1. Linux Operating System
CA 102/CS 104
Kalyani Neve.

2. A Brief History of Linux
1991 August
• Linux is introduced by Linus
Torvalds, a student
university of “Helsinki” in
Finland.
• While the linux you know
today was developed with
assistance of programmer.
• Linus Torvalds still remain
control of the evolving core
of Linux O.S. :The Kernel
. Linus Benedict Torvalds

3. A Brief History of Linux
1992,March
• In March 1992 Version 1.0
of Kernel came into
market ,the first official
release of Linux.
• At this point Linux RAM
most of the common Unix
tool from compiler to
networking software to
“X-Windows”. Linus Benedict Torvalds

4. A Brief History of Linux
1991 September
Version 0.01 of Torvald's project is made
available via ftp.funet.fi.
Ari Lemmke, the systems administrator,
gives the directory the name Linux.
Linus had originally intended to call the new
kernel "Freax".
According to Wikipedia, the name Linux was
actually invented by Ari Lemmke who
maintained the ftp.funet.fi FTP server from
which the kernel was originally distributed.
Ari Lemmke

5. A Brief History of Linux
October 1991
Richard Stallman expresses interest in having the
Free Software Foundation distribute a GNU system
with the Linux kernel.
December 1991
Robert Blum posts the first Linux FAQ
January 1992
Minix creator Andrew Tannenbaum claims "Linux
is obsolete" in a posting to comp.os.minix and
starts a public discussion on the merits of Linux in
which Linus Torvalds participates.

6. A Brief History of Linux
• First Linux "distribution", called MCC Interim Linux
is released by the University of Manchester,
England. (February 1992)
• Version 0.95 of the Linux kernel released. First
version to be able to support X-Window. (March
1992)
• A Linux distribution called Softlanding Linux
System (SLS) is released. (September 1992)
• Software und System Entwicklung GmbH (SuSE)
founded in Nuremberg, Germany. Distributes a
German version of SLS with corresponding
manuals. (November 1992)

7. A Brief History of Linux
1993:
• Version 1.0 of Slackware released by Patrick
Volkerding. It is based on the SLS distribution.
• Ian Murdock creates the Debian distribution.
1994:
• Linux kernel version 1.0 released.
• First issue of Linux Journal published Marc Ewing
• Linux distributor Caldera founded by
Ray Noorda of Novell & Ransom Love. Marc Ewing
• Marc Ewing releases the first version of Red Hat
Linux.

8. A Brief History of Linux
1995:
• Bob Young partners with Marc Ewing
and forms Red Hat Software.
• Apache web server project started
as a series of patches to the NCSA
HTTPd server (A Patchy server).
1996:
• Linux kernel version 2.0 released.

9. A Brief History of Linux
• Linus Torvalds suggests that
a "slightly overweight
penguin" would be the best
mascot for Linux. He
recommends Larry Ewing's
"Tux" penguin images.
A Tuxedo
Tux

10. A Brief History of Linux
• The following filed a suit against William R. Della
Croce, Jr. (September 1996)
– Linus Torvalds
– Linux Journal,
– Yggdrasil Computing, Inc.,
– Linux International
– Work Group Solutions
(Digital Equipment Corporation & Red Hat Software contributed
to the cost of the legal process)
to re-assign the Linux trademark to Linus Torvalds.
The firm of Davis & Schroeder handled the case on
an almost pro-bono basis. (Freeor reduced charge
for public good)
• Kool Desktop Environment (KDE) project
announced.

11. A Brief History of Linux
1997:
• The Linux trademark dispute between William
Della Croce and Linus Torvalds is settled, with
Della Croce
re-assigning the trademark to Torvalds.
• Miguel de Icaza starts the GNOME project.
1998:
• Version 1.0 of the K Desktop Environment (KDE)
released.

12. A Brief History of Linux
1999:
• Linux kernel version 2.2 released.
• GNOME 1.0 desktop released.
2000:
• Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer calls Linux "a cancer
that attaches itself in an intellectual property
sense to everything it touches." in an interview
with the Chicago Sun-Times.

13. A Brief History of Linux
2001:
• Linux kernel version 2.4 released.
2003:
• Linux kernel version 2.6 is released.
• Novell acquires German Linux distributor SuSE.
• Red Hat announces that they will no longer sell
boxed sets of their Linux distribution for retail
customers. Instead, they will distribute Linux to
end users via a development distribution called
Fedora Core.

14.  Multi-user:
• Each user’s shells, applications and commands are
separate processes
• Number of simultaneous users limited only by:
– CPU speed and available memory
– Min. response times required by users/apps
 Multi-tasking:
• Many jobs can be under way at the same time
• Jobs truly simultaneous on multi-cpu
 Time-sharing:
• A single cpu is shared by all processes
• Processes exec briefly, passing cpu to others
• Process switches occur in miliseconds or less
• Kernel gives process a sense of total control

15. Applications of Linux
AS the Linux is the OS, it provides lot of
applications. Some of them given below:
1)Text And Word Processing Applications
Star Office is Text and word application
instead of WordPad and notepad.
2) Programming Language
There is a wide verity of Programming and
scripting languages and tools available for Linux.
3)X-windows
X-windows is a highly flexible and
configurable GUI environment that run on Linux as
well as almost UNIX System.

