1970s.
1.2
49. The Universe
To study the universe, chemists
gather data from afar and analyze
matter that is brought back to
Earth.
1.2
50. Chemists have analyzed more than 850
pounds of moon rocks that were brought
back to Earth. Some of these rocks are similar
to rocks formed by volcanoes on Earth,
suggesting that vast oceans of molten lava
once covered the moon's surface.
1.2
51. ▪ The robotic vehicle Opportunity was designed to
determine the chemical composition of rocks and soil on
Mars. Data collected at the vehicle’s landing site
indicated that the site was once drenched with water.
1.2
52.
53. In 1928, Alexander Fleming
noticed that bacteria he was
studying did not grow in the
presence of a yellow-green
mold. In 1945, Fleming shared a
Nobel Prize for Medicine with
Howard Florey and Ernst Chain,
who led the team that isolated
penicillin.
1.3
56. Alchemists developed
processes for separating
mixtures and purifying
chemicals. They
designed equipment that
is still in use today
including beakers, flasks,
tongs, funnels, and the
mortar and pestle. Mortar and Pestle
1.3
58. Lavoisier helped to transform
chemistry from a science of
observation to the science of
measurement that it is today.
1.3
59. Lavoisier designed a balance that could measure
mass to the nearest 0.0005 gram. He also showed
that oxygen is required for a material to burn.
Reconstruction of Lavoisier’s Laboratory
1.3
61. ▪ The scientific method is a logical,
systematic approach to the solution of a
scientific problem.
▪ Steps in the scientific method include making
observations, testing hypotheses, and
developing theories.
1.3
62. Making Observations
When you use your senses
to obtain information, you
make an observation.
Suppose you try to turn on
a flashlight and it does not
light. An observation can
lead to a question: What’s
wrong with the flashlight?
1.3
63. Testing Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for
an observation.
You guess that the flashlight needs new
batteries. You can test your hypothesis by
putting new batteries in the flashlight. If the
flashlight lights, you can be fairly certain
that your hypothesis is true.
1.3
64. An experiment is a procedure that is used to
test a hypothesis. When you design
experiments, you deal with variables, or
factors that can change.
The variable that you change during an
experiment is the manipulated variable, or
independent variable.
The variable that is observed during the
experiment is the responding variable, or
dependent variable.
1.3
65. Developing Theories
▪ Once a hypothesis meets the test of
repeated experimentation, it may become
a theory.
▪ A theory is a well-tested explanation for a
broad set of observations.
▪ A theory may need to be changed at some
point in the future to explain new observations
or experimental results.
1.3
66. Scientific Laws
A scientific law is a concise statement
that summarizes the results of many
observations and experiments.
A scientific law doesn’t try to explain
the relationship it describes. That
explanation requires a theory.
1.3
69. No matter how talented the players on a
team, one player cannot ensure victory
for the team. Individuals must
collaborate, or work together, for the
good of the team.
When scientists collaborate and
communicate, they increase the likelihood
of a successful outcome.
1.3
70. Collaboration
Scientists choose to collaborate for
different reasons.
▪ Some research problems are so complex
that no one person could have all of the
knowledge, skills, and resources to solve the
problem.
▪ Scientists might conduct research for an
industry in exchange for equipment and the
time to do the research.
1.3
71. Collaboration isn’t always a smooth process.
You will likely work on a team in the
laboratory. If so, you may face some
challenges. But you can also experience the
benefits of collaboration.
1.3
72. Communication
Scientists communicate
face to face, by e-mail, by
phone, and at international
conferences.
Scientists publish their
results in scientific journals.
Articles are published only
after being reviewed by
experts in the author’s field.
1.3
73.
74.
75. Shape-sorter toys
fascinate young
children. Typically, the
children try placing a
shape in different holes
until they find the right
one. The trial-and-error
approach is one method
of problem solving, but
it is usually not the best
one.
1.4
76. Skills Used in Solving Problems
What is a general approach to solving a problem?
1.4
79. Solving Numeric Problems
What are the three steps for solving numeric
problems?
1.4
80. The steps for solving a numeric word problem
are analyze, calculate, and evaluate.
1.4
81. Analyze
To solve a word problem, you must first
determine where you are starting from
(identify what is known) and where you
are going (identify the unknown).
After you identify the known and the
unknown, you need to make a plan for
getting from the known to the
unknown.
1.4
82. Calculate
If you make an effective plan, doing the
calculations is usually the easiest part of the
process.
Evaluate
Check that your answer is reasonable and
makes sense. Check that it has the correct
unit and the correct number of significant
figures.
