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Canterbury Tales
Geoffrey Chaucer 1340-1400
(?)

  Father of English
   language
  Middle class, well-
   educated (father was
   wine merchant)
  Served at court
  Diplomatic missions to
   France, Spain, Italy
  Catholic who perceived
   abuses within Church
   and exposed them
Church in England
 Pope collecting heavier & heavier taxes from England
 Political maneuvering among bishops against Roman control
 As English kings gained power, they began to resist power of
  church
 English church full of ignorant priests & corrupt officials
    simony, indulgences, abuse of church courts & positions
 Common person unschooled & illiterate: couldn’t dispute
  religious leaders
 John Wycliffe (1328-84) English theologian and religious
  reformer who rejected biblical basis of papal power and
  disputed doctrine of the transubstantiation; translated first
  English Bible from Latin Vulgate
Languages of Engand
 Old English: form of German spoken by
  Saxons before Norman Conquest

 Middle English: influx of French; Latinization

 Native tongue, Latin and French spoken
Map
Pilgrim’s Route
Canterbury
The Place: Canterbury
 connected 3 trading ports to London; Julius Caesar
  invaded in 43 A.D.
 Roman civilization with theatres, baths, temples, etc.
  until invasion of Angles, Saxons, Jutes in 5th/6th
  century
 Canterbury converted to Christianity in 597 by Saint
  Augustine
 Monastery, today’s Cathedral, founded in 602 by St.
  Augustine; Canterbury as mother of British Christianity
 Surrendered at Battle of Hastings (1066) to William
  the Conqueror; Cathedral destroyed by fire in 1067;
 fortified with new walls, gates, stone keep
St. Augustine
Thomas a Beckett
           Thomas Becket
            archbishop; struggled
            for church’s
            independence with
            King Henry II; exiled to
            France for 6 years;
            returned & angered
            King
           “Not one will deliver me
            from this low-born
            priest.” 4 knights
            murdered him
            December 29, 1170, in
            Cathedral, spilling his
            brains on floor;
            canonized 3 years
            later and shrine
            completed in 1220
Canterbury Cathedral
Canterbury Cathedral
The Tales
 work existed in fragments at Chaucer’s death
    planned for each of 30 to tell 2 tales/going & 2
     tales/returning (120 stories in original framework)?
    we have only one story each from 24 pilgrims
    written between 1357-1400
 each tale deals with one of Chaucer’s themes
 richest portrayal of religious men & women in earthly
  scene (Dante: portrayal of life after death)
 detached delight of Chaucer
 regularly rhyming couplets
 Chaucer customarily writes a five-stress, ten-syllable
  line, alternating unstressed and stressed syllables (what
  would later be called iambic pentameter):
 told in social order (except for Miller)
A pageant of 14th Century life

 Pilgrims span the whole range of the unofficial
  middle class. Groups represented are:
   Upper class (Knight, Squire, church people);
   Learned professions (Physician, Man of Law);
   Landed gentry (Franklin);
   Medieval manor people (Miller, Reeve);
   Mercantile class (Shipman, Merchant);
   Guildsmen (Haberdasher, Dyer, etc.);
   Laborer (Plowman).
Structure & Style
 Tales have different tones, attitudes, poetic style:
    Marian miracle tale for Prioress
    Sermonic structure for Pardoner’s tale
    Supernatural, folkloric tale for Wife of Bath
 Point of View
    Chaucer enables reader to see story, person telling
     story, point behind story--all at once
    points of view represent different outlooks, morals
 Sources: virtually every type of medieval writing
    Fabliaux, mini-epics, romances, fables, exempla,
     lays, anecdotes, a sermon, religious allegories
Chaucer’s Attitude
 Five ideals, Chaucer treats seriously (Knight,
  Squire, Clerk, Parson, Plowman);
 Some he pokes fun at (Prioress, Monk, Wife of
  Bath);
 Some is quiet about; short portraits with now
  personal view coming through (Prioress's
  entourage);
 Some not very good; Chaucer is just a little
  negative (Shipman, Manciple);
 Hardened sinners, all of them religious officials
  (Friar, Pardoner, Summoner)
General Prologue
 Introduction of pilgrims
    Catholics (150 years before Henry VIII broke from
      Rome)
    Reasons for pilgrimage?
    Common to travel together: protection
    April in Southwark at Tabbard Inn, owner Harry Bailey
    Bailey suggests they pass time by taking turns telling
      stories; best will win prize
 Brief portraits of pilgrims
 Attitude of Chaucer the Pilgrim
 Three estates and rising middle class represented
7 Church Officials
   Prioress
      sentimental depiction, proud in petty
        way
   Monk
      hedonistic, hunter, inept but not
        malicious
   Friar
      seducer, sells forgiveness
   Parson and Plowman
      ideal religious men
      Parson one of 2 heroes in tales
   Summoner
      blackmailed, bribed on way to
        success; ugly, stupid thug
   Pardoner
      perfect fraud: charming, clever,
        corrupt; biggest hypocrite
      secular church official fighting
        w/church official (Friar)
Discussion
 "The General Prologue" presents a vivid
 cross-section of the people who composed
 the various social classes of 14th Century
 England. Organize the characters depicted
 in the "Prologue" based on social position
 first then on their morality. What seems to
 be Chaucer's opinion of the Clergy? Of the
 other classes? Which characters does
 Chaucer seem to esteem or criticize? What
 attributes do these characters have that
 Chaucer appears to value or not?
The Pilgrims
Knight              The Miller
Squire              The Manciple
Prioress            The Reeve
Monk                The Summoner
Friar               The Pardoner
Merchant            The Host
Clerk               Chaucer the Pilgrin
The Lawyer
The Franklin
The Cook
The Physician
The Wife of Bath
The Parson
The Plowman
The Prioress’s Tale

 Cult of the Virgin
 Marian Miracle tale
 Anti-Semitic legends
 Hugh of Lincoln,
  murdered in 1255
 Relation of Teller to
  Tale: who is anti-
  semitic? The
  Prioress? Chaucer?
Discussion

 Is the Prioress’s Tale anti-semitic?
