A MICROLEVEL ANALYSIS OF WOMEN AND POWER IN R.K. NARAYAN’S WAITING FOR THE MAHATMA & THE PAINTER OF SIGNS

1. A MICROLEVEL ANALYSIS OF WOMEN AND POWER IN R.K. NARAYAN‟S
WAITING FOR THE MAHATMA & THE PAINTER OF SIGNS
By
KOGILA KANNI
THESIS SUBMITED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR
THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS
NOVEMBER 2009
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2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I would like to thank, Jayaprakash Kanniappan for the endless love
and support that spurred me to complete this study. I dedicate this research to you JP. I
am also grateful to Dr. Agnes Liau Wei Lin who provided profound guidance and
supported this study from the beginning. Thank you for your patience Dr. Agnes. I am
also grateful to my father Mr. Kanni Subramaniam and my mother Mdm. Thevi
Thangaveloo for their blessings and for tolerating my long absence. I thank my dearest
friends Lam See Wei, Ravichandrika Alagirisamy and Usha Rani Marimuthu for their
sincere support. My lovely sister and brother in law, Jayalatchimy Kanni and Raman
Krishnan, I thank them for the comfort and help they offered at the most needed
moments. I thank my most dear friend, Jacqueline Asha Anand, for her kind help and
prayers. Thank you so much Jacqueline. Last but not least, I would also love to thank
Kanjana and Agelya for being there for me. Thank you
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3. Table of Contents
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................. 5
ABSTRAK ................................................................................................................................. 6
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. 7
CHAPTER 1 .................................................................................................................................. 8
1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 8
1.1 NARAYAN: THE CREATOR OF MALGUDI ..................................................... 10
1.2 THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ............................................................. 12
1.3 OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................ 14
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS .................................................................................... 14
1.5 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ............................................................... 14
1.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ......................................................................... 15
1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS .................................................................................... 16
1.8 SUMMARY............................................................................................................ 19
CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................................ 21
2.0 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 21
2.1 FOUCAULT AND POWER ...................................................................................... 24
2.2 FOUCAULT AND FEMINISM ................................................................................ 28
2.3 POWER AND INDIAN WOMEN............................................................................. 34
2.4 NARAYAN: A CRITICAL RESPONSE .................................................................. 38
2.5 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................. 49
CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................................................ 52
3.0 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 52
3.1 Thematic Analysis ....................................................................................................... 52
3.2 Selected Novels & Theory .......................................................................................... 53
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4. 3.3 Interpretation of the Analysis .................................................................................... 54
CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................................................ 55
4.0 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 55
4.1 FREEDOM AND POWER RELATIONS IN THE PAINTER OF SIGNS .......... 55
4.2 FREEDOM AND POWER RELATIONS IN WAITING FOR THE MAHATMA 63
4.3 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................. 70
CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................................................................ 71
5.0 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 71
5.1 EMPOWERMENT THROUGH POWER-TO ........................................................ 71
5.1.1 Women Empowerment through Power-to in The Painter of Signs .................... 71
5.1.2 Women Empowerment through Power-to in Waiting for the Mahatma ........... 77
5.2 EMPOWERMENT THROUGH POWER-OVER .................................................. 81
5.2.1 Women Empowerment through Power-over in The Painter of Signs ................ 81
5.2.2 Women Empowerment through Power-over in Waiting for the Mahatma ..... 87
5.3 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................. 93
CHAPTER 6 ................................................................................................................................ 94
6.0 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 94
6.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION FOR RESEARCH QUESTION ONE ................. 94
6.2 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION FOR RESEARCH QUESTION TWO ................ 97
6.3 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................... 100
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 101
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5. LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 R.K. Narayan‟s Women in Power
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6. SATU ANALISIS TAHAP MIKRO TENTANG WANITA DAN KUASA
DALAM NOVEL WAITING FOR THE MAHATMA DAN THE PAINTER OF
SIGNS KARYAAN R.K. NARAYAN
ABSTRAK
Kajian ini mendalami situasi-situasi watak-watak wanita dalam Waiting for the
Mahatma (1955) dan The Painter of Signs (1977) karyaan R.K. Narayan. Wanita-
wanita tersebut memprakktikan kuasa dalam hubungan kuasa pada tahap mikro
dengan menggunakan Teori Kuasa Foucault (1978). Kajian ini juga menggambarkan
pengertian „power-over‟ dan „power-to‟ yang mana watak-watak wanita memperoleh
penguasaan pada tahap micro hubungan kuasa yang berlaku dalam kalangan
masyarakat setempat mereka. Seterusnya kajian ini mendedahkan sudut produktif
kuasa yang mewujudkan kemungkinan kebebasan dan perubahan sosial dalam
kehidupan wanita. Teori Kuasa Foucault (1978) mendapati bahawa watak-watak
wanita Narayan tidak ditindas sepenuhnya seperti yang dicadangkan oleh teori kuasa
kontemporari yang disandang oleh feminis. Sebaliknya, kajian ini menbuktikan
penguasaan watak-watak wanita Narayan, dimana Daisy, Laxmi, Bharathi dan nenek
Sriram semuanya terlibat secara langsung dalam tahap mikro perhubungan kuasa yang
mempamerkan keyakinan diri, ketelusan, ketabah, dan keterlibatan dalam perubahan
diri mereka dan juga dalam lingkungan budaya mereka. Dalam keadaan ini, Teori
Kuasa Foucault memberi feminis cara pemikiran yang positif tentang hubungan kuasa
dengan wanita.
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7. A MICROLEVEL ANALYSIS OF WOMEN & POWER IN R.K. NARAYAN’S
WAITING FOR THE MAHATMA & THE PAINTER OF SIGNS
ABSTRACT
This study explores the situations in which the women characters of Narayan's
Waiting for the Mahatma (1955) and The Painter of Signs (1977) exercise power in
the microlevel power relations through Foucault‟s (1978) theory of power. It also
illustrates the notion of 'power-over' and 'power to' through which these women
characters gain empowerment in the microlevel power relations that circulate in the
local level of the society they live in. This study exposes the productive dimension of
power that creates possibilities for freedom and social change in women‟s lives.
Foucault‟s theory of power reveals that Narayan‟s women characters are not entirely
repressive as suggested by the contemporary theory of power sought by feminists.
Instead, it evident women empowerment, where Narayan‟s Daisy, Laxmi, Bharathi
and Sriram‟s grandmother who are directly involved in the microlevel power relations
appear assertive, bold, strong and involved in bringing changes in themselves and also
in the culture they live in. In this respect, Foucault‟s analysis of power provides
feminists with different ways of thinking about power in relation to women.
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8. CHAPTER 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In a world dominated by men, women strove to attain power over their life and
living. It took great effort for women to confirm their existence as more than
homemakers and caregivers. In such a situation, women and power are two elements
that gained association after great battles of rights.
The feminist movement in the past was a social and political movement. Then,
women fought for their rights to vote. Later, World War Two involved the enrolment
of women into the workplace to provide labour. As they joined the workforce, they
became aware of their unequal economic and social status beside men. Dissatisfaction
increased and they began to demand for their rights over their personal fulfilment.
Betty Friedan in her Feminine Mystique (Quindlen, 2001) discussed the issue of
personal achievement as „the problem that has no name‟. She delivered her message
through her writing that evokes every woman who reads the book to have the power to
change her state of living as a woman. Thus, the empowerment of women started to
emerge.
Later in 1996, the National Organization for Woman (NOW), an official group
was formed to represent women and campaign for women‟s concerns. Leaders such as
Betty Friedan, Bella Abzug, Shirley Chisholm, and Gloria Steinem pressured
politicians to become aware of women‟s concerns and work on legislation that would
improve the quality of women‟s lives.
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9. Since then, the women‟s movement never stopped. The emergence of women
in power was obvious where they became great leaders and social workers. In a world
dominated by men, women are gradually achieving their liberty.
However, the emergence of the feminist movement did not stop the domination
by men. Women were denied access to power and were oppressed in many
circumstances. Despite many efforts made by the feminist movement, women today
are still subjected to a secondary position. These states of subordination are well
represented in literature too in the form of “patriarchy, sexuality as well as social
class” to name a few (Thorner & Krishnaraj, 2000, p.14). Works written by famous
writers especially the Indian writers of English novels as in Anita Desai‟s Fasting &
Feasting (1999), portray the subordination of women in real life. Literature traps
women in their contemporary position in the form of writings. Their works traverse
through the times delivering the traditional positioning of women to the readers.
Hence, it leaves the women characters in books trapped under the male dominated
circumstances where they remained powerless.