1.4
99. Bamboo has properties
that make it a good choice
for use in chopsticks. It has
no noticeable odor or
taste. It is hard, yet easy to
split, and it is heat
resistant. You will learn
how properties can be
used to classify and
identify matter.
2.1
101. Properties used to describe
matter can be classified as
extensive or intensive.
2.1
102. Extensive Properties
The mass of an object is a measure of the
amount of matter the object contains.
The volume of an object is a measure of the
space occupied by the object.
An extensive property is a property that
depends on the amount of matter in a
sample.
2.1
103. Intensive Properties
▪ An intensive property is a
property that depends on
the type of matter in a
sample, not the amount of
matter. The hardness of a
bowling ball is an example
of an intensive property.
2.1
105. Matter that has a uniform and definite
composition is called a substance. These
kettles are mainly copper. Copper is an
example of a substance.
2.1
106. ▪ This sculpture of a falcon is
made of gold. Gold is an
example of a substance.
2.1
107. Every sample of a given substance has
identical intensive properties because every
sample has the same composition.
▪
2.1
108. ▪A physical property is a quality or
condition of a substance that can be
observed or measured without
changing the substance’s
composition.
▪Hardness, color, conductivity, and
malleability are examples of physical
properties.
2.1
117. During a physical change,
some properties of a material
change, but the composition
of the material does not
change.
As gallium melts in a person’s
hand, the shape of the
sample changes, but the
composition of the material
does not change.
2.1
118. Physical changes can be classified as
reversible or irreversible.
▪ All physical changes that involve a
change from one state to another are
reversible.
▪ Cutting hair, filing nails, and cracking an
egg are examples of irreversible physical
changes.
2.1
119.
120. Panning is one way to separate
gold from a mixture of gold and
materials such as sand or gravel.
A pan containing the mixture is
place underwater and shaken
vigorously from left to right. You
will learn how to classify and
separate mixtures.
2.2
122. ▪ A mixture is a physical blend of two or more
components.
▪ A salad bar provides a range of items. Customers
choose how much of each item to use in their salads.
Each salad has a different composition.
2.2
123. Based on the distribution of their
components, mixtures can be classified
as heterogeneous mixtures or as
homogeneous mixtures.
2.2
125. Homogeneous Mixtures
▪A mixture in which the composition is
uniform throughout is a homogeneous
mixture.
▪Another name for a homogeneous
mixture is a solution.
2.2
126. 2.2
▪The term phase is used to
describe any part of a sample
with uniform composition and
properties.
▪A homogenous mixture consists
of a single phase.
▪A heterogeneous mixture consists
of two or more phases.
127. 2.2
▪When oil and vinegar are
mixed they form layers,
or phases. The oil phase
floats on the water
phase.
134. Filtration
▪ The process that separates a solid from the liquid in a
heterogeneous mixture is called filtration.
▪ A colander is used to separate pasta from the water in
which it was cooked. This process is a type of filtration.
2.2
135. Distillation
▪ During a distillation, a liquid is boiled to produce a vapor
that is then condensed into a liquid.
2.2
136.
137. Take two pounds of sugar, two
cups of boiling water, and one
quarter teaspoon of cream of
tartar. Add food coloring and you
have the sticky, sweet concoction
known as cotton candy. You will
learn how substances are classified
as elements or compounds.
2.3
139. An element is the simplest form of
matter that has a unique set of
properties.
A compound is a substance that
contains two or more elements
chemically combined in a fixed
proportion.
140. Compounds can be broken down into simpler
substances by chemical means, but elements
cannot.
141. Breaking Down Compounds
A chemical change is a
change that produces matter
with a different composition
than the original matter.
When table sugar is heated, it
goes through a series of
chemical changes.
142. ▪ The final products of these chemical changes are solid
carbon and water vapor. The following diagram
summarizes the process.
143. Properties of Compounds
▪In general, the properties of compounds
are quite different from those of their
component elements.
▪When the elements sodium and chlorine
combine chemically to form sodium
chloride, there is a change in composition
and a change in properties.
145. Sodium is stored
under oil to keep it
from reacting with
oxygen or water
vapor in the air.
Sodium vapor
produces the light
in some street
lamps.
155. Chemists use chemical symbols to represent
elements, and chemical formulas to represent
compounds.
These chemical symbols were used in earlier
centuries.
2.3
156. ▪ Each element is represented by a one or two-letter
chemical symbol.
2.3
157.
158. SC1. Students will analyze the nature of
matter and its classifications.
159. SC 1 b) Identify substances based on chemical
and physical properties.