 Does Chaucer approve or condemn it?
 Chaucer? What type of religiousity is
 expressed in the tale? Does the
 description of her seem to match her
 tale? What is the relation between teller
 and tale?
The Pardoner’s Tale

           Pardoner: a layman who sells
            pardons or indulgences,
            certificates from the pope by
            which people hoped to gain a
            share in the merits of the
            saints and escape more
            lightly from the pains of
            Purgatory after they die

           Eunuch--The Pardoner is
            spiritually sterile, a more
            significant fact than being
            physically sterile.
The Pardoner’s Tale
 The tale is an incomplete sermon. A medieval
  sermon should contain six parts:
  1.Statement of theme or text;
  2.Protheme, introduced directly from the four gospels;
  3.Dilatation, expansion of the Biblical text;
  4.Exemplum, a story illustrating the point;
  5.Peroration, the application or eloquent haranguing;
  6.Benediction, the closing formula.
 This tale contains only parts 1, 4, 5, and 6.
Discussion

 How does the Pardoner characterize
 himself in the Prologue to his tale?
 What text does he always preach on?
 Do you see irony in this? What is the
 relation between teller and tale?
Wife of Bath
        Experience vs
         Authority
        The nature of
         Woman
        Role of man and
         women in marriage:
         who is in top?
        What do women
         want?
        Is this tale anti-
         feminist?
Discussion
 Prologue
 Why does she open her “Prologue by claiming that
   experience is a better guide to truth than authority? Do
   you think this helps in her argument on marriage and in
   her general defense? Are her arguments problematic?
   Does the Wife completely reject antifeminist attitudes
   toward women, or does she provide proof that these
   “old books” are correct in what they assume about
   women? Do you believe that she is an object of satire
   in her “Prologue” or an instrument of satire---or
   somehow both at the same time?
 Tale
 What is the relationship between teller and tale? Is it an
   appropriate tale for her to tell?
Chaucer’s Retraction

 Chaucer is retracting what works? Is he
  sincere?

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Chaucer and canterbury f 2009

  • 2. Geoffrey Chaucer 1340-1400 (?)  Father of English language  Middle class, well- educated (father was wine merchant)  Served at court  Diplomatic missions to France, Spain, Italy  Catholic who perceived abuses within Church and exposed them
  • 3. Church in England  Pope collecting heavier & heavier taxes from England  Political maneuvering among bishops against Roman control  As English kings gained power, they began to resist power of church  English church full of ignorant priests & corrupt officials  simony, indulgences, abuse of church courts & positions  Common person unschooled & illiterate: couldn’t dispute religious leaders  John Wycliffe (1328-84) English theologian and religious reformer who rejected biblical basis of papal power and disputed doctrine of the transubstantiation; translated first English Bible from Latin Vulgate
  • 4. Languages of Engand  Old English: form of German spoken by Saxons before Norman Conquest  Middle English: influx of French; Latinization  Native tongue, Latin and French spoken
  • 5. Map
  • 8. The Place: Canterbury  connected 3 trading ports to London; Julius Caesar invaded in 43 A.D.  Roman civilization with theatres, baths, temples, etc. until invasion of Angles, Saxons, Jutes in 5th/6th century  Canterbury converted to Christianity in 597 by Saint Augustine  Monastery, today’s Cathedral, founded in 602 by St. Augustine; Canterbury as mother of British Christianity  Surrendered at Battle of Hastings (1066) to William the Conqueror; Cathedral destroyed by fire in 1067;  fortified with new walls, gates, stone keep
  • 10. Thomas a Beckett  Thomas Becket archbishop; struggled for church’s independence with King Henry II; exiled to France for 6 years; returned & angered King  “Not one will deliver me from this low-born priest.” 4 knights murdered him December 29, 1170, in Cathedral, spilling his brains on floor; canonized 3 years later and shrine completed in 1220
  • 13. The Tales  work existed in fragments at Chaucer’s death  planned for each of 30 to tell 2 tales/going & 2 tales/returning (120 stories in original framework)?  we have only one story each from 24 pilgrims  written between 1357-1400  each tale deals with one of Chaucer’s themes  richest portrayal of religious men & women in earthly scene (Dante: portrayal of life after death)  detached delight of Chaucer  regularly rhyming couplets  Chaucer customarily writes a five-stress, ten-syllable line, alternating unstressed and stressed syllables (what would later be called iambic pentameter):  told in social order (except for Miller)
  • 14. A pageant of 14th Century life  Pilgrims span the whole range of the unofficial middle class. Groups represented are:  Upper class (Knight, Squire, church people);  Learned professions (Physician, Man of Law);  Landed gentry (Franklin);  Medieval manor people (Miller, Reeve);  Mercantile class (Shipman, Merchant);  Guildsmen (Haberdasher, Dyer, etc.);  Laborer (Plowman).
  • 15. Structure & Style  Tales have different tones, attitudes, poetic style:  Marian miracle tale for Prioress  Sermonic structure for Pardoner’s tale  Supernatural, folkloric tale for Wife of Bath  Point of View  Chaucer enables reader to see story, person telling story, point behind story--all at once  points of view represent different outlooks, morals  Sources: virtually every type of medieval writing  Fabliaux, mini-epics, romances, fables, exempla, lays, anecdotes, a sermon, religious allegories
  • 16. Chaucer’s Attitude  Five ideals, Chaucer treats seriously (Knight, Squire, Clerk, Parson, Plowman);  Some he pokes fun at (Prioress, Monk, Wife of Bath);  Some is quiet about; short portraits with now personal view coming through (Prioress's entourage);  Some not very good; Chaucer is just a little negative (Shipman, Manciple);  Hardened sinners, all of them religious officials (Friar, Pardoner, Summoner)
  • 17. General Prologue  Introduction of pilgrims  Catholics (150 years before Henry VIII broke from Rome)  Reasons for pilgrimage?  Common to travel together: protection  April in Southwark at Tabbard Inn, owner Harry Bailey  Bailey suggests they pass time by taking turns telling stories; best will win prize  Brief portraits of pilgrims  Attitude of Chaucer the Pilgrim  Three estates and rising middle class represented
  • 18. 7 Church Officials  Prioress  sentimental depiction, proud in petty way  Monk  hedonistic, hunter, inept but not malicious  Friar  seducer, sells forgiveness  Parson and Plowman  ideal religious men  Parson one of 2 heroes in tales  Summoner  blackmailed, bribed on way to success; ugly, stupid thug  Pardoner  perfect fraud: charming, clever, corrupt; biggest hypocrite  secular church official fighting w/church official (Friar)
  • 19. Discussion "The General Prologue" presents a vivid cross-section of the people who composed the various social classes of 14th Century England. Organize the characters depicted in the "Prologue" based on social position first then on their morality. What seems to be Chaucer's opinion of the Clergy? Of the other classes? Which characters does Chaucer seem to esteem or criticize? What attributes do these characters have that Chaucer appears to value or not?