Feminism concerns the experiences of women and largely feminists study the
aspects of inequality between men and women socially, politically and economically.
In the area of literature, feminists criticize the subordination of women characters
represented by the female and male authors, feminists point out that inequality, and
biasness towards women appear to be dominant. They are against the idea that women
are not equal to men. In line with this, it is important to investigate the position of
women and power in literature since “power is a central concept in the study of
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10. women subordination” (Yoder & Kahn, 1992). Therefore, this study will explore how
and when Narayan‟s women characters exercise power in The Painter of Signs (1977)
and Waiting for the Mahatma (1955). The aim of this study is to explore the situations
in which these women characters exercise power at the microlevel power relations and
to investigate the notion of 'power-over' and 'power to' through which they gain
empowerment in the selected novels. Thus, the researcher will use Foucault‟s (1978)
theory of power to study Narayan‟s women characters in relation to power. At the end,
the researcher will conclude whether power liberates Narayan‟s women characters
from contemporary male dominance.
1.1 NARAYAN: THE CREATOR OF MALGUDI
Rasikpuram Krishnaswamy Iyer Narayanaswamy in short is also known as
R.K.Narayan as Graham Greene, Narayan‟s discoverer and literary promoter
addressed him. According to Raman (2001), Narayan was born in Chennai, formally
known as Madras, South India in the year 1906 and earned his education at Maharaja‟s
College in Mysore (Raman, 2001). He first started his career as a writer of short
stories and essays for newspapers to eke out a living. Later, after his first novel Swami
and Friends that was first published in 1935, he became a successful writer of many
dazzling short stories and novels in English. Narayan gave birth to the city of Malgudi
through his writings, which is known as India‟s best-loved fictional city. Malgudi, a
fictitious stereotypical small town, where the standard norms of superstition and
tradition apply is the interesting element in Narayan‟s writing.
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11. Narayan, (1906-2001) lived well into his nineties, providing until the end of
his life substantial oeuvres which won unprecedented recognition for Indian Writing in
English. It formed a prominent segment called Commonwealth Literature from the
mid-1960s onwards (Travedi, 2007).
Compared with other writers of his time, namely Mulk Raj Anand (1905-2004)
and Raja Rao (1908-2006), Narayan received more critical attention and enjoyed extra
popularity. On the other hand, some writers who started writing in English namely
Michael Madhusudan Dutt (1824-1873) and Bankimchandra Chatterjee (1838-1894)
reverted to writing in their mother tongue, Bengali. Besides them, Masti Venkatesh
Iyengar who initially wrote in English also returned to write in the Kannada language
(Travedi, 2007). Among them, according to Travedi, Narayan continued writing in
English confidently unlike Raja Rao who complained, that writing in English was
difficult (Travedi, 2007). Besides that, Narayan did not use the hybridized variety of
English like Mulk Raj Anand (1905-2004), in his works. However, Narayan
mesmerized his readers with his fictional city of Malgudi populated by ordinary Indian
men and women. In other words, he depicted the real India in his writings. The author
was not a citizen likened to Malgudi by upbringing and social location (Travedi, 2007).
Although he was not born or brought up in such an ordinary environment, he never
failed to touch the very essence of the ordinary Indian men and women‟s daily lives in
his writing. Thus, his writings are truly appreciated by his readers and are widely
accepted and enjoyed. Narayan is hailed as one of the greatest Anglo-Indian writers.
He died at the age of ninety-five following a cardio respiratory failure (Ram, 2001).
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12. Narayan is an exceptionally long lasting writer. His works not only
mesmerized the readers in India but readers around the world as well. His typical
trademark was humour throughout his writing, which brought him prosperous success.
Besides that, he is a simple writer who can write stories from the perspective of an
ordinary man describing the man‟s daily life and very genuinely put it in his narration.
Thus, his amusing stories of simple language make his work move smoothly from one
end to another end of the world.
Despite his demise in the year 2001, his writings are still on the shelves for
sale. Narayan‟s novels are extensively read, especially Waiting for the Mahatma (1995)
and The Painter of Signs (1977). His novels are widely researched by researchers
around the world. Normally, the past researches on Narayan‟s Waiting for the
Mahatma (1955) and The Painter of Signs (1977) focused on the aspects of symbolism,
illusion, sex, reality, humour, religion and even on his language, specifically the
sentence structures. Despite the wide range of research on his novels, the feminist
perspective pertaining to power and women however, has yet to be explored.
1.2 THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
In most of Narayan‟s work, the women characters carry dominant and active
roles. Besides that, these women do not only appear sensuous and seductive but
intelligent too. Although the women characters in Narayan‟s novels are outstanding
and dominant, research into his work did not address the element of women and power
that appears to be another trademark of his work. Although feminists are interested in
criticizing the subordination of women, many works concerning women
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13. empowerment are also found in the canon. Thus, efforts to look at Narayan‟s works in
relation to his women characters and power should also be given importance.
Past research conducted on Narayan‟s novels involving his women characters
included Symbolism, Sex, Illusion and Reality (Acharya, 2003), Maya and Mohini,
the study of illusions and mythical symbols (Bhatnagar, 2003), and R.K. Narayan‟s
„New Women‟: A Feminist Perspective (Satyasree, 2008). On the other hand, scholars
studied women subordination in his novels though there are many occurrences where
the writer presented his women characters as powerful. Unlike the contemporary
positioning of women, Narayan‟s women characters are neither oppressed nor
subordinated. Hence, to address this problem, there is a need to study Narayan‟s
novels in order to learn the truth. As mentioned earlier the researcher will use
Foucault‟s Theory of Power (1978), in order to explore the operation of power among
Narayan‟s women characters through the microlevel power relations and the notion of
„power-over‟ and „power-to‟ through which the author‟s women characters gain
empowerment in Waiting for the Mahatma (1955) and The Painter of Signs (1977).
Lastly, it is worth studying Narayan‟s women characters in relation to power
because it will portray women in the light of power and reinforce women
empowerment. Besides that, this study also acknowledges a significant shift taken by a
male author who was born and bred in a country where women are considered inferior
and infanticide of female babies was a common occurrence. Rather than being
presented as powerless, repressed, and passive, the women in Narayan‟s Waiting for
the Mahatma (1955) and The Painter of Signs (1977) are active, independent, and
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14. liberated through power. Thus, this study makes an original contribution to turn and
look at the other side of the coin into women empowerment in literature instead of
studying the traditional operation of power that subordinates women.
1.3 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this study are to:
1. Explore the situations in which the women characters of Narayan's Waiting for
the Mahatma (1955) and The Painter of Signs (1977) exercise power in the
microlevel power relations.
2. To investigate the notion of 'power-over' and 'power to' through which
Narayan's women characters gain empowerment in Waiting for the Mahatma
(1955) and The Painter of Signs (1977) .
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. In what circumstances do the women characters in Narayan‟s Waiting for the
Mahatma (1955) and The Painter of Signs (1977) exercise power in the
microlevel power relations?
2. How do Narayan‟s women characters gain empowerment through the notion of
„power-over‟ and „power-to‟ in his Waiting for the Mahatma (1955) and The
Painter of Signs (1977)?
1.5 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
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15. This study gives insight to the readers on how Indian women in India undergo
and exercise power in the traditional social context where men dominate and women
are subordinated. Besides that, this study not only enables the readers to understand
the significance of power in women‟s lives in order to accomplish their needs and
goals but also the role power plays to free them from the subordinated position.
Furthermore, this study also concentrates on exposing the readers to the productive
dimension of power in women‟s lives, which creates possibilities for freedom and
social change. In other words, it explains to the readers about the workings of power in
women‟s everyday lives. Lastly, this study helps readers to understand the
empowerment of women and diffuses the idea that women are powerless.
1.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The researcher‟s research is limited to two selected novels written by Narayan
namely Waiting for the Mahatma (1955) and The Painter of Signs (1977) although he
has produced a wide range of literary works. In order for the research to be productive,
is it essential for the researcher to choose a manageable number of novels. Therefore,
considering the time factor, the researcher finds it practical to research only two
novels of the author.
Since, this research intends to look at the element of women and power, the
researcher ensured that there are sufficient women characters in the chosen novels in
order to meet the purpose of the study. This is because, not all of the author‟s work
involves women characters. Some of his stories and novels do not include women
characters at all. Moreover, Narayan normally constructs his novels with a limited
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16. number of characters, thus the researcher ensured that the chosen novels included
women characters. It is also crucial to understand that this study concentrates
specifically on Indian women characters of Narayan‟s chosen novels.
Besides that, it is very important to remember that this study focuses on the
microlevel power relations that exist in the local level of the society. Microlevel
means the focus is on the “relatively small member of social agents who are directly
involved in the power relations and not in the set of background relation that form the
context for that power relation”, in other words, not the macrolevel (Allen, 1996,
p.267). Thus, the microlevel relations of power are the smaller scope of power
relations between two individuals or between small groups of individuals. Hence, this
research studies the microlevel power relations and women in the chosen novels
