1. The Canadian
historical experience
The Canadian “enigma”
Stéphane Levesque
University of Ottawa
stephane.levesque@uottawa.ca

2. Introduction
• Is Canada an “American” society?
• How is it similar to or different from its neighbours to the
south?
• Often, we make sense of us and other societies by
categorizing people into particulars:
“We are Canadians”
“They are not like us”
“We won the cup”

4. The Canadian enigma
• The concept of the “Canadian enigma”. To Resnick,
what makes Canada a different society from the U.S.
is not about stereotypical distinctions in culture but
the particular set of challenges stemming from the
historical development of the country.
• Although visitors may spontaneously find
themselves “foreigners” or “at home” in Canada,
an appreciation of what makes Canada a similar or
different country is only possible through the
privilege lens of history.

5. French-English Relations
• Giovanni Caboto, better known in English as John Cabot
discovery of North America (Newfoundland in 1497)

6. • Jacques Cartier was the first recorded European explorer in
1534 to venture into the land of North America and sail as
far as Anticosti Island and the Baie de Gaspé, the historical
place where he planted a cross and met the Iroquois.
Jacques Cartier, navigator (born at St-
Malo, France, between 7 June and 23
Dec 1491; died there 1 Sept 1557).
Portrait of Jacques Cartier by
Théophile Hamel (1817-1870)
(Nos Racines)

7. Virtual Museum of New France

8. Virtual Museum of New France

9. • In 1605, the first French settlement was established at
Port-Royal on the Bay of Fundy, as a permanent trading
post with the Native people. Three years later, Samuel de
Champlain, considered by many as the founder of New
France, erected a “habitation” at Stadacona (Québec).
(Illustration: C.W. Jefferys
Credit: Library and Archives Canada)
(George Agnew Reid,
Credit: Library and Archives Canada)

10. • Under the marquis de Tracy, the regiment Carigan-
Salières (1200 men strong) built forts, ravaged Iroquois
villages and demonstrated the French military might in
North America.

11. A New Map of the North Parts of America claimed by France under ye Names of Louisiana, Mississipi, Canada and New France with ye Adjoyning Territories
of England and Spain. Map Maker: Herman Moll. London, 1730 ca. Barry Lawrence Ruderman Antique Maps

12. Place / Date: London / 1730 ca
Cavalier de la Salle
Pere Marquette
and Louis Jolliet
Pierre Radisson
A New Map of the North Parts of America claimed by France under ye Names of Louisiana, Mississipi, Canada and New France with ye Adjoyning Territories
of England and Spain. Map Maker: Herman Moll. London, 1730 ca. Barry Lawrence Ruderman Antique Maps

13. New France in 1755 English colonies 1755
Population of
+/- 65,000 habitants
Population of
+1.5 million habitants
Territory ranging from Atlantic
ocean to Great Lakes and Ohio
valley, down to Mississippi and New
Orleans
Territory of 13 colonies located
on the Atlantic coast from
Massachusetts to Georgia.
Economy:
Exportations of 2.5 million FF
Importations of 8 million FF
Economy:
Exportations of 1.5 million £
Importations of 0.9 million £
F.X. Garneau, Histoire du Canada, vol. V. (8e ed.) 1944.

14. Direction des Archives de France, Library and Archives Canada, and the Canadian Embassy in Paris.
Project Champlain 2004

15. British North America, 1760
Portrait of General James Murray by an
unkown artist, circa 1770-80, oil on canvas.
Governor of the Province of Québec,.
(courtesy National Portrait Gallery and
Canadian Encyclopedia)
“These birds of passage [merchants]… All have their fortunes to make and I
hear few of them are solicitous about the means where the end can be
obtained… in general, the most immoral collection of men I ever knew”.
The Canadians “soldiers to a man,” are perhaps, the best and bravest Race on
the Globe, a Race, that have already got the better of every National
Antipathy to their Conquerors, and could they be indulged with a very few
Privileges, which the Laws of England do not allow to Catholics at home,
must in a very short Time become the most faithful & useful Set of Men in
this American Empire.”
General James Murray
Dictionary of Canadian Biography online

16. British North America… to Canada
General James Murray
Dictionary of Canadian Biography online
 Quebec Act, 1774
 British North America Act, 1867
 Louis Riel Rebellion, 1885
 French School Question (Manitoba, Ontario)
 Conscription crisis (WWI, WWII)
 Bilingualism and Biculturalism, 1967
 Charter of Rights and Freedom, 1982
 Quebec Referendum, 1980,

17. The influx of immigrants
• Galician (Ukrainian) immigrants at Québec, circa 1911 (photo by W.J.
Topley/courtesy Library and Archives Canada/PA-10401).

18. • As early as 1776, the American
Revolution precipitated a massive
exodus of United Empire Loyalists
to the north.
• Between 80,000 and 100,000
eventually fled the U.S. and about
half of them landed in Canada.
• Few thousands ended in the Eastern
Townships (Qc), the great majority
settled along the St. John’s river in
Nova Scotia (which would become
New Brunswick) and in Upper Canada
(that would become Ontario).
King’s Landing. Loyalists settlement in New
Brunswick (photo by J.A. Kraulis/Masterfile).
General Frederick Haldimand, London, circa 1778
(courtesy National Portrait Gallery, London, England)

19. 30,000
Loyalists
7,500
Loyalists
2,000
Loyalists

20. 30,000
Loyalists
7,500
Loyalists
2,000
Loyalists
• Egerton Ryerson, Methodist minister, educator
(b in Charlotteville Twp, Norfolk County, UC
24 Mar 1803; d at Toronto 18 Feb 1882). A
leading figure in 19th-century Ontario
education and politics
• In 1844 he was appointed superintendent of
education for Canada West (Ontario),
continuing in this office until retiring in 1876.
• He believed that education should be universal
and compulsory, and that it had to be religious
and moral if it was to improve the individual
and help society progress.
• He engineered two other equally significant
pieces of legislation (School Acts of 1850 and
1871), authored numerous textbooks approved
for the school curriculum