  • 20. The Pilgrims Knight The Miller Squire The Manciple Prioress The Reeve Monk The Summoner Friar The Pardoner Merchant The Host Clerk Chaucer the Pilgrin The Lawyer The Franklin The Cook The Physician The Wife of Bath The Parson The Plowman
  • 21. The Prioress’s Tale  Cult of the Virgin  Marian Miracle tale  Anti-Semitic legends  Hugh of Lincoln, murdered in 1255  Relation of Teller to Tale: who is anti- semitic? The Prioress? Chaucer?
  • 22. Discussion Is the Prioress’s Tale anti-semitic? Does Chaucer approve or condemn it? Chaucer? What type of religiousity is expressed in the tale? Does the description of her seem to match her tale? What is the relation between teller and tale?
  • 23. The Pardoner’s Tale  Pardoner: a layman who sells pardons or indulgences, certificates from the pope by which people hoped to gain a share in the merits of the saints and escape more lightly from the pains of Purgatory after they die  Eunuch--The Pardoner is spiritually sterile, a more significant fact than being physically sterile.
  • 24. The Pardoner’s Tale  The tale is an incomplete sermon. A medieval sermon should contain six parts: 1.Statement of theme or text; 2.Protheme, introduced directly from the four gospels; 3.Dilatation, expansion of the Biblical text; 4.Exemplum, a story illustrating the point; 5.Peroration, the application or eloquent haranguing; 6.Benediction, the closing formula.  This tale contains only parts 1, 4, 5, and 6.
  • 25. Discussion How does the Pardoner characterize himself in the Prologue to his tale? What text does he always preach on? Do you see irony in this? What is the relation between teller and tale?
  • 26. Wife of Bath  Experience vs Authority  The nature of Woman  Role of man and women in marriage: who is in top?  What do women want?  Is this tale anti- feminist?
  • 27. Discussion Prologue Why does she open her “Prologue by claiming that experience is a better guide to truth than authority? Do you think this helps in her argument on marriage and in her general defense? Are her arguments problematic? Does the Wife completely reject antifeminist attitudes toward women, or does she provide proof that these “old books” are correct in what they assume about women? Do you believe that she is an object of satire in her “Prologue” or an instrument of satire---or somehow both at the same time? Tale What is the relationship between teller and tale? Is it an appropriate tale for her to tell?
  • 28. Chaucer’s Retraction Chaucer is retracting what works? Is he sincere?

Notas del editor

  1. King Henry II in June of 1169, "with the view of consolidating his power in England, had caused his eldest son to be crowned king, not merely as his succsessor but as his colleague . . . In the absence of the Archbishop of Canterbury [Thomas, who was on the continent] the ceremony was performed by . . .the Archbishop of York. assisted by Gilbert Foliot and Jocelyn the Lombard, Bishops of London and Salisbury. The instant this intelligence was communicated to Becket, a new blow seemed to be struck at his rights . . . The inalienable right of crowning the sovereigns of England, from the time of Augustine downwards, inherent in the See of Canterbury. had been infringed; and with his usual ardor be procured from the Pope letters against the three prelates who had taken part in the act, probably with the authority of the Pope himself. These letters consisted of a suspension of the Archbishop of York and a revival of a former excommunication of the Bishops of London and Salisbury. . . The three prelates of York, London, and Salisbury, having left England as soon as they heard the Archbishop was immovable, arrived in France a few days before Christmas . . . All manner of rumors aboutr Becket's proceedings had reached the ears of Henry and he besought the advice of the three prelates. The Archbishop of York answered cautiously, "Ask council from your barons abd knights. It is not for us to say what must be done." A pause ensued; and the oit was added, -- whether by Roger [Archbishop of York] or by someone else does not clearly appear, -- :As long as Thomas lives, you will have neither good days, nor peaceful kingdom nor quiet life." The words goaded the king into . . . [a violent rage]: "A fellow that has eaten my bread has lifted up his heel against me ; a fellow that came to court on a lame horse, with a cloak for a saddle, sits without hindrance on the throne itself! What sluggard wretches!" He burst forth again and again, "what cowards have I brought up in my court, who care nothing for their allegiance to their master! Not one will deliver me from this low-born priest!' and with these fatal words he rushed out of the room." (Arthur P. Stanley, Historical Memorials of Canterbury, 1889, p. 71-72, 79-80.)[Widener BR 5169 62.12] There were four knights in this land, of cursed living, and for to have a reward and a thank of the king of England, they made an oath upon the holy relic that with one consent they should slay and destroy holy Thomas; one was called Raynold Beyrson, another William Trasy, the third Sir Richard Bryton, the fourth Sir Hew Morvile. So upon Childermass day in Christmas week, almost at night, these four knights came to Canterbury into the hall of the Bishop's Palace. Then Sir Reynold Beyrson, for he was the most cursed of kind, without any saluting reverence, he said thus unto Saint Thomas: "The King, that is beyond the sea, sent us to thee, commanding and bidding that thou absolve all the bishops that thou hast made acursed." "Sirs," quod Saint Thomas, "I do you to know they be acursed by authority and power of our holy father the Pope, but in no wise by me, and I may not assoil them that our holy father the Pope hath acursed without authority of him." "Well," quod Reynolde, "then we see thou will not do the king's commandments. By God thou shalt die!" Then cried the other knights, "Slay! Slay!" And they went out of the hall and took their counsel, and concluded for to slay him. So they armed them all in haste, and in the meantime priests and clerks and others that were with him drew holy Thomas into the church and locked the door and barred it fast to them. But when Saint Thomas perceived that the four knights were locked out and wanted to come in, and could not, he went to the door and unbarred it. Then he took a knight by the hand and said, "It is not seemly for to make Holy Church as a castle or place of defense. Come in, my children, in God's name." Then it was so dark that they could not well see nor know Saint Thomas from another man, but cried and said "Ubi est proditor?" -- "Where is this traitor?" "Nay," quod Saint Thomas, "no traitor but Archbishop is here. I come not to flee but to take my death for God's sake and Holy Church's right." Then Sir Robert Beryson struck at him and smote off half his crown. Then another knight struck in the same place and struck off the skull. Then fell down holy Thomas on his knees and said thus -- "Commendo deo, beato Marie et sancto Dionisio meipsum et ecclesia causum." "I commend to God, to