written by Narayan.
Lastly, it is important to understand that, the notion of women and the element
of power in other works of this author may differ. The range and type of power
bestowed upon the women characters in Narayan‟s other novels and short stories may
not assert the same idea of liberation as in Waiting for the Mahatma (1955) and The
Painter of Signs (1977).
1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS
1.7.1 POWER
According to Foucault (1983), power is a network where individuals
circulate on. His understanding of power includes the element of freedom. He
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17. defines power as sets of relations that exist between individuals, or that are
strategically developed by groups of individuals. To Foucault (1978), power is
everywhere and it is generated rather than possessed.
“if we speak of structures or the mechanisms of power, it is not only insofar as
we suppose that certain persons exercise power over others.”
(Foucault, 1978, p.92)
He says that power is a relation between two persons, and that it is not
only about a person influencing the other. Foucault defines power as the
“multiplicity of relations immanent in the sphere in which they operate and
which constitute their own organisation” (Foucault, 1978).
On the other hand, Lukes (1974 & 2005) and Connoly (1983) define
power as “something that is often regarded as an essentially contested concept”,
while Pitkin (1972) says, “power is related etymologically to the French word
pouvoir and the Latin potere, both of which mean „to be able‟.” According to
Pitkin “power is capacity, potential, ability, or wherewithal.” Meanwhile, Page
and Czuba (1999) define power as “something that is often related to our
ability to make others do what we want, regardless of their own wishes or
interests.”
In short, it can be said that power refers to those aspects of relating that
translate influence, that make a difference, and that have an effect. Besides that,
the actions of one affects the thoughts or actions of another.
1.7.2 POWER RELATIONS
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18. Foucault (1988a) says, power relation is multiple, they have different
forms, they can be in play in family relations, or within an institution, or an
administration or between a dominating and a dominated class. He went
further to explain that the characteristic of power relations is that, “as agents in
the structure, some men can more or less determine other men‟s conduct, but
never exhaustively.”
As defined by Foucault, the “poles of power relation could be
characterised by descriptions such as dominant-submissive, controlling-
rebellious, have-want, strong-weak and other phrases.” So according to him,
within the field of power relations, what one person does affects a second,
which affects the third, and so on. Thus, “power relations are the dynamics of
mutual influence.” (Foucault, 1978, p.93).
1.7.3 POWER-TO
Weber (1978), defines power-to as “personal empowerment.”
According to Weber, it is a control one feels over “one‟s own thoughts,
feelings, and behaviour.” It is further explained as the probability that one
actor within a social relationship will be in a position to carry out his “own will
despite resistance” (Foucault, 1978). Meanwhile, Arendt (1970) defines power-
to as the human ability not just to act but also to act in concert.”
1.7.4 POWER-OVER
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19. Power-over according to Goodrich (1991), is the “domination and
control of one person or group over another.” Dahl (1957), gave the same
definition of power-over. He defines it as „intuitive idea of power according to
which A has power over B to the extent that he can get B to do something that
B would not otherwise do”, while Foucault (1988b), defines power-over as a
state where, one can act upon others and the other is acted upon or allows
himself to be acted upon.
1.7.5 EMPOWERMENT
According to Page and Czuba (1999), empowerment is a “multi-
dimensional social process” that helps people gain control over their own lives.
In other words, a process that fosters power or the capacity to implement
power in people, for the use in their own lives, their communities, and their
society, by acting on issues that they define as important.
Similarly, Bush & Folger (1994) define empowerment as the
“restoration to individuals of a sense of their own value and strength and their
own capacity to handle life‟s problems.” Meanwhile, Thomas & Velthouse
(1990) define empowerment as including self-efficacy or competence, self-
determination, and impact on one‟s action.
1.8 SUMMARY
In short, this research will analyse Narayan‟s The Painter of Signs (1977) and
Waiting for Mahatma (1955) using Foucault‟s Theory of Power (1978), to study the
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20. relation between the author‟s women characters and power. This research intends to
analyse when and how Narayan‟s women characters exercise power in the microlevel
power relations. Furthermore, the researcher gives attention to Narayan‟s women
characters because they grow stronger (Satyasree, 2008) starting from The Dark Room
(1938) to Grandmother‟s Tale (1992) and thus, present that women empowerment is
not a myth as claimed by the traditional model of power.
Since Narayan is a writer who writes about people‟s life describing daily
happenings and brings out many simple issues of everyday life, the researcher finds
that Foucault‟s (1978) analysis of power matches most for this study because
Foucault‟s (1978) microlevel power relations as well emphasizes on people‟s daily life.
Thus, this study intends to explore the situations in which Narayan‟s women
characters exercise power in the microlevel power relations and investigate the notion
of 'power-over' and 'power to' through which they gain empowerment and live life the
way they intend to in the author‟s selected novels.
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21. CHAPTER 2
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Power is not an institution, and not a structure; neither is it a certain
strength we are endowed with; it is the name that one attributes to a
complex strategical situation in a particular society.
(Foucault, 1978, p.92-93)
Michel Foucault was a well-known French philosopher, historian, and social
critic figure who influenced a wide range of disciplines including medicine, literature,
and literary theory. According to Kritzman, Foucault provided a new way to analuse
power politically, socially and economically through what he called power relations
(Kritzman, 1988). In the process, he had engaged in a series of provocative dialogues
with his theoretical ancestors such as Marx, Nietzsche, Freud, and Sartre to name a
few due to the differences in the way they analyse power (Kritzman, 1988).
Foucault (1978), gives a very different definition of power. He does not
perceive power as a subject possessed by an individual; instead, he sees power as a
network of relations and further claims that individuals circulate along this network.
Besides that, he claims that everyone exercises power because power is everywhere.
Ultimately, he rejects the “traditional revolutionary theory of power that supports both
liberal theories of sovereignty and Marxist theories that locate power in the economy
and the state as an arm of the bourgeoisie” (Sawicki, 1991, p.20). Foucault says that
when he thinks of power he “thinks not only of its existing structure of pathways but
also of the extent to which power absorbs into the very grain of individuals, reaches
right into their bodies, permeates their gestures, what they say, how they learn to live
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22. and work with people” (Munro, 2003, p.82). Unlike the traditional juridico-discursive
model, Foucault does not “restrict his model of power to the assumption that
individuals in the state of nature primarily possess power by class, neither does that
power flow from a centralized source from top to bottom nor is it repressive in its
exercise” (Sawicki, 1991, p.20). To him, every power relations energetic, where
people involved in the power relations are both in position to act and react (Sawicki,
1991). Athough it seems difficult to understand Foucault‟s explanation of power, it is
relationally easy. Firstly, we must understand that he draws attention to “a network of
complex and interconnected „disciplinary techniques‟ through which power primarily
operates in modern society”. Secondly, we need to understand that “power is
everywhere not because it embraces everything, but because it comes from
everywhere”. Lastly, “power is not an institution, a structure or a certain type of
strength one is endowed with” (Foucault, 1978, p.93). Indeed, Foucault‟s theory of
power is a direct opposite from the traditional models of power because he frees
power by saying it is merely a network of relations rather than a subject clutched by
anyone or anything.
Additionally, Foucault says that power must be analysed as something that
“circulates and not as a commodity or a piece of wealth” (Foucault, 1980, p.98). He
distinguishes his idea on power by criticising models that see power as being purely
located in the State or the administrative and executive bodies that govern the nation
State. He further says that the wide and complex micro levels of power in the social
body creates state. According to Foucault, if there are no micro power relations than
there will not be any existence of the state (O‟Farrell, 2005). Foucault emphasizes
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23. “microlevel power relations rather than engaging his analysis of power on a discussion
of legitimate and illegitimate uses of power by the state” (Foucault, 1979, p.26). He
suggests „micro-physics‟ of power, which he defines as “an examination of specific
power relations at every day level” (Hekman, 1996, p.271). In other words, in
Foucault‟s view, power operates locally, circulates in the capillaries of the social body,
and emanates from the very point in the social field. His analysis of power is
extremely concerned with the microlevel of analysis, that is the circulation of power
among people of very local levels of the society.
Similarly, Munro also claims that Foucault‟s analysis of power emphasizes
microlevel relations (Munro, 2003) and that power is a positive social presence that
operates in all aspects of life and exerts itself in all directions, creating a variety of
different relationships other than those within the domination-subordination dynamic
of traditional conceptions. This is the very essence of Foucault‟s theory of power and
the reason for the widespread use of his idea in many other fields including feminism.
He provides a new dimension from where power could be analysed as a more gentle
and general source accessible to everyone, everywhere, at anytime. Adding to this,
Foucault argues that, “since modern power operates in a capillary fashion through the
social body, it is best grasped in its concrete and local effect and in everyday practices
that sustain and reproduce power relations” (Sawicki, 1988, p.88).
In short, Foucault “frees power from the domain of political theory and
proposes that we think of power outside the confines of state, law, or class” (Sawicki,
1988, p.164) in order to locate forms of power that are obscured in traditional theories.
23