21. • Opening of the west

22. • Opening of the west
Library and Archives Canada
Ref. No.: C-085854
Library and Archives Canada
Ref. No.: C-095320

23. • Opening of the west
From 1909 to 1913 Canada
received 1.5 million immigrants
or 22% increase in population

24. • Immigration and racism
Describing what he looked for in the ideal settler,
Minister Sifton said:
When I speak of quality I have in mind something
that is quite different from what is in the mind of the
average writer or speaker upon the question of
immigration. I think that a stalwart peasant in a
sheepskin coat, born on the soil, whose forefathers
have been farmers for ten generations, with a stout
wife and a half–dozen children, is good quality.
Sir Clifford Sifton, Minister
of the Interior, 1896–1905
Library and Archives Canada
(PA 027943)

25. • Immigration and racism
Immigration Branch certificate for Mah Chew Wah,
who paid $500 for the Chinese head tax, June 1921.
Citizenship and Immigration Canada Historical Collection
Chinese workers’ camp on the CPR, Kamloops, 1886
Library and Archives Canada C-021990

26. • Immigration and racism in schools

27. • Immigration Act, 1967
Multiculturalism, 1971
Canada revisited its Immigration policy in the 1960s. A new,
non-discriminatory policy was implemented on a point system.
In 1971, a new policy of multiculturalism was implemented by
the Canadian government to acknowledge the role and
presence of non-French and non-British Canadian citizens and
to promote a new just society based on cultural diversity rather
than Anglo conformity.
The policy, which was turned into a Multiculturalism Act in
1988, had four goals:
• support cultural development of ethnocultural groups
• help members of ethnocultural groups overcome barriers to
full participation in Canadian society
• promote create encounter and exchanges among groups
• assist new Canadians in acquiring at least one of Canada’s
official languages.

28. • Immigration and diversity today
Statistics Canada
Date Modified: 2008-11-21

29. Proximity and
relationship to the U.S.
• The Declaration of Independence
A manifesto from the Continental Congress was drafted in
the fall of 1774 which urged them to “take a noble chance
for emerging from a humiliating subjection under
Governors, Intendants, and Military Tyrants….”
The manifesto also contained a subtle menace: “You are
small people, compared to those who with open arms invite
you into a fellowship. A moment’s reflection should
convince you which will be most for your interest and
happiness, to have all the rest of North-America your
unalterable friends, or your inveterate enemies.”
Continental Congress even sent Benjamin Franklin
as representative to Canada to rally support.
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), portrait
painting. University of Pennsylvania
University Archives and Records Center

30. • Invasion of Canada, 1775
Gen. Benedict Arnold,
Canadian encyclopedia
Gen Richard Montgomery

31. • Invasion of Canada, 1775
Gen. Benedict Arnold,
Canadian encyclopedia
Gen. Richard Montgomery
Battle of Quebec, 1775

32. • War of 1812 (in Canada)
Map of Canada
Canadian encyclopedia

33. • War of 1812 (in Canada)
Gen. Isaac Brock
Canadian encyclopedia
Tecumseh
Canadian encyclopedia
Laura Secord
Archives of Ontario

34. A peaceful border
• John F. Kennedy once said on a visit to Ottawa that
“geography has made us neighbours, history has made us
friends, economics has made us partners, and necessity
has made us allies.”
• http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/international_politics/topics
/676-3868

35. A peaceful border
• North Atlantic Treaty (NATO)
• Continental Defense System (NORAD)
• North American Free trade Agreement (NAFTA)

36. CONCLUSION: “CHILDREN
OF A COMMON MOTHER”
The Peace Arch Canada – U.S. Border
Blaine, Washington
Thank you! Merci!

37. Suggested resources
Archives of Ontario (virtual exhibits):
www.archives.gov.on.ca/english/on-line-exhibits/index-early-ontario.aspx
Canadian encyclopedia online: www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com
Canadian Geographic online (historical interactive maps):
http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/mapping/historical_maps/default.asp
Canadian War Museum (online exhibits):
www.civilization.ca/cwm/exhibitions/online-exhibitions
CBC – Canada: A People’s History: www.cbc.ca/history
CBC – Archives: http://archives.cbc.ca/
Citizenship and Immigration Canada (youth corner):
www.cic.gc.ca/english/games/youth-corner.asp
Citizenship and Immigration Canada (multiculturalism):
www.cic.gc.ca/english/multiculturalism/index.asp
Dictionary of Canadian Biography online: www.biographi.ca
Library and Archives Canada (immigration):
http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/canadian-west/052901_e.html
http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/immigrants/index-e.html

38. Suggested resources
McCord Museum of Canadian History: www.mccord-museum.qc.ca
Statistics Canada (2006 Census):
www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/as-sa/index-eng.cfm
U.S. Department of State (Canada-U.S.):
www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2089.htm
Virtual Historian.ca: www.virtualhistorian.ca
Virtual Museum of Canada: www.museevirtuel-virtualmuseum.ca
Virtual Museum of Canada (immigration):
http://www.virtualmuseum.ca/Exhibitions/Pier21/index_e.html
Virtual Museum of New France: http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/explore/virtual-
museum-of-new-france
Virtual Museum - Champlain 2004: www.champlain2004.org
War of 1812 (Brock University):
http://www.brocku.ca/maplibrary/digital/1812zoom/1812maplist.php
War of 1812 (Ontario Archives): www.archives.gov.on.ca/english/on-line-
exhibits/1812/index.aspx