our lady Saint Mary, and to Seint Denis my cause and the right of Holy Church." And so he died. Then the third knight struck at him, and half the stroke fell upon the arm of a clerk who held up Saint Thomas, and so down onto Saint Thomas' hand. Then the fourth knight smote his sword upon the pavement and broke the point of his sword, and said "He is dead. Go we hence!" But when they were at the door on their way out, one of them, Robert Broke, went again and set his foot on his neck, and with his sword scattered the brains on the pavement. Thus took holy Thomas of Canterbury his death full meekly, for right of Holy Church and the welfare of England. (Trans. from the sermon quoted by Owst in Literature and Pulpit in Medieval England, p. 132) Thomas' blood was collected, mixed with water, and effected marvelous cures of physical ailments and disabilities. The almost immediate proof of his sainthood was the discovery by the monks who prepared his body for burial that under his rich pontifical garments he wore a haircloth that completely encased his body. When it was removed it was found to be teeming with "innumerable vermin with which the haircloth abounded; boiling over with them, as one account describes it, like water in a simmering caldron." (Stanley, Memorials, p. 116. Arnold, a monk, who was goldsmith to the monastery, was sent back, with others, to the transept to collect in a basin any vestiges of the blood asnd brains, now become so precious; and benches were placed across the spot to prevent its being desecrated by the footsteps of the crowd. This perhaps was the moment when the great ardor or the citizens first began for washing their hands and eyes with the blood. One instance of its application gave rise to a practice which became the distinguishing characteristic of all the subsequent pilgrimages to the shrine. A citizen of Canterbury dipped a corner of his shirt in the blood, went home, and gave it, mixed with water, to his wife, who was paralytic, and who was said to have been cured. This suggested the notion of mixing the blood with water, which, endlessly diluted, was kept in innumerable vials, to be distributed to the pilgrims; and thus, as the palm was a sign of a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and a scallop-shell of the pilgrimage to Compostela, so a leaden vial or bottle suspended from the neck became the mark of a pilgrimage to Canterbury. (Stanley, Memorials, p. 114).
  2. Fabliaux -- cross between a dirty joke and a comic short story. Glossary of Literary Terms A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | Z A Abstract: Used as a noun, the term refers to a short summary or outline of a longer work. As an adjective applied to writing or literary works, abstract refers to words or phrases that name things not knowable through the five senses. Examples of abstracts include the Cliffs Notes summaries of major literary works. Examples of abstract terms or concepts include "idea," "guilt" "honesty," and "loyalty." (Compare with Concrete .) Absurd, Theater of the: See Theater of the Absurd Absurdism: See Theater of the Absurd Accent: The emphasis or stress placed on a syllable in poetry . Traditional poetry commonly uses patterns of accented and unaccented syllables (known as feet) that create distinct rhythms. Much modern poetry uses less formal arrangements that create a sense of freedom and spontaneity. The following line from William Shakespeare's Hamlet: "To be or not to be: that is the question" has five accents, on the words "be," "not," "be," and "that," and the first syllable of "question." (See also Cadence , Foot , Measure , Meter , poem , Poetics , Poetry , Scansion , Sprung Rhythm , Verse , and Versification .) Act: A major section of a play . Acts are divided into varying numbers of shorter scenes. From ancient times to the nineteenth century plays were generally constructed of five acts, but modern works typically consist of one, two, or three acts. Examples of five-act plays include the works of Sophocles and Shakespeare, while the plays of Arthur Miller commonly have a three-act structure. (Compare with Scene .) (See also drama .) Acto: A one- act Chicano theater piece developed out of collective improvisation. Actos were performed by members of Luis Valdez's Teatro Campesino in California during the mid-1960s. Aestheticism: A literary and artistic movement of the nineteenth century. Followers of the movement believed that art should not be mixed with social, political, or moral teaching. The statement "art for art's sake" is a good summary of aestheticism. The movement had its roots in France, but it gained widespread importance in England in the last half of the nineteenth century, where it helped change the Victorian practice of including moral lessons in literature . Oscar Wilde is one of the best-known "aesthetes" of the late nineteenth century. (See also Decadents .) Affective Fallacy: (Also known as Sympathetic Fallacy.) An error in judging the merits or faults of a work of literature . The "error" results from stressing the importance of the work's effect upon the reader — that is, how it makes a reader "feel" emotionally, what it does as a literary work — instead of stressing its inner qualities as a created object, or what it "is." The affective fallacy is evident in Aristotle's precept from his Poeticsthat the purpose of tragedy is to evoke "fear and pity" in its spectators. Age of Johnson: (Also known as Age of Sensibility). The period in English literature between 1750 and 1798, named after the most prominent literary figure of the age, Samuel Johnson. Works written during this time are noted for their emphasis on "sensibility," or emotional quality. These works formed a transition between the rational works of the Age of Reason, or Neoclassical period, and the emphasis on individual feelings and responses of the Romantic period. Significant writers during the Age of Johnson included the novelists Ann Radcliffe and Henry Mackenzie, dramatists Richard Sheridan and Oliver Goldsmith, and poet s William Collins and Thomas Gray. (Compare with Neoclassicism and romanticism .) Age of Reason: See Neoclassicism Age of Sensibility: See Age of Johnson Agrarians: A group of Southern American writers of the 1930s and 1940s who fostered an economic and cultural program for the South based on agriculture, in opposition to the industrial society of the North. The term can refer to any group that promotes the value of farm life and agricultural society. Members of the original Agrarians included John Crowe Ransom, Allen Tate, and Robert Penn Warren. Alexandrine Meter: See Meter Allegory: A narrative technique in which character s representing things or abstract ideas are used to convey a message or teach a lesson. Allegory is typically used to teach moral, ethical, or religious lessons but is sometimes used for satiric or political purposes. Examples of allegorical works include Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene and John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress. (See