24. His notion of power challenges the commonly held assumption that power is
essentially a negative, repressive force that operates “purely through the mechanisms
of law, taboo, and censorship” (Foucault, 1978, p.82). However, he does not deny that
the juridico-discursive model of power describes one form of power. According to
Sawicki Foucault simply thinks that it cannot make “power become centralized and
repressive” especially at the microlevel of society where countless power relations
exist (Sawicki, 1991, p.20).
2.1 FOUCAULT AND POWER
2.1.1 The Dynamic Mode
Foucault criticizes previous traditional models of power for assuming that
power is fundamentally repressive. According to O‟Farrell (2005), to Foucault power
is not about simply saying no and oppressing individuals, social classes or natural
instincts. Instead, he argues that “power is productive” (O‟Farrell, 2005, p.100). This
means that power generates particular types of knowledge and cultural order. Foucault
rejects the repressive model of power because he does not see the “rationale of the
strong approval of power in our daily lives if it appears primarily repressive” (Sawicki,
1991, p.21). He says that Marxist associates power with domination for a fairly long
time, that the positive possibilities of the liberation through power went merely
invisible. Thus, he claims that power and oppression are not identical and it is not wise
to associate them upon broad reasoning. Foucault further elaborates that the repressive
power represents power in its most frustrated and extreme situation where the exercise
of force is more often an evidence of a lack of power. Furthermore, there are many
24