16. Applications of Linux
4) Internet tool
It supports Netscape as well as Mosaic
It provides wide and full range of software needed
to create internet server.
It also provide the complete network support to
connect the internet.
5) Data bases
Today Oracle, Sybase and Informix all offer
relational data base provides for Linux.
6) Dos and Windows Capability Software
Linux can be made to run DOS software with high
degree of stability and compatibility.

17. Acquiring and using Linux
There are quite a few ways to obtain a Linux distribution.
1. One way is to go to the distributor's website and
download the linux distribution of our choice.
For example,
If you want to download
a. Mandrake, the go to http://www.mandriva.com/.
b. SUSE Linux Enterprise Server 9,
go to
http://www.novell.com/linux/download_linux.html.

18. Acquiring and using Linux
2. Other way is to obtain pre-burned copies of
the Linux distribution we need from the
distributor’s website or from sites like
cheapISO.com
– The price is of such distributions starts from less than Rs.
100/-
– Some new computers have Linux as preinstalled

19. Examining Linux Distributions
• A Linux distribution is a collection of software
that incorporates a version of the Linux kernel,
versions of the assorted GNU tools, and various
other bits and pieces like XFree86, the Open
Source version of the X-windows system.
• Many vendors of distributions offer this
collection as a basic version, and charge (extra)
money for versions that incorporate or include
various non-free programs.

20. Survey of Major Distributions
• The major distributions of Linux include:
– Caldera
– Debian
– Mandrake
– Red Hat
– Slackware
– SuSE
– Turbolinux

21. Linux distributions. Website/Logo
Red Hat Linux: http://www.redhat.com/
SuSE Linux: http://www.suse.com/
Mandrake Linux:
http://www.mandrakesoft.com/
Caldera Linux:
http://www.calderasystems.com/
Debian GNU/Linux:
http://www.debian.org/
Slackware Linux:
http://www.slackware.com/

22. X-WINDOWS
• X-Windows is GUI for UNIX Which sets up the graphics display
• X-Windows is a highly configurable environment that
(resolution , refresh rate, color
depth),displays the windows and
provides a broad range of flexibletrack mouse movements , key
operation for both
strokes
the user and application developers.
• On X-Windows system two application must run to
provide the complete GUI 1) X-server
It provides menu, windows border, 2) window manager
mechanism for moving ,switching,
minimizing or maximizing windows.

23. Components of the
X Window System
• X server
• X client
• Window manager
• Graphical libraries
• Graphical application
– Provides a comprehensive user interface

24. Components of the
X Window System (continued)

25. Starting X
• $ startx
– Standard command to start X window system
H.W
Similarities and differences between X-windows and
Microsoft windows

26. Desktop Interfaces
• Graphical environment
– Provides collection of functions and utilities
– Makes using computer easier for those who do
not have many commands memorized
• KDE interface
– Most widely used desktop environment on Linux
systems
– Installed by default for most distributions, except
Red Hat

27. Desktop Interfaces (continued)
• KDE interface includes suite of applications
– Internet access
– System maintenance
– Personal productivity
– Other basic tasks
• Panel
– Set of icons at bottom of screen

28. Desktop Interfaces (continued)
• GNOME desktop
– Stands for GNU object model environment
– Very similar to KDE
– Includes panel with integrated taskbar
– Applications included similar to those with KDE
– Installed by default for Red Hat

29. Working with Graphical
Windows (continued)

30. Configuring GNOME and KDE
• GNOME and KDE
– Both highly configurable

31. Questions !!!

32. Unit -2
System Access
Logging In and using the Linux system
Linux Commands
Logging In and using Remote Linux
system

33. 2.1 Logging in and Using Linux System
Because the system can be used by many users some
has to be given charge of administration of the system
called ‘system administrator’ who will grant you the authority
to use the system .
login: kumar
Password:*******
This will start up a desktop. The default desktop in RedHat Linux 9 is
GNOME desktop.
If you want to turn off your computer, you must first shut down
Linux. You can shut down your system in three ways:
1)By using halt command. Main Menu
2)By using shutdown command.
Logout menu

34. #halt
This command will log you out and shut down
the system.
•$ halt
# shutdown
shutdown 16:00 shut down at 16:00
shutdown -r now shutdown immediately and reboot
shutdown -h now shutdown immediately and halt
Linux also allow alt+ctrl+del

35. Saving Your Configuration Between
Logins
• On logout
– GNOME can note which application windows were
open
– Same applications are opened automatically at
next login
• Can also save configuration between logins