160. Iron is abundant, easy to shape
when heated, and relatively
strong, especially when mixed
with carbon in steel. Over time,
objects made of iron will rust if
they are left exposed to air.
You will learn to recognize
chemical changes and to
distinguish them from physical
changes.
162. The ability of a substance to undergo a
specific chemical change is called a chemical
property.
Chemical properties can be used to identify a
substance. But chemical properties can be
observed only when a substance undergoes a
chemical change.
163. During a chemical change, the
composition of matter always changes.
Recall that during a physical change, the
composition of matter never changes.
164. ▪ A magnet separates iron from sulfur. This is an example
of a physical change.
165. ▪ A mixture of iron and sulfur is heated. The iron and sulfur
react and form iron sulfide. This is an example of a
chemical change.
166. A chemical change is also called a chemical
reaction.
One or more substances change into one or
more new substances during a chemical
reaction.
A substance present at the start of the
reaction is a reactant.
A substance produced in the reaction is a
product.
168. Possible clues to chemical change
include:
a transfer of energy
a change in color
the production of a gas
the formation of a precipitate.
169. ▪ A precipitate is a solid that forms and settles out of a
liquid mixture.
▪ Clues to chemical changes have practical applications.
170. Conservation of Mass
How are the mass of the
reactants and the mass of
the products of a chemical
reaction related?
172. The law of conservation of mass states that in any
physical change or chemical reaction, mass is
conserved.
The conservation of mass is easily observed when a
change occurs in a closed container.
180. SC3. Students will use the modern atomic
theory to explain the characteristics of
atoms.
181. SC3 a) Discriminate between the relative size,
charge, and position of protons, neutrons,
and electrons in the atom.
182. SC3 c) Explain the relationship of the proton
number to the element’s identity.
183. SC1 a) Relate the role of nuclear fusion in
producing essentially all elements heavier
than hydrogen.
Notas del editor
Chemical changes that occur in leaves can cause brilliant displays of color.
Chemists study structures and processes in the human body. Inferring Does a bone contain mainly organic or inorganic chemicals?
Chemists study structures and processes in the human body. Inferring Does a bone contain mainly organic or inorganic chemicals?
Chemists study structures and processes in the human body. Inferring Does a bone contain mainly organic or inorganic chemicals?
Chemists study structures and processes in the human body. Inferring Does a bone contain mainly organic or inorganic chemicals?
Chemists study structures and processes in the human body. Inferring Does a bone contain mainly organic or inorganic chemicals?
Long, thin nylon fibers are woven into the fabric used in this backpack. Other objects that can be made from nylon are jackets, fishing lines, toothbrush bristles, and ropes.
Even after the invention of the digital camera, many photographers still work with film. They use chemical processes to develop film and produce prints in a darkroom. Inferring Why isn’t film developed under natural light conditions?
By registering to vote, these citizens in Chicago, Illinois, can have a say in the decisions made by their government. Those decisions include how much money to provide for scientific research.
This is a magnified view of hook-and-loop tape. Color was added to the photo to highlight the structures. Classifying Does the photograph show a macroscopic or a microscopic view of the tape? Explain.
This insulation is light enough to float on soap bubbles yet is very effective at preventing heat transfer.
Oil from soybeans can be used in a substitute for regular diesel fuel. Predicting The supply of diesel fuel is limited. Is the supply of soybeans limited?
The discovery of the structure of DNA led to the development of biotechnology. This computer graphics model shows a small segment of DNA.
The discovery of the structure of DNA led to the development of biotechnology. The conditions in a bioreactor are controlled so that the bacteria produce as much of the product as possible.
If genes from this jellyfish (Aequaria victoria) are transferred to a potato plant, the plant glows when it needs to be watered. Predicting How does the modified plant help a farmer to conserve water?
In the plastic tube wrapped around the tomato stem, there is a chemical that attracts male pinworm moths. This process reduces the rate of mating between female and male moths, and the number of pinworms produced.
This poster was used to warn people about the danger to children from lead-based paint.
This graph shows data on children in the United States with higher than acceptable levels of lead in their blood. INTERPRETING GRAPHS a. Analyzing Data What percent of children had elevated lead levels in the 1970s? b. Calculating If a percentage point equals 200,000 children, how many children had elevated lead levels in 2000? c. Drawing Conclusions Explain the dramatic drop in the percentage of children affected by lead poisoning between 1980 and 1988.
With help from NASA, chemists study matter from other bodies in the solar system. Apollo astronauts brought rocks from the moon back to Earth.
With help from NASA, chemists study matter from other bodies in the solar system. This artist’s drawing shows the robotic vehicle Opportunity on the surface of Mars.