also Exemplum and Fable .) Alliteration: A poetic device where the first consonant sounds or any vowel sounds in words or syllables are repeated. The following description of the Green Knight from the anonymous Sir Gawain and the Green Knight gives an example of alliteration: And in guise all of green, the gear and the man: A coat cut close, that clung to his sides An a mantle to match, made with a lining Of furs cut and fitted — the fabric was noble.... (Compare with Assonance and rhyme .) (See also poem , Poetics , Poetry , Verse , and Versification .) Allusion: A reference to a familiar literary or historical person or event, used to make an idea more easily understood. For example, describing someone as a "Romeo" makes an allusion to William Shakespeare's famous young lover in Romeo and Juliet. Amerind Literature: The writing and oral traditions of Native Americans. Native American literature was originally passed on by word of mouth, so it consisted largely of stories and events that were easily memorized. Amerind prose is often rhythmic like Poetry because it was recited to the beat of a ceremonial drum. Examples of Amerind literature include the autobiographical Black Elk Speaks, the works of N. Scott Momaday, James Welch, and Craig Lee Strete, and the poetry of Luci Tapahonso. Analogy: A comparison of two things made to explain something unfamiliar through its similarities to something familiar, or to prove one point based on the acceptedness of another. Simile s and metaphor s are types of analogies. Analogies often take the form of an extended simile , as in William Blake's aphorism: "As the caterpillar chooses the fairest leaves to lay her eggs on, so the priest lays his curse on the fairest joys." (Compare with Simile and Metaphor .) Anapest: See Foot Angry Young Men: A group of British writers of the 1950s whose work expressed bitterness and disillusionment with society. Common to their work is an anti-hero who rebels against a corrupt social order and strives for personal integrity. The term has been used to describe Kingsley Amis, John Osborne, Colin Wilson, John Wain, and others. Antagonist: The major character in a narrative or drama who works against the hero or protagonist . An example of an evil antagonist is Richard Lovelace in Samuel Richardson's Clarissa, while a virtuous antagonist is Macduff in William Shakespeare's Macbeth.(Compare with protagonist .) (See also anti-hero , conflict .) Anthropomorphism: The presentation of animals or objects in human shape or with human characteristics. The term is derived from the Greek word for "human form." The Fable s of Aesop, the animated films of Walt Disney, and Richard Adams's Watership Downfeature anthropomorphic character s. (Compare with Personification .) Anti-hero: A central character in a work of literature who lacks traditional heroic qualities such as courage, physical prowess, and fortitude. Anti-heros typically distrust conventional values and are unable to commit themselves to any ideals. They generally feel helpless in a world over which they have no control. Anti-heroes usually accept, and often celebrate, their positions as social outcasts. A well-known anti-hero is Yossarian in Joseph Heller's novel Catch-22.(Compare with Antagonist , Hero , and Protagonist .) Antimasque: See Masque Anti-novel: A term coined by French critic Jean-Paul Sartre. It refers to any experimental work of fiction that avoids the familiar convention s of the novel . The anti-novel usually fragments and distorts the experience of its character s, forcing the reader to construct the reality of the story from a disordered narrative . The best-known anti-novelist is Alain Robbe-Grillet, author of Le voyeur. Antithesis: The antithesis of something is its direct opposite. In literature , the use of antithesis as a figure of speech results in two statements that show a contrast through the balancing of two opposite ideas. Technically, it is the second portion of the statement that is defined as the "antithesis"; the first portion is the " thesis ." An example of antithesis is found in the following portion of Abraham Lincoln's "Gettysburg Address"; notice the opposition between the verbs "remember" and "forget" and the phrases "what we say" and "what they did": "The world will little note nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here." Apocrypha: Writings tentatively attributed to an author but not proven or universally accepted to be their works. The term was originally applied to certain books of the Bible that were not considered inspired and so were not included in the "sacred canon." Geoffrey Chaucer, William Shakespeare, Thomas Kyd, Thomas Middleton, and John Marston all have apocrypha. Apocryphal books of the Bible include the Old Testament's Book of Enoch and New Testament's Gospel of Thomas. Apollonian and Dionysian: The two impulses believed to guide authors of drama tic tragedy . The Apollonian impulse is named after Apollo, the Greek god of light and beauty and the symbol of intellectual order. The Dionysian impulse is named after Dionysus, the Greek god of wine and the symbol of the unrestrained forces of nature. The Apollonian impulse is to create a rational, harmonious world, while the Dionysian is to express the irrational forces of personality. Friedrich Nietzche uses these terms in The Birth of Tragedyto designate contrasting elements in Greek tragedy . (Compare with classicism and romanticism .) Apostrophe: A statement, question, or request addressed to an inanimate object or concept or to a nonexistent or absent person. Requests for inspiration from the muses in poetry are examples of apostrophe, as is Marc Antony's address to Caesar's corpse in William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar: "O, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth, That I am meek and gentle with these butchers!... Woe to the hand that shed this costly blood!..." (Compare with Monologue and Soliloquy .) Apprenticeship Novel: See Bildungsroman Archetype: The word archetype is commonly used to describe an original pattern or model from which all other things of the same kind are made. This term was introduced to literary criticism from the psychology of Carl Jung. It expresses Jung's theory that behind every person's "unconscious," or repressed memories of the past, lies the "collective unconscious" of the human race: memories of the countless typical experiences of our ancestors. These memories are said to prompt illogical associations that trigger powerful emotions in the reader. Often, the emotional process is primitive, even primordial. Archetypes are the literary image s that grow out of the "collective unconscious." They appear in literature as incidents and plot s that repeat basic patterns of life. They may also appear as stereotyped character s. Examples of literary archetypes include theme s such as birth and death and characters such as the Earth Mother. Argument: The argument of a work is the author's subject matter or principal idea. Examples of defined "argument" portions of works include John Milton's Arguments to each of the books of Paradise Lost and the "Argument" to Robert Herrick's Hesperides. Aristotelian Criticism: Specifically, the method of evaluating and analyzing tragedy formulated by the Greek philosopher Aristotle in his Poetics.More generally, the term indicates any form of criticism that follows Aristotle's views. Aristotelian criticism focuses on the form and logical structure of a work, apart from its historical or social context, in contrast to "Platonic Criticism," which stresses the usefulness of art. Adherents of New Criticism including John Crowe Ransom and Cleanth Brooks utilize and value the basic ideas of Aristotelian criticism for textual analysis. (Compare with Platonic Criticism .) (See also catharsis , New Criticism .) Art for Art's Sake: See Aestheticism . Aside: A comment made by a stage performer that is intended to be heard by the audience but supposedly not by other character s. Eugene O'Neill's Strange Interlude is an extended use of the aside in modern theater. Assonance: The repetition of similar vowel sounds in Poetry . The following lines from Gerald Manley Hopkins's "God's Grandeur" contain several patterns of assonance: The world is charged with the grandeur of God. It will flame out, like shining from shook foil; It gathers to a greatness, like the ooze of oil Crushed. Why do men then now not reck his rod? (Compare with Alliteration , Dissonance , and rhyme .) Audience: The people for whom a piece of literature is written. Authors usually write with a certain audience in mind, for example, children, members of a religious or ethnic group, or colleagues in a professional field. The term "audience" also applies to the people who gather to see or hear any performance, including play s, Poetry readings, speeches, and concerts. Jane Austen's parody of the gothic novel , Northanger Abbey, was originally intended for (and also pokes fun at) an audience of young and avid female gothic novel readers. Autobiography: A connected narrative in which an individual tells his or her life story. Examples include Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography and Henry Adams's The Education of Henry Adams.(Compare with Biography .) (See also Diary and Memoirs .) Automatic Writing: Writing carried out without a preconceived plan in an effort to capture every random thought. Authors who engage in automatic writing typically do not revise their work, preferring instead to preserve the revealed truth and beauty of spontaneous expression. Automatic writing was employed by many of the Surrealist writers, notably the French poet Robert Desnos. (See also Surrealism .) Avant-garde: A French term meaning "vanguard." It is used in literary criticism to describe new writing that rejects traditional approaches to literature in favor of innovations in style or content. Twentieth-century examples of the literary avant-gardeinclude the Black Mountain School of poet s, the Bloomsbury Group , and the Beat Movement . [Back to Top] B Ballad: A short poem that tells a simple story and has a repeated refrain. Ballads were originally intended to be sung. Early ballads, known as folk ballads, were passed down through generations, so their authors are often unknown. Later ballads composed by known authors are called literary ballads. An example of an anonymous folk ballad is "Edward," which dates from the Middle Ages. Samuel Taylor Coleridge's "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" and John Keats's "La Belle Dame sans Merci" are examples of literary ballads. (Compare with Corrido and Oral Transmission .) Baroque: A term used in literary criticism to describe literature that is complex or ornate in style or diction . Baroque works typically express tension, anxiety, and violent emotion. The term "Baroque Age" designates a period in Western European literature beginning in the late sixteenth century and ending about one hundred years later. Works of this period often mirror the qualities of works more generally associated with the label "baroque" and sometimes feature elaborate conceit s. Examples of Baroque works include John Lyly's Euphues: The Anatomy of Wit, Luis de Gongora's Soledads, and William Shakespeare's As You Like It. Baroque Age: See Baroque Baroque Period: See Baroque Beat Generation: See Beat Movement Beat Movement: A period featuring a group of American poet s and novelists of the 1950s and 1960s — including Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, Gregory Corso, William S. Burroughs, and Lawrence Ferlinghetti — who rejected established social and literary values. Using such techniques as stream of consciousness writing and jazz-influenced free Verse and focusing on unusual or abnormal states of mind — generated by religious ecstasy or the use of drugs — the Beat writers aimed to create works that were unconventional in both form and subject matter. Kerouac's On the Roadis perhaps the best-known example of a Beat Generation novel , and Ginsberg's Howlis a famous collection of Beat Poetry . Beat Poets: See Beat Movement Beats, The: See Beat Movement Belles-lettres: A French term meaning "fine letters" or "beautiful writing." It is often used as a synonym for literature , typically referring to imaginative and artistic rather than scientific or expository writing. Current usage sometimes restricts the meaning to light or humorous writing and appreciative essay s about literature. Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland epitomizes the realm of belles-lettres. Bildungsroman: (Also known as Apprenticeship Novel, Coming of Age Novel, Erziehungsroman, or Kunstlerroman.) A German word meaning "novel of development." The bildungsromanis a study of the maturation of a youthful character , typically brought about through a series of social or sexual encounters that lead to self-awareness. Bildungsroman is used interchangeably with erziehungsroman,a novel of initiation and education. When a bildungsroman is concerned with the development of an artist (as in James Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man), it is often termed a kunstlerroman. Well-known bildungsromane include J. D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye, Robert Newton Peck's A Day No Pigs Would Die, and S. E. Hinton's The Outsiders. Biography: A connected narrative that tells a person's life story. Biographies typically aim to be objective and closely detailed. James Boswell's The Life of Samuel Johnson,LL.D is a famous example of the form . (Compare with Autobiography and Memoirs . Black Aesthetic Movement: (Also known as Black Arts Movement.) A period of artistic and literary development among African Americans in the 1960s and early 1970s. This was the first major African-American artistic movement since the Harlem Renaissance and was closely paralleled by the civil rights and black power movements. The black aesthetic writers attempted to produce works of art that would be meaningful to the black masses. Key figures in black aesthetics included one