36. Configuring the Graphical
Login Screen
• Before you are permitted to configure most
parts of graphical login screen
– Must be logged in as root or enter root password
• Select system settings, then Login Screen on
GNOME main menu
– Or runrun gdmsetup command
• Configure login options

37. Basic Commands
How to run commands
• Finder => Application => Utilitaires => Terminal
• When you log on Unix machine, you will see,
[someone]$
• One command consists of three parts, i.e.
command name, options, arguments.
Example)
[someone~]$ command-name optionA optionB
argument1 argument2

38. Basic Commands
How to run commands
• Between command name, options and
arguments, space is necessary.
• Options always start with “-”
• Example:
cd ..
ls –l .bashrc
mv fileA fileB

39. Some more Linux commands
Everything in the
square bracket is
Name Syntax optional
• Cal • Cal [ [ month ] year ]
• E.g. $ cal
Current date
Current date
Wed augcal 3 1985
• $ 31
Wed aug31
16:22:40 IST
16:22:40 IST
2005
2005 Month no
Month no
• Date • $ date 08
08
Month name
Month name
Month no with
• $ date +%m Aug name with
Month no
Aug
name
• $ date +%h 08 Aug
08 Aug
• $ date +”%m %h”

40. To display the a: bell
To display the
message on the backspace
message onb:the
• $ echo • $ printf
screen c:current line
screen
• Syntax: echo Linux n :•new line printf Linux
Syntax:
t tab
$ echo [-ne] [string]
-e: enables the interpretation of back slash special character in
string.
-n: disable o/p of trailing new line
Who: The o/p of this command is linux gives us a
details of the user who have logged the linux system
currently
e.g. $ who
o/p: student tty10 july 30 7:14
Terminal name

41. clear : Clears the terminal screen and resets the prompt and cursor
location to the first line of the screen.
$ clear
.
Free: Displays a report of free and used memory.
Free [-b|-k|-m][-s delay][-t]
-b: Displays amount of memory in bytes.
-k: Displays amount of memory in kilobytes(this is default).[$ free]
-m: Displays amount of memory in megabytes.
-s delay : Displays continue reports separated by specified delaying seconds[^z
to escape it]
-t: Displays an extra line containing totals.

42. kill: You can terminate process with kill command. The command uses
one or more PID’s as its argument.
$ kill 122 129 115
sleep: This command will suspend the execution of shell.
The maximum limit of sleep is 18000 second.
Unfortunately keep the terminal idle.
$ sleep [seconds]
ps: This command will displayed the process status .submmission time
,required CPU time, Process name.
$ ps [option]
-a: Print all terminal process.
-e: Print all current process.
-t: Print all processes of listed terminal.
-u: Displays processes of listed user.

43. Basic Commands
1.Jumping directly to the line.
Commands
2. Jumping directly beginning and ending of
the file.
3. Move backward through the file.
• ls show files in current position
4. Search backward through the file.
• pwd show current position
• cd change directory
• less, more display file contents
• man xman display online manual(help pages)
• find ,grep For searching for a file.GREP.docx
• su switch user
• cat For i/p and o/p on the screen
• wc count word char and no.of line in a
given file
Basic command1
Basic Command2

44. Basic Commands
Commands This command we will see in next unit.
• passwd change password
• useradd create new user account
• userdel delete user account
• mount mount file system
• umount unmount file system
• df show disk space usage
• cp copy file or directory
• mv move file or directory
• rm remove file or directory
• mkdir create directory
• rmdir remove directory

45. Relative & Absolute Path
• Path means a position in the directory
tree.
• To express a path, you can use relative
path or absolute path.
• In relative path expression, the path is
not defined uniquely, depends on your
current path.
• In absolute path expression, the path is
defined uniquely, does not depend on
your current path.

46. Relative & Absolute Path
• Relative Path Ablsoute Path
pwd cd
cd . mkdir mydir
pwd
pwd
cd ..
pwd cd /Users/invite
cd .. pwd
pwd cd /Users
cd pwd
cd /
pwd
cd /Users/invite
cd ~/mydir

47. User Accounts
Creating additional user accounts
This creates the
Useradd- $ useradd user1 user with all
default setting
1) Creating a entry of user in /etc/passwd file with password
2) Assigning a user ID to user .it is greater than all other user ID.
3) Adding user to appropriate group.
4) Creating a home directory for the user.
$ useradd –u 500 user1
$ useradd –g group-name user1
1) If you want to use particular user ID.
2) If you want to assign a particular group to user.
3) If you want to specify an alternative home directory for a
user.
$ useradd –d directory-name user1

48. usermod: Modifying the user
usermod is used for , modifying some of the parameters
set with useradd.
e.g. usermod –s /bin/bash oracle
*We can combine all the option in this way.
The useradd command adds new user to the system.
$ useradd –u 210 –g dba –d /home/oracle –s /bin/ksh oracle