25. relations of power extending throughout the entire social body and to “identify power
with oppression is to assume that power is exercised from one source and that it is one
thing” (O‟Farrell, 2005, p.101). This assumption to Foucault is wrong, for he claims
that in a broader view, power is seen as productive only at the macrolevel, and thus its
productive circulation at the microlevel becomes redundant. Therefore, power is
assumed to be repressive. In addition, he also give accounts of how certain
institutional and cultural practices produce individuals, which further strengthens his
claim on “the productive nature of power” (Sawicki, 1991, p.22). Foucault with his
refined notion of power analysis analyses power from a new angle. However, he does
not deny the phenomenon of state but he claims that it is important to understand the
possibilities of resistance when every power relation takes place and such resistance
brings liberation into the process. Thus he suggests a different route in order to analyse
power and tries to prove that such relations of power at microlevels extend influence
to the macrolevel society.
Apart from that, Foucault also says that power produces particular types of
behaviour, by regulating people‟s everyday activities which he describes as the
„microphysics of power‟ and „capillary power‟. In his own words, he claims that
“power reaches into the very grain of individuals, touches their bodies and inserts
itself into their actions and attitudes, their discourses, learning processes and everyday
lives” (Foucault, 1980, p.39). Foucault‟s view of power is productive rather than
repressive and it is well developed in his Volume 1 of The History of Sexuality (1978).
2.1.2 Implementing Power
25