of its founders, poet and playwright Amiri Baraka, formerly known as LeRoi Jones; poet and essay ist Haki R. Madhubuti, formerly Don L. Lee; poet and playwright Sonia Sanchez; and dramatist Ed Bullins. Works representative of the Black Aesthetic Movement include Amiri Baraka's play Dutchman, a 1964 Obie award-winner; Black Fire: An Anthology of Afro-American Writing,edited by Baraka and playwright Larry Neal and published in 1968; and Sonia Sanchez's poetry collection We a BaddDDD People, published in 1970. Black Arts Movement: See Black Aesthetic Movement Black Comedy: See Black Humor Black Humor: (Also known as Black Comedy.) Writing that places grotesque elements side by side with humorous ones in an attempt to shock the reader, forcing him or her to laugh at the horrifying reality of a disordered world. Joseph Heller's novel Catch-22 is considered a superb example of the use of black humor. Other well-known authors who use black humor include Kurt Vonnegut, Edward Albee, Eugene Ionesco, and Harold Pinter. Black Mountain School: Black Mountain College and three of its instructors — Robert Creeley, Robert Duncan, and Charles Olson — were all influential in projective verse , so poet s working in projective verse are now referred as members of the Black Mountain school. The Black Mountain Review published much of the work of Black Mountain school poets. Blank Verse: Loosely, any unrhymed poetry , but more generally, unrhymed iambic pentameter verse (composed of lines of five two-syllable feet with the first syllable accented, the second unaccented). Blank verse has been used by poet s since the Renaissance for its flexibility and its graceful, dignified tone . John Milton's Paradise Lostis in blank verse, as are most of William Shakespeare's play s. (See also Accent , Foot , Measure , and Meter .) Bloomsbury Group: A group of English writers, artists, and intellectuals who held informal artistic and philosophical discussions in Bloomsbury, a district of London, from around 1907 to the early 1930s. The Bloomsbury Group held no uniform philosophical beliefs but did commonly express an aversion to moral prudery and a desire for greater social tolerance. At various times the circle included Virginia Woolf, E. M. Forster, Clive Bell, Lytton Strachey, and John Maynard Keynes. Bon Mot: A French term meaning "good word." A bon mot is a witty remark or clever observation. Charles Lamb and Oscar Wilde are celebrated for their witty bon mots. Two examples by Oscar Wilde stand out: (1) "All women become their mothers. That is their tragedy. No man does. That's his." (2) "A man cannot be too careful in the choice of his enemies." Breath Verse: See Projective Verse Burlesque: Any literary work that uses exaggeration to make its subject appear ridiculous, either by treating a trivial subject with profound seriousness or by treating a dignified subject frivolously. The word "burlesque" may also be used as an adjective, as in "burlesque show," to mean "striptease act." Examples of literary burlesque include the comedies of Aristophanes, Miguel de Cervantes's Don Quixote,, Samuel Butler's poem "Hudibras," and John Gay's play The Beggar's Opera.(Compare with Parody .) [Back to Top] C Cadence: The natural rhythm of language caused by the alternation of accent ed and unaccented syllables. Much modern Poetry — notably free Verse — deliberately manipulates cadence to create complex rhythmic effects. James Macpherson's "Ossian poem s" are richly cadenced, as is the poetry of the Symbolists, Walt Whitman, and Amy Lowell. (Compare with Meter .) Caesura: A pause in a line of Poetry , usually occurring near the middle. It typically corresponds to a break in the natural rhythm or sense of the line but is sometimes shifted to create special meanings or rhythmic effects. The opening line of Edgar Allan Poe's "The Raven" contains a caesura following "dreary": "Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and weary...." (Compare with Cadence .) Canzone: A short Italian or Provencal lyric poem , commonly about love and often set to music. The canzonehas no set form but typically contains five or six stanzas made up of seven to twenty lines of eleven syllables each. A shorter, five- to ten-line "envoy," or concluding stanza, completes the poem. Masters of the canzone form include Petrarch, Dante Alighieri, Torquato Tasso, and Guido Cavalcanti. Carpe Diem: A Latin term meaning "seize the day." This is a traditional theme of Poetry , especially lyrics. A carpe diem poem advises the reader or the person it addresses to live for today and enjoy the pleasures of the moment. Two celebrated carpe diem poems are Andrew Marvell's "To His Coy Mistress" and Robert Herrick's poem beginning "Gather ye rosebuds while ye may...." Catharsis: The release or purging of unwanted emotions — specifically fear and pity — brought about by exposure to art. The term was first used by the Greek philosopher Aristotle in his Poeticsto refer to the desired effect of tragedy on spectators. A famous example of catharsis is realized in Sophocles' Oedipus Rex,when Oedipus discovers that his wife, Jacosta, is his own mother and that the stranger he killed on the road was his own father. (See also Aristotelian Criticism .) Celtic Renaissance: (Also known as Celtic Twilight.) A period of Irish literary and cultural history at the end of the nineteenth century. Followers of the movement aimed to create a romantic vision of Celtic myth and legend. The most significant works of the Celtic Renaissance typically present a dreamy, unreal world, usually in reaction against the reality of contemporary problems. William Butler Yeats's The Wanderings of Oisinis among the most significant works of the Celtic Renaissance. (Compare with Irish Literary Renaissance and romanticism .) Celtic Twilight: See Celtic Renaissance Character: Broadly speaking, a person in a literary work. The actions of characters are what constitute the plot of a story, novel , or poem . There are numerous types of characters, ranging from simple, stereotypical figures to intricate, multifaceted ones. In the techniques of Anthropomorphism and personification, animals — and even places or things — can assume aspects of character. "Characterization" is the process by which an author creates vivid, believable characters in a work of art. This may be done in a variety of ways, including (1) direct description of the character by the narrator ; (2) the direct presentation of the speech, thoughts, or actions of the character; and (3) the responses of other characters to the character. The term "character" also refers to a form originated by the ancient Greek writer Theophrastus that later became popular in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It is a short essay or sketch of a person who prominently displays a specific attribute or quality, such as miserliness or ambition. Notable characters in literature include Oedipus Rex, Don Quixote de la Mancha, Macbeth, Candide, Hester Prynne, Ebenezer Scrooge, Huckleberry Finn, Jay Gatsby, Scarlett O'Hara, James