49. Managing user accounts
Change Password o/p:
old passwd:
$ passwd
New passwd:
New passwd:
Deletes the
Removing user user
Deletes the user
$ userdel user1 and its file
$ userdel –r user1

50. Creating Group
Creating Group
$ groupadd [option] group-name
1) -F : If the group is already available then it should display
result.
2) –g : Group ID is suppiled by this action.
3) –o : giving ID which is not unique.
4) –r : Add to system account..
Deleting Group
$ groupdel group-name

51. Adding user to Group
• There is no standard program available to add the user to a group
• In order to do this we can directly edit the file /etc/group.
Group-name :: password : group-id : user-list
Name of Encrypted password to Unique Group ID in Comma
Group the group numeric form seperated
user list who
want to add
this group

52. Modifying Group
If you want to change a group name you
can use the groupmod command.
e.g change the group’s name from test1 to
test2
# groupmod –n test2 test1

53. Managing Users:
For the creation and maintenanace of user accounts,
Linux provides 3 commands :useradd,usermod,userdel
useradd : Adding user
The useradd command adds new user to the system.
$ useradd –u 210 –g dba –d /home/oracle –s /bin/ksh oracle
jh
This quietly creates the user oracle with a UID of 210 and name dba.The
home directory is /home/oracle, and user will use the Korn shell. The –
option ensures that the home directory is created if it doesn't already exist
and copies a sample .profile and .kshrc to the user’s home directory.

54. • usermod: Modifying the user
usermod is used for , modifying some of the parameters of already
existing users.
e.g. usermod –s /bin/bash oracle
• userdel : Removing user
Users are removed from the system with userdel.
userdel oracle

55. Unit -3
Introduction to File System And
Linux Permission
Managing File.
Managing Directory.
Understanding permission.
Evaluating System Security.

56. File contains 3 types of information
User data System data Executable file
File Name
1)File name is upto 256 character.
2)This character can be a lower case ,upper case,numbers
and other character like hypen(-), under scroll(_) and
period(.)
3)Don’t include Meta character because they have special
meaning(*,?,&,/ etc)

57. Standard directory structure
◮ / - the topmost
◮ /dev - all the devices are accessible as files
◮ /var - “variable” data such as mails, log files,
databases
◮ /usr - almost all the packages installed
◮ /etc - configuration files
◮ /home - home directories for all the users
◮ /root - home directory of the privileged user root
◮ /mnt - used to mount other directories/partitions

58. File Navigation
1) Navigating using GUI
2) Navigating using terminal
Navigating using GUI
 Main menu
Home folder
Nautilus file manager
You can give any address to this location
bar and nautilus will displayed the contents at
that location
In this way you can navigate up to root
directory

59. Navigate using terminal • Open terminal
• Type the command
1) pwd: It gives present working directory
$ pwd
2) ls: It displays the list of file and directory
$ ls [option]
3) cd: Change directory
$ cd dir-name
4) For searching file.
Locate command Find command
$ locate file-name $ find start-dir parameter action

60. Managing File system
• Creating a file
• Deleting a File
• Copy a File
• Move a file
• Archiving a File
• File Compression
 Creation of a File:
cat is used for creation of file. Enter command cat followed by the >
character and file name.
$ cat
$ cat > fileName1
$ cat fileName1
$ cat >> fileName1
$ cat > fileName2
$ cat fileName1 fileName2
$ cat fileName1 fileName2 > fileName3

61. Copying A File :
• The cp command copies a file or a group of files.
• It creates an exact image of a files on disk with different name.
• The syntax requires at least 2 files names to be specified in the
command line.
• When both are ordinary files the first is copied to other.
• If the destination file (unit1) doesn’t exist it will first be crated before
copying takes place.
• If already exist it will simply overwritten without any warning from the
system.
e.g $ cp file1 file2
$ cp file1 /temp
Copy multiple file
$ cp file1 /temp/file2
Copies all directories and sub
$ cp file1 file2 file3 /tem/file4
directories.
$ cp *.txt *.doc *.bak /tem/file

62.  Deleting file:
The rm command deletes one or more files.
$ rm file1
$ rm file1 file2 file3
$ rm *.txt

63. .
 Renaming Files:
The mv command renames (moves) file .It has 2 distinct functions.
1) It renames a file (or dir).
2) It moves a group of file or different directory.
mv doesn’t create a copy of the file only renames it. No additional space is
consumed on disk during renaming.
$ mv file1 /tmp
$ mv file1 /tmp/file2
$ mv *.txt , *.doc,*.bak /tmp

64. Locating the File System
Using GUI Using command
line
Main Menu
1) Use locate command All files wit
the given
File Option $ locate FileName extension
2) There are various option like-
Specify Name of file which
you want to search(In i) $ locate *.extension
Dialogue Box)
ii) $locate –i fileName
Click on file (we get location
of the file in the box)