26. Foucault, in his History of Sexuality (1988a, p.45) says “some people exercise
power and find pleasure in doing so while others find pleasure in resisting power.” He
explains that power is not a property owned by one, rather one chooses to either
exercise or resist it. Foucault claims that thinking of power as a possession is wrong,
according to him “power is not a „thing‟ or a „capacity‟ which can be owned either by
state class or particular individuals” (O‟Farrell, 2005, p.99). Conversely, he explains
that power is a relation between different individuals and groups and only exists when
it is being exercised. As he says, a king is only a king if he has subjects otherwise, he
is just an ordinary man. Thus, being a king does not bring nor give him power but
having the subjects gives him the link to exercise power. Hence, power is not a
blessing rather sets of relations through which power takes effect. Besides the king-
subject relation, among other forms of relations are teacher-student, doctor-patient,
husband-wife, mother-son, daughter-father to name a few.
Further to this, Foucault claims that power pervades the social body at all
levels. However, he adds that it does not cover every “social relation and it is limited
when extensively exercised” (O‟Farrell, 2005, p.99). He says that power is everywhere
in the society and people move around this systematic network under the constraint of
the macrolevel. However, it neither limits nor stops the circulation of power relations
in the microlevel society.
However, later he claims that power becomes a way of changing people‟s
conduct that he defines as “mode of action upon the actions of others” (Faubion &
Hurley, 2000, p.341). In addition to this, he also argues that power can only be
26

27. exercised over free subjects (O‟Farrell, 2005). He claims that there should be
possibilities for the subjects to react and behave in a different way. In other words,
individuals and people in groups must constantly be in the mode to act and react
because when these possibilities are blocked, the space to exercise power are as well
blocked as well, hence, power relation will not take place. Through his theory of
power, he stresses that we are never “trapped by power because there are always
possibilities to modify its hold” (Sawicki, 1991, p.25). Thus, he is suggesting that
power is accessible to everyone, to pick it up or drop it is the choice to be made by an
individual and if it is picked up, then there are possibilities of changes.
2.1.3 Power Throughout the Social Body
Foucault criticizes traditional models of power which are solely centralized in
the state level. To him, as said earlier, the very “existence of the state depends on the
operation of thousands of complex micro-relations of power at every level of the
social body” (O‟Farrell, 2005, p.100). He sees power as a positive social presence that
operates in all aspects of life and exerts itself in all directions, creating a variety of
different relationships (Munro, 2003). Thus, he says that, power circulates even among
two individuals or groups of individuals in the society from fathers in relation to their
children, men in relation to women, children in relation to parents, and women in
relation to men to name a few. Therefore, Foucault (1978) argues that all these
“relations of power at different levels work together and against each other in
constantly shifting combinations” (O‟ Farrell, 2005, p.101) and so, it is wrong to
analyse power as coming from top down. He says it is not possible to understand
27

28. power relations if the analysis starts from the macrolevel. Thus, to understand the
analysis, one should begin at the local level and from there see the patterns of
practices and discourses and their interrelations and how they have become inert and
seemingly fixed at the macrolevel. Only then, can the relations of power be understood.
Therefore, as a compliment, Foucault‟s (1978), analysis of the microlevel
power relations presents considerable improvement to contemporary feminists by
encouraging space for a pluralist understanding of womanhood that redresses the
traditional concepts which deny women power, to women empowerment. McLaren
(2002), says that Foucault‟s theory of power “lack a normative framework” (McLaren,
2002, p.19). However, McLaren argues that Foucault‟s work provides significant
“theoretical resources for feminism” (McLaren, 2002, p.17). Hence, Foucault‟s (1978),
notion of power relations at the microlevel permits a different approach of how power
operates in the world in a new way that contradicts the contemporary system which
feminists normally adopt to prove the subordination of women in the world dominated
by men. Furthermore, Foucault‟s (1978) theory of power opens room for feminists to
study the relationship between women and power in an opposite way from that of
contemporary revolutionary theory in an attempt to study women‟s subordination.
2.2 FOUCAULT AND FEMINISM
Foucault‟s (1978) theory of power poses a challenge to the traditional way of
thinking about power. This challenge makes Foucault‟s work both a significant
resource for feminist theory and generates heated debate among feminist social and
political theorists. Therefore, Foucault has considerable influence towards the study of
28

29. women subordination. The string that brings Foucault‟s entanglement with feminism
is ultimately the concept of power being the central focus of the women‟s movement.
Foucault‟s notion of power restructures the way feminists analyse power from that of
the contemporary revolutionary theory namely Marxist and liberal theories. Although
Foucault‟s large contribution deals with power relations analysis in the political,
economical, and social settings, his work also provides a new dimension for feminists
to analyse power relations in feminists‟ study of difference.
Feminism, on the other hand is women‟s movement that fights for equal rights
and lawful protection for women. Largely the concept of power is fundamental to the
theoretical task of women subordination as in the subject of racism, heterosexism and
class oppression. Furthermore, an analysis of power is fundamental to the feminist
mission (Yoder & Kahn, 1992) of understanding the nature and cause of women‟s
subordination. Therefore, the question of difference is always at the forefront of
discussion among feminists. Foucault‟s notion of power has considerable influence on
the analysis of power relations in women‟s study. However, Foucault makes regular
“reference to resistance as both directive and target power, but he does not lead us to
what resistance looks like from the inside out” (Radtke & Stam, 1994, p.61). Due to
this, Foucault‟s nation of power is regularly questionable. He merely describes his
ideas of power and gives wide range of examples to it, but he did not provide proper
evidence. Probably this is the reason for why Foucault‟s notion of power frequently
leads to misunderstandings. Nevertheless, his theory definitely provides a new scale to
analyse power especially for feminists.
29