Bond, and Kunta Kinte. Characterization: See Character Chorus: In ancient Greek drama , a group of actors who commented on and interpreted the unfolding action on the stage. Initially the chorus was a major component of the presentation, but over time it became less significant, with its numbers reduced and its role eventually limited to commentary between Act s. By the sixteenth century the chorus — if employed at all — was typically a single person who provided a prologue and an epilogue and occasionally appeared between acts to introduce or underscore an important event. The chorus in William Shakespeare's Henry Vfunctions in this way. Modern drama s rarely feature a chorus, but T. S. Eliot's Murder in the Cathedral and Arthur Miller's A View from the Bridge are notable exceptions. The Stage Manager in Thornton Wilder's Our Town performs a role similar to that of the chorus. Chronicle: A record of events presented in chronological order. Although the scope and level of detail provided varies greatly among the chronicles surviving from ancient times, some, such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,feature vivid description s and a lively recounting of events. During the Elizabethan Age, many drama s — appropriately called "chronicle plays" — were based on material from chronicles. Many of William Shakespeare's dramas of English history as well as Christopher Marlowe's Edward II are based in part on Raphael Holinshead's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Classical: In its strictest definition in literary criticism , classicism refers to works of ancient Greek or Roman literature . The term may also be used to describe a literary work of recognized importance (a "classic") from any time period or literature that exhibits the traits of classicism. Classical authors from ancient Greek and Roman times include Juvenal and Homer. Examples of later works and authors now described as classical include French literature of the seventeenth century, Western novel s of the nineteenth century, and American fiction of the mid-nineteenth century such as that written by James Fenimore Cooper and Mark Twain. Classicism: A term used in literary criticism to describe critical doctrines that have their roots in ancient Greek and Roman literature , philosophy, and art. Works associated with classicism typically exhibit restraint on the part of the author, unity of design and purpose, clarity, simplicity, logical organization, and respect for tradition. Examples of literary classicism include Cicero's prose , the drama s of Pierre Corneille and Jean Racine, the Poetry of John Dryden and Alexander Pope, and the writings of J. W. von Goethe, G. E. Lessing, and T. S. Eliot. Climax: The turning point in a narrative , the moment when the conflict is at its most intense. Typically, the structure of stories, novel s, and play s is one of rising action, in which tension builds to the climax, followed by falling action, in which tension lessens as the story moves to its conclusion. The climax in James Fenimore Cooper's The Last of the Mohicansoccurs when Magua and his captive Cora are pursued to the edge of a cliff by Uncas. Magua kills Uncas but is subsequently killed by Hawkeye. (See also Denouement , plot , and Rising Action .) Colloquialism: A word, phrase, or form of pronunciation that is acceptable in casual conversation but not in formal, written communication. It is considered more acceptable than slang . An example of colloquialism can be found in Rudyard Kipling's Barrack-room Ballads: When 'Omer smote 'is bloomin' lyre He'd 'eard men sing by land and sea; An' what he thought 'e might require 'E went an' took — the same as me! Comedy: One of two major types of drama , the other being tragedy . Its aim is to amuse, and it typically ends happily. Comedy assumes many form s, such as farce and burlesque , and uses a variety of techniques, from parody to satire . In a restricted sense the term comedy refers only to dramatic presentations, but in general usage it is commonly applied to nondramatic works as well. Examples of comedies range from the play s of Aristophanes, Terrence, and Plautus, Dante Alighieri's The Divine Comedy, Francois Rabelais's Pantagruel and Gargantua, and some of Geoffrey Chaucer's tale s and William Shakespeare's plays to Noel Coward's play Private Lives and James Thurber's short story "The Secret Life of Walter Mitty." (Compare with Melodrama .) (See also Black Humor , Commedia dell'arte , Comedy of Manners , Farce , Parody .) Comedy of Manners: A play about the manners and convention s of an aristocratic, highly sophisticated society. The character s are usually types rather than individualized personalities, and plot is less important than atmosphere. Such plays were an important aspect of late seventeenth-century English Comedy . The comedy of manners was revived in the eighteenth century by Oliver Goldsmith and Richard Brinsley Sheridan, enjoyed a second revival in the late nineteenth century, and has endured into the twentieth century. Examples of comedies of manners include William Congreve's The Way of the World in the late seventeenth century, Oliver Goldsmith's She Stoops to Conquer and Richard Brinsley Sheridan's The School for Scandal in the eighteenth century, Oscar Wilde's The Importance of Being Earnest in the nineteenth century, and W. Somerset Maugham's The Circle in the twentieth century. Comic Relief: The use of humor to lighten the mood of a serious or tragic story, especially in play s. The technique is very common in Elizabethan works, and can be an integral part of the plot or simply a brief event designed to break the tension of the scene. The Gravediggers' scene in William Shakespeare's Hamlet is a frequently cited example of comic relief. Coming of Age Novel: See Bildungsroman Commedia dell'arte: An Italian term meaning "the Comedy of guilds" or "the comedy of professional actors." This form of dramatic comedy was popular in Italy during the sixteenth century. Actors were assigned stock roles (such as Pulcinella, the stupid servant, or Pantalone, the old merchant) and given a basic plot to follow, but all dialogue was improvised. The roles were rigidly typed and the plots were formulaic, usually revolving around young lovers who thwarted their elders and attained wealth and happiness. A rigid convention of the commedia dell'arte is the periodic intrusion of Harlequin , who interrupts the play with low buffoonery. Peppino de Filippo's Metamorphoses of a Wandering Minstrel gave modern audience s an idea of what commedia dell'arte may have been like. Various scenarios for commedia dell'arte were compiled in Petraccone's La commedia dell'arte, storia, technica, scenari, published in 1927. Complaint: A lyric poem , popular in the Renaissance , in which the speaker expresses sorrow about his or her condition. Typically, the speaker's sadness is caused by an unresponsive lover, but some complaints cite other sources of unhappiness, such as poverty or fate. A commonly cited example is "A Complaint by N