65. Making Directory
To create a new directory use the mkdir command
,the syntax is:
$ mkdir DirName
Deleting Directory
To delete whole directory use –r flag with rm
command .
e.g. $ rm –r DirName

66. File Ownership and permission
 In Linux each file is owned by that user who created it. The owner of
the file has the right to read the file, run it, delete it.
 Each file and directory in Linux contains set of permission that
determine who access them and how.
 Other user can do only those things for which the owner has given
the permission.
 A file also belongs to a group.
 Each user on the system is a memberof one or more group.
Date of Name of
Access
 To see the file ownership details creation
use file
$ ls –l Permission
Total 866
-rw –r – 1 root root 2045 oct 23 1997 Dir-colors
File
Owner File Group Size
of file

67.  To change owner of file
$ chown user-name filename
$ chown u1 f1
 To change a group of file
$ chgrp group-name filename
$ chgrp g1 f1

68. Access permission for a file is divided into three:
1)File owner(denoted by u)
2)Members of a file group(g)
3)Others(o) Others
Permission
e.g. rwx rwx rwx
(o)
Owner
user
(u) Group 1) r: Indicate the read permission.
permission
2) w: Indicate the write permission
(g)
3) x: Indicate execute permission
4) -: Indicate that particular
permission is denied.

69. To change the access permission of a file/directory.
$ chmod <mode> file-name
+ - In this mode we can change all
To permission at one time using 3 sets of
grant/revok 3 binary digits.
e the e.g.$ chmod 755 mydata
permission This command allows the user to read
write and execute while it allows the
group and others to read and execute
only.
Symbolic Mode Absolute Mode
(u):User Owner
(g):for group
(o): for other user

70. • Chmod u+r file-name: gives owner to read
the permission
• Chmod g-x file-name: takes away to execute
the permission from group
• Chmode o+rx-w file-name: allow others to
read and execute but not to write permission

71. Unit -4
Creating And Viewing the File
And
Archiving the File.
Using Vi editor and other editor.
Examine file content,redirection.
Archiving the file with tar and cpio.
Zipping file .

72. There are various editors as follows:
1) Vi editor
2) Vim editor
 Link 1
3) Emac editor  Link 2
4) Ed editor  Link 3
5) Joe editor
6) Red editor
GO

73. Vi editor
 It is a full screen text editor that enables you to view ,to create and edit
a file several lines at a time .
 Most Unix system ,including Linux come with Vi. Vi works with buffer
as Vi edits the file ,read a file into buffer and enables you to change the
text in buffer .
 Before you start a full screen text editor such as Vi you must set the
TERM environment use the terminal type of lookup the terminal
characteristic in the etctermcap file and then control the terminal in
the full screen mode.
Vim editor
 This is a enhance version of Vi editor .
 It includes various enhancement over the Vi editor such as syntax
highlighting, command line editing and online help .
 The Vim editor can be used to edit as ASCII text, it is specially useful
for editing the programs.
Back

74. emac editor
 “the edit macro ” or emac editors is the next widely used editors.
It provides the larger set of commands than Vi editors.
 The editors is used to format source code for programming
languages such as C and C++.
 It allows to work with multiple file at a time .
 Emac editor offer ispell utility to check the spelling in the
document.
 It also offers the online help.
ed editor
 To use the line editor or ed to creates display , modify, save text
files.
 When you start ed editor with file name as an argument, a copy of a
file is created in the editor buffer. You can make changes only to
the copy of a file and not directly to the file.
 To save the changes to the file you use w command.
Back

75. Joe editor
 You can invoke the Joe editor by typing at the command prompt.
 The Joe editor is a full screen editor that lets you edit both programs and
text.
red editor
 You can use the restricted editor or red editor
 To edit the file in the current directory you can not execute shell
commands by using the red editor.
Back

76.  Archiving Files:
Tar
Specifies that you are
 creating an archive as used to create archive known as tar archive.
This command is
opposed to viewing an
This command create new archive with new file name.
existing archive
 Tar file has .tar extension.
Copy a file into archive the file into archive so there is no danger that
This process copies
original file will be deleted in process.
Syntax:
$ tar cvf tar file-name file_list
Means you are
archiving in a file as
opposed to temp drive
f represents the file.
Indicate that each
command should be
verbose mode. which
means that each file
name will be displayed
as it is copied into
archive.