30. On the other hand, feminists conceptualize power in three ways. Firstly, both
individually and collectively they regard power as a resource to be distributed and
redistributed. Secondly, they regard power as a dominant element and thirdly, power
as a form of empowerment. Additionally, feminist scholars, Goodrich (1991), suggest
that power can be conceptualized in two ways, that is power-to (personal
empowerment) and power-over that is regarded as domination (Yoder & Kahn, 1992).
Since power is a central concept in the study of women‟s movement, it adopted the
traditional revolutionary theory of power in order to criticize women‟s subordination.
Thus, oppression of women was explained by patriarchal social structures that secure
the power of men over women. In doing so, feminists opted to use the traditional
revolutionary theory of power for their research and study. The traditional model of
power underlies an opposite notion from that of Foucault‟s. The traditional model of
power says that power is possessed, for instance, by the individuals in the state of
nature, a class, or the people. Secondly, it claims that power flows from a centralized
source from top to bottom as in the law, economy and the state. Lastly, it also claims
that power is primarily repressive in its exercise (Sawicki, 1991) thus it is a
prohibition backed by sanction. For decades, under this traditional theory of power,
feminists worked to reveal the subordination of women and struggle to highlight the
dividing factor experienced in the society through which they fought for equal rights.
However, feminists who are concerned to encounter what they regard as the
oversimplified conception of power relations question the problematic implication that
women are simply passive, powerless victims of male power under the traditional
revolutionary theory. Thus, some feminists turn to Foucault‟s theory of power because
30

31. it offers a slightly more optimistic view of the relationship between power and women.
Foucault offers a possible shift in understanding power relations. For instance, when
women exercise power in many ways to create overt or subversive strategies, than in
Foucault‟s interpretation, women are able to rebel and exercise power because
“freedom is everywhere for them to exercise power” (Foucault, 1988a, p.12). Thus,
Foucault gives a new dimension to study women‟s position in society. However,
largely Foucault‟s analysis of power relations focuses on the microlevel society where
he shows how mechanisms of power at this level become part of dominant networks
of power relations. According to him, power never traps anyone, thus it is always
possible to modify its hold in every condition (Sawicki, 1991). Hence, from his
account, women can adapt and adopt power for their own ends.
Foucault in his effort to provide a different angle from where power should or
could be analysed has eventually opened up a different route for feminists to explore
their effort towards women‟s equal rights. Feminists, all the way throughout their
studies highlighted the subordination of women socially, politically and economically.
In order to fight against the double standards women lived in for decades, feminists
have outrageously pointed out the angles where women subordination was dominant
and as a reward for their effort, many things have changed in the world today with
regard to women‟s positions. Thus, turning to Foucault‟s notion of power will further
enhance the women‟s position in the society as Martin (1988) says, “the unity of
women in tension with the global effect of patriarchal relations has created a space for
us from which to interpret as well to speak” (Martin, 1988, p.16). Therefore, adopting
31

32. Foucault‟s notion of power in feminists‟ studies will change the idea that women are
entirely powerless to a considerable extent.
However, the traditional belief towards the state of women being subordinated
has not changed, nor did feminists alter the state of the claim (Uchem, 2001).
Feminists by large still hold to the “contemporary patriarchal theory” in fighting
against women subordination (Jackson, 1998, p.13) although the idea of women
empowerment has been “central to the evolution of women‟s movement since the late
1960‟s as pioneered by Paolo Freire” (Kramarae, 2000, p.554). The state of
subordination could have been the foundation ground from where women‟s movement
eventually started. As it has uprooted and resulted in many optimistic changes to
women‟s state of living, it is high time women‟s movement stop grudging about being
powerless and subordinated. Instead, feminists should turn their attention to the
empowerment of women and modify the position women share in present days
politically, socially and economically. Thus, taking up Foucault‟s theory of power
(1978) to study women empowerment instead of women subordination will to a
considerable extent if not entirely rework the secondary position women used to live
in for decades in the past because “empowerment is a process that aims at creating the
conditions for the self-determination of a particular group” (Kramarae, 2000, p.554).
Furthermore, it is invoked to signify the “potential for change and has been used
successfully as a means to mobilize people to action” (Kramarae, 2000, p.554). Hence,
shifting from the old way of pointing out women‟s oppression and state of
subordination in order to gain recognition of their empowerment will assert some
sense of authority for women in present days.
32