A bowl-shaped mortar and a club-shaped pestle are used to grind or crush materials such as herbs, spices, and paint pigments. The mortar and pestle in the photograph is made of porcelain, which is a hard material.
This reconstruction of Lavoisier’s laboratory is in a museum in Paris, France. Interpreting Photographs What objects do you recognize that are similar to objects that you use in the laboratory?
Observation is an essential step in the scientific method.
The steps in the scientific method do not have to occur in the order shown. Comparing and Contrasting How are a hypothesis and a theory similar? How are they different?
Working in a group can be challenging, but it can also be rewarding. Applying Concepts What steps in the scientific method are these students using?
Communication between scientists can occur face to face. These chemists are using the model projected on the screen to discuss the merits of a new medicine.
A shopper must make many decision. Some of those decisions are based on data, like the information on a food label.
This flowchart summarizes the steps for solving a numeric problem. Predicting In which step do you make a plan for getting from what is known to what is unknown?
Refer to this map of Indianapolis, Indiana, while you do Sample Problem 1.1. Interpreting Diagrams In the section of downtown bounded by north, east, south, and west streets, the main streets and avenues are named for states. What are the five exceptions to this pattern?
This flowchart shows the two steps used for solving a conceptual problem. Comparing and Contrasting With a conceptual problem, why is the second step called Solve rather than Calculate?
Caption
Caption
This bowling ball and candlepin are used in a game played mainly in New England
The copper kettles are about 150 years old.
This gold falcon standard from Egypt is about 3000 years old. Analyzing Data Which of the properties listed in Table 2.1 could not be used to distinguish copper from gold?
This gold falcon standard from Egypt is about 3000 years old. Analyzing Data Which of the properties listed in Table 2.1 could not be used to distinguish copper from gold?
The arrangement of particles is different in solids, liquids, and gases. In a solid, the particles are packed closely together in a rigid arrangement.
The arrangement of particles is different in solids, liquids, and gases. In a liquid, the particles are close together, but they are free to flow past one another.
The arrangement of particles is different in solids, liquids, and gases. In a gas, the particles are relatively far apart and can move freely. Relating Cause and Effect Use the arrangements of their particles to explain the general shape and volume of solids and gases.
The silvery substance in the photograph is gallium, which has a melting point of 30°C. Inferring What can you infer about the temperature of the hand holding the gallium?
You can choose the amount of each item you select from a salad bar. So your salad is unlikely to have the same composition as other salads containing the same items.
Olive oil and vinegar are homogeneous mixtures. The substances in these mixtures are evenly distributed. When olive oil is mixed with vinegar, they form a heterogeneous mixture with two distinct phases.
A colander is used to separate pasta from the water in which it was cooked. This process is a type of filtration.
A distillation can be used to remove impurities from water. As liquid water changes into water vapor, substances dissolved in the water are left behind in the distillation flask. Inferring What can you infer about the boiling points of substances dissolved in the impure water?
When table sugar is heated, it goes through a series of chemical changes. The final products of these changes are solid carbon and water vapor.
Compounds and the elements from which they form have different properties. Observing Based on the photographs, describe two physical properties of sodium and two of chlorine.
Compounds and the elements from which they form have different properties. Observing Based on the photographs, describe two physical properties of sodium and two of chlorine.
Compounds and the elements from which they form have different properties. Observing Based on the photographs, describe two physical properties of sodium and two of chlorine.
The flow chart summarizes the process for classifying matter. Any sample of matter is either an element, a compound, or a mixture. Interpreting Diagrams What is the key difference between a substance and a solution?
The symbols used to represent elements have changed over time. Alchemists and the English chemist John Dalton (1766–1844) both used drawings to represent chemical elements. Today, elements are represented by one- or two-letter symbols.
A mixture of iron filings and sulfur can be changed. a) A magnet separates the iron from the sulfur. b) Heat combines iron and sulfur in a compound. Classifying Which change is a chemical change? Explain.
A mixture of iron filings and sulfur can be changed. a) A magnet separates the iron from the sulfur. b) Heat combines iron and sulfur in a compound. Classifying Which change is a chemical change? Explain.
Clues to chemical change often have practical applications. a) Bubbles of carbon dioxide gas form when a geologist puts acid on a rock that contains compounds called carbonates. b) When a test strip is dipped in urine, the color change is used to estimate the level of the sugar glucose in urine. c) One step in the production of cheese is a reaction that causes milk to separate into solid curds and liquid whey.
When the liquids in photograph A are mixed, they react. None of the products are gases. Analyzing Data How do you know that a reaction took place and that mass was conserved during the reaction?