77. e.g.1) $ tar cvf text.tar *.txt
It copies all .txt file and create archive file
with the name text.tar
2) $ tar cvf vnc.tar vnc
It copies all contents of vnc directory.
 To view the contents of archive file replace c by t
.
 e.g. $tar tvf vnc.tar
 To extract contents of an archive into current
directory replace c by x
 e.g. $ tar xvf vnc.tar

78. Other Option of the tar command
•-r : To append the file to an archive . That means archive can contain
several file with same name.
•-u : It also add the file to an archive but only if the file is not already
there or if file is there then overwrites it.
•-w : It permits interactive coping and restoration. It prints the file
name and prompts for the action to be taken (Y /N)

79. Create Compression
A compressed archive is a single file that contains
one or more file in a compressed form.
Every Linux system comes with all or some of the
following compression and decompression utilities.
• gzip and gunzip (.gz)
• bzip2 and bunzip2(.bz2)
• Zip and unzip (.zip)

80. Gzip
• While tar is useful for archiving the file, it doesn’t
perform any compression.
• It is done with the gzip command
• It adds .gz extension to the end of the file.
• It compressed individual file but not create archive.
• It saves the memory.
E.G. $ gzip text.pdf
o/p: It creates the compressed file with the name
text.pdf.gz
$ gzip *
o/p: It compressed all files in the current directory but
not in sub directory.
$ gzip –r *
o/p: It compressed all files in the current directory and
also in sub directory.

81. To uncompressed the file
$ gzip –d text.pdf.gz
Alternative to –d option(gunzip)
$ gunzip text.pdf.gz
To view the compressed text file, no need to decompressed
$ gzcat text.pdf.gz or
$ gzmore text.pdf.gz
Combining gzip and tar alternative
$ tar cvf text.tar *.txt
$ gzip text.tar
It creates single compressed archive of all .txt file with the name
text.tar.gz

82. Bzip2 and bunzip2
•Its working and functionality is same as gzip and gunzip resp.
•If you know gzip and gunzip then you also know the bzip2 and
bunzip2.
•Bzip2 is slower than gzip and creates .bz2 files.

83. Zip and unzip
•Compressing and archiving together.
•Zip requires first argument to be compressed file name, the renaming
arguments are interpreted as files and directories are to be
compressed. It compressed the t1.html and
•The unusual features of this command is thatthe doesn’t overwrite an
t2.txt and make it single
existing compressed file. If it isarchive with the name text.zip be updated
already exists ,file either
or appended to the archive . It compressed all files in current
directory but not in sub
directory and make the single
e.g. $ zip text.zip t1.html t2.txt archive with the name text.zip
It compressed all files in current
$ zip text.zip *
directory and also in sub
$ zip –r text.zip * directory and make the single
archive with the name text.zip
To Unzip the file
It decompressed all files and
$ unzip text.zip come all the files in the original
form

84. Archiving File with cpio (copy input output)
•The cpio command copies the file to and from a backup
devices.
•It uses standard input to take the list of file names.
•It then copies them with their contents and headers to the
standard output which can be redirected to the file and device.
•This means that cpio can be used with redirection and piping
•Cpio uses two key option
i)–o (output)
ii)-I (input)
Either of which but not the both must be there in
command line.

85. Backup files (-o)
•Since cpio uses only standard input you can use ls to generate
list of file name to serve as its input.
•The –o key option creates the archive on the standard output
,which you need to redirect to a device file.
•This is how you copy the file in the current directory to a 1.44mb
floppy.
•$ ls | cpio –ov > /dev/rdsk/f0q18dt or
•$ ls | cpio –o > /dev/rdsk/f0q18dt
•$ find / -name “f*” –print | cpio –o > / dev/rdsk/f0q18dt

86. Restoring Files (-i)
•A complete archive or selected files can be restored with the –
(i) key option .
•To restore the files use the redirection to take input from the
device.
•$ cpio –iv < /dev/rdsk/foq18
•Cpio also accepts a quoted wild cards pattern so multiple files
fitting the pattern can be restored.
•$ cpio –I “*.sh” < /dev/rdsk/f0q18

87. Displaying the archive (-it)
•The –t option displays the content of the device without restoring
the files.
•These option must be combine with the (-i) key option
•$ cpio –itv < /dev/rdsk/foq18
Other Option
•-r : It renames the file before starting the coping process . The
system presents each file name and waits for a response .If you enter
the file name coping is done with that file.
•A null response leaves the file uncopied.
•-f : This option followed by the expression causes cpio to select all
files except those in the expression
$ cpio –ivf “*.c” < /dev/rdsk/foq18
•It restores all files except C program.

88. Dump and restore utility
•You can use the dump utility to back up the file from file system
•Typically it is used for back up the data not for archiving
•The restore utility performs the inverse function of the dump utility
e.g.1) $ dump <back up level> [option] file system
2) $ Restore <operation> [option] files

89. What is shell?
The shell is a program used to interface between you and the linux.
User
Linux Shell Program
Linux Kernel

90. How the shell get’s started?
Generally the ‘bash’ is the most popular and default shell.
In X-windows you can start a shell by running terminal window (such as x-
term)
The most Common Shell
• Sh (Bourne shell)
• C shell
• Ksh (Korn shell)
• Bash (Bourne Again Shell)

91. Features Of Bash $ cd t<tab><enter>
1)Command Line Completion
2)Wild cards There are 3 types of wild cards
3)Command history1)* : Matches any character and any no of character
4)Aliases 2)? : Matches any single character
3)[…] : Matches any single character content within the
braces.
• HISTSIZE
• .bash_history
$ cd /user /x11/Lib/x11/FVWM/sample-config
$ alias gosample=‘cd /user /x11/Lib/x11/FVWM/sample-config’
$ cd gosample
$ unalias gosample

92. Redirection Symbol
•Input Redirection(<)
•Output Redirection(>)
•Output Redirection with append mode(>>)
Pipeline
Output from first command in the pipeline is used as the
input to the second command in the pipeline
e.g.
$ cat sample.txt | grep “high” | wc -l

93. Prompts
•First level ($)
•Second level (>)
Ps1=“Please enter the command”
Ps2=“I need more information”

94. Surprise Test 1

95. UNIT V
Working in X Windows

96. X Windows (X11)
• History of X
– Developed at MIT in 1984
– Derived from Stanford project called W
– X is now freely distributable, and available for
UNIX, Windows, and Mac.

97. • The X Windows system is the standard graphical
interface for UNIX
– Distinguishing features:
– Allows multiple virtual terminals to be opened at
once
– Highly Customizable and extensible
– Highly Portable
– Works over networks

98. X Windows Architecture
• Separation of display and programs
• Connected by TCP/IP
• Your display is the X server
• Programs that run are clients
• Confusing because backwards from what we
are used to.

99. • It is important to note that X is a network-oriented
graphics system.
• That is, X clients can run either locally (on the same
system that the server is running) or remotely (on a
system somewhere on a TCP/IP network).
• The X server listens to both local and remote
network sockets for requests from clients. This
feature is obviously quite powerful. If you have a
connection to a TCP/IP network, you can log in to
another system over the network and run an X
application there, directing it to display on your local
X server.

101. • From the beginning it incorporated many of the
windowing capabilities that we now take for
granted.
• These capabilities include network transparency,
graphical capability, the use of a mouse, and the
ability to link together a heterogeneous network
of workstations from different vendors .

102. • One of the most significant features of X is
that it was specifically designed to work across
a network.
• The client and the server communicate via the
X Protocol, a network protocol that can run
locally or across a network. Regardless of
whether a client program is local or remote, it
communicates with the server through the X
Protocol.

103. Managing Files and File systems
Types Of Description
File System
Ext Earlier version of Linux File System ,no longer in use
Ext2 Older standard Linux file system
Ext3 standard Linux file system
Msdos File system for MSDOS
Ntfs File system for Windows NT ,Windows XP ,windows 2000
Iso9660 File system for mounting the CDROM
Fd0 Mounting the file system to the floppy drive.

104. Managing Files and File systems
• Under Linux, filesystem types include the Second
Extended filesystem, or ext2fs, which you probably
use to store Linux files.
• when you access any file system under Linux, the
system presents the data as files arranged into a
hierarchy of directories, along with owner and group
IDs, permissions bits, and the other characteristics
you're familiar with.

105. • Information on file ownership, permissions,
and so forth is provided only by file system
types that are meant to be used for storing
Linux files.
• As the system administrator, you need to
know how to create file systems should you
want to store Linux files on a floppy or add
additional file systems to your hard drives.

106. • Mounting Filesystems:
In order to access any filesystem under Linux,
you must mount it on a certain directory. This
makes the files on the filesystem appear as
though they reside in the given directory,
allowing you to access them.
The mount command is used to do this and
usually must be executed as root.
Syntax:
mount -t type device mount-point

107. • where type is the type name of the filesystem
• device is the physical device where the filesystem
resides (the device file in /dev)
• mount-point is the directory on which to mount the
filesystem.
• For example, if you have a Second Extended
filesystem on the partition /dev/hda2, and wish to
mount it on the directory /mnt, use the command:
mount -t ext2 /dev/hda2 /mnt

108. • To mount a floppy that was created on a Windows
system and therefore is in DOS format, you use the
command:
mount -t msdos /dev/fd0 /mnt
• This makes the files available on an MS-DOS format
floppy under /mnt.
• The inverse of mounting a file system is, naturally,
unmounting it.
• Unmounting a file system has two effects: it
synchronizes the system's buffers with the actual
contents of the file system on disk, and it makes the
file system no longer available from its mount point.
You are then free to mount another file system on
that mount point.

109. • Unmounting is done with the umount
command (note that the first "n" is missing
from the word "unmount"), as in:
umount /dev/fd0
to unmount the filesystem on /dev/fd0.
• Similarly, to unmount whatever filesystem is
currently mounted on a particular directory,
use a command such as: umount /mnt

110. Creating File systems
• A filesystem can be created using the mkfs command.
Creating a filesystem is analogous to "formatting" a partition
or floppy, allowing it to store files.
• Syntax:
mkfs -t type device blocks
where
type is the type of filesystem to create,
device is the device on which to create the filesystem (such as
/dev/fd0 for a floppy),
blocks is the size of the filesystem,

111. • For example, to create an ext2 filesystem on a
floppy, you use this command:
mkfs -t ext2 /dev/fd0 1440
• Here, blocks is 1440, which specifies a 1.44-
MB, high-density 3.5-inch floppy. You could
create an MS-DOS floppy using -t msdos
instead.

112. Checking and Repairing File systems
• It is sometimes necessary to check your Linux file
systems for consistency and repair them if there are
any errors or lost data. Such errors commonly result
from a system crash or loss of power.
• The program fsck is used to check file systems and
correct any problems. Like mkfs, fsck is a front end
for a file system-type-specific fsck.type, such as
fsck.ext2 for Second Extended file systems.

113. • Syntax:
• fsck -t type device
• For example, to check an ext2 filesystem on
/dev/hda2, you use:
• fsck -t ext2 /dev/hda2

114. Customizing X Environment
Xinit
– You run X with the startx command.
– This is a front end for xinit, the program
responsible for starting the X server and running
various X clients that you specify.
– xinit (via startx) executes the shell script .xinitrc in
your home directory.
– This script simply contains commands that you
wish to run when starting X, such as xterm, xclock,
and so on.
– If you don't have a .xinitrc file, the system
default /usr/lib/X11/xinit/xinitrc is used instead of
that.

115. Running startx with this particular .xinitrc in place gives you something
that looks like

116. Configuring X-Windows
• Configuration of X11 is a multi-step process.
– # Xorg –configure
– This will generate an X11 configuration skeleton
file in the /root directory called xorg.conf.new.
The X11 program will attempt to search the
graphics hardware on the system and write a
configuration file to load the proper drivers for
the detected hardware on the target system.

117. • # Xorg -config xorg.conf.new
– Test the existing configuration to verify that Xorg can
work with the graphics hardware on the target
system.
• # Xorg -config xorg.conf.new -retro
– this test produces a black screen which may make it
difficult to diagnose whether X11 is working properly.
The older behavior is still available by using the retro
option.
• If a black and grey grid and an X mouse cursor appear,
the configuration was successful. To exit the test, switch
to the virtual console used to start it by pressing
Ctrl+Alt+Fn (F1 for the first virtual console) and press
Ctrl+C.

118. GNOME
• The GNU Network Object Model Environment
also known as GNOME.
• It consist of Panel, desktop, set of GUI tool
• GNOME is provided a flexible platform for the
development of powerful application
• GNOME is strongly supported by several
distribution and is the primary interface for
red hat and mandrake.

119. Advantages Of GNOME
• It is open source software , it is available free of cost.
• GNOME supports the drag and drop feature.
• GNOME documentation is extensive and you can
view the document by using the GNOME help
browser or any web browser such as Netscape
Navigator.
• GNOME support many national languages and you
can add new language without making any additional
changes to the s/w.

120. Choosing And Changing Window
Manager And Desktop
• GNOME works with any window manager.
• However desktop functionality such as drag and drop
capabilities and the GNOME pager only work with window
manager that are GNOME compliant.
• The current release of GNOME uses the sawfish window
manager.
• If you have several window manager installed on your system
you can change from one to other using the window manager
caplet.
• Caplet is the term used for a control panel , a module used to
configure your desktop.
• select the window manager entry in main menu to start a
setting menu or select its icon in the desktop.

121. Continued….
•Windows opened from perform preferences in the start here
window. A Panel is displayed listing your window managers.
•To add others to the list click on Add button on the right side of
the panel.
•This open the window that prompts you to enter an identifying
name for the window managers the command that starts the
window managers and any configuration tool it may used.
•If the window manager is GNOME compliant you can click the
button window manager Is session Managed.
•Once you finished making your entries and click OK the new
window manager appears in the list on the window manager
panel select it and click.
•Try to run that window manager. To run window manager
configuration tool, click run configuration tool button.

122. Remote X window access
While running X on the system the X servers run on the
computer and controls the monitor keyboard and mouse.
The server responds to command that X client sends that
open window and draw in those window.
The X client may run locally or on the remote system. The
argument is called as client server model.
A server provides the source that the client request.
Client communicate with server through network.
X display server offered graphics display server to client
that send X-protocol request to the server .
File servers and database servers request are usually
process executing on remote machine.
.

123. Continued…
The X client may run on locally or remote system with the
name of script file as a parameter first.
This should work but it would be much better if we could
simply revoke the script by typing its name giving it the
respectability of the linux command.
We do this by changing the file , make a file executable for
all user using the mode cmd $ chmod +x first .
Chmod to make a file executable use man and chmod to
find out more about octal arguments and other option