33. In the past, women obtained power by fighting against their subordination,
they can successfully improve their position politically, economically and politically.
Today, through the changes they have achieved, they continue their movement
through empowerment. Foucault‟s work definitely deserves a compliment to feminism
for providing a new room where women can prove the significance of their existence
in a society. Thus, men do not anymore control women; rather they exercise power
over women. This does not mean that women are powerless but they simply choose
not to exercise power. It simply means, both women and men have the freedom to
choose whether to exercise power and neither has more than the other does.
However, Foucault was not optimistic, yet he affirmed political struggle and
expected his work to lead his readers to “pessimistic activism” (Poster, 1989, p.114).
This is because he does not accept totalizing theories or strategies; he, according to
Radtke & Stam (1994) does not foresee a glorious freedom day but rather continuing,
shifting struggles.
Nevertheless, Foucault and feminism complement each other. As for feminism,
it offers a great deal of revolution to think of and analyse power from a different angle
and as for Foucault, to prove the circulation of power at the microlevels of society is
significant and it has considerable effect on the macrolevels. Thus, it is wise to think
of feminism through Foucault and where necessary beyond him because his methods
of undertaking power relations complement feminist analyses where he “illuminates
ways by which dominant discourses produce power imbalances and he starts from the
point of difference” (Radtke & Stam, 1994, p.61).
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34. 2.3 POWER AND INDIAN WOMEN
Power and women share strong association in Indian culture. Reflecting on
Vedas, the sacred texts of Hinduism, God is worshipped in the female form such as the
goddess Lakshmi for wealth, the goddess Saraswathi for wisdom and the goddess
Dhurga for power (Radhakrishnan, 1957). Nevertheless, the status of women in India
by reality does not resemble the equivalent honour. In the past, the inheritance of the
Indian women is dependent on the religion, region, caste, and class in which they are
born. However, in present days, the conditions have not changed much. Indian women
being the majority population of India still cry for single justice under the prevailing
patriarchal traditions.
Women in India live entirely a different world historically, socially,
economically and politically. However, the state they share in as Indian women was
and is rather pathetic. According to Mageli (1997), women in India have benefitted
little from the development process since independence. Primarily, the birth of a baby
girl into a family is considered unlucky. The infant is deemed as a burden and disgrace
to the family, at such the beliefs lead to infanticide (Mageli, 1997). Female
discrimination and subordination are well known among Indians, according to
Poitevin and Raikar (1985), Indian women suffer from the lack of social identity.
Marriage for instance appears as a depressing experience from which the newlywed
bride understands that she is “handed over for a sum of money or dowry without being
given the slightest consideration” (Poitevin & Raikar 1985, p.77). More often than not,
they feel they have been sold.
34

35. The practice of dowry is linked to “caste status where among higher castes a
dowry is expected from the bride‟s family and among lower castes the dowry is paid
to the bride‟s family” (Fowler, 1997, p.54). Gradually, the prevalence of dowry
increased, people started to abuse the practice (Miller, 1993) in their greed for money
and as a result, women become the victims in silence. Although there is no proof when
the practice of dowry first started, the ultimate existence of Indian women‟s
powerlessness is notable everywhere in India.
On the other hand, the women in India are also powerless due to the practice of
sati or widow burning. In other words, it is “an act of immolation of a wife on the
funeral pyre of her husband” (Hawley, 1994, p.3). Although sati in present days is
banned, the rare occurrence is devastating. According to Oldenburg (Hawley, 1994),
an 18 year old newly married woman has suddenly been widowed and then cremated
along with the corpse of her husband in the manner of sati in 1987. The parents of the
woman, Bal Singh Rathore and Sneh Kanwar were neither informed of their son in
law‟s death nor of their daughter‟s wish to die as sati on her husband‟s funeral pyre.
This is an extreme state of powerlessness Indian women suffered in the recent past.
However, the occurrence in the present is claimed to be a myth. Nevertheless, women
in India are among those who lived such a dreadful life once.
Besides that, the Indian women are subordinates in most marriages. Marriage
is another relationship which denies Indian women power. The position of women in
India is notably poor. After marriage, her in-laws takes authority of her and her
behaviour reflects the honour of her husband. The primary duty of a newly married
35

36. young woman, and virtually her only means of improving her position in the hierarchy
of her husband‟s household, is to bear sons. According to Hedge (Radha & Hedge,
1999) the “perfect mother is one who can bear sons,” otherwise she is worth nothing.
Thus, the preference for sons in India increases female infanticides. Therefore, the
state of being powerless for Indian women starts from their birth. However, the
present state of women in India is deemed better where female infanticide is also
banned but the preference for sons remains crystal clear (Radha & Hedge, 1999).
Consequently, the yearning for baby boys among the Indian community puts women
not only in the secondary position but also in a powerless state. Apart from this, there
are endless lists of women subordination that denies them power likened to child
marriages that keep women subjugated and divorce on the other hand is not a possible
option for women. Besides that, women‟s rights to inheritance are limited and
frequently violated. All in all these prescriptions limit the access of power to women,
thus, leaves them powerless.
Far beyond all, Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964), the first prime minister of India
claims that “the condition of a nation can be determined from the status of its women”
(Srimati, 1999, p.3). His opinion is one of the revolutionary views that assert women
to move forward because he believes when women move forward, the family moves,
the village moves, and thus the nation moves.
Despite the dark ages Indian women lived in the past, the contact of Indian
culture with that of the British brought improvement in the status of women. On the
other hand, Mahatma Gandhi as well indulged women to participate in the freedom
36

37. movement. Since then, education was also provided for women and as a result, women
in India have distinguished themselves as teachers, nurses, clerks, receptionists, and
doctors to name a few. Moreover, their existence is visible in the political and
administration areas too. Thus, Indian women have truly improved from the deep
slumber of century old oppression. However, illiteracy, dowry and slavery have to end
to a large extent if not entirely in order for women to have their rightful place in the
Indian society.
37

38. 2.4 NARAYAN: A CRITICAL RESPONSE
Narayan‟s writing, despite his popularity evokes many students and
researchers to study his work critically. By large, studies on Narayan are related to
humour, irony, religion, and family relationship. These are the essential trade of his
writings, imbuing them with the elusive blend of comparability and wisdom.
Bhatnagar (2008), claims that Narayan is a writer who equally balances his writing
based “on the original Indian‟s daily life without detaching it from its universality”
(Bhatnagar, 2008, p.2).
Mathur, (2001), researched on the evolution of self in Narayan‟s major women
characters from three different novels namely The Dark Room (1982), The Guide
(1978) and The Painter of Signs (1977). Mathur‟s (2001), selection of the novels
respectively belongs to Narayan‟s early, middle and later periods. The study
concentrated on three major women characters of the novels namely, Savitri from The
Dark Room (1982), Rosie from The Guide (1978) and Daisy from The Painter of
Signs (1977). Mathur (2001), presents the formation of these three different types of
female characters and provides a continuing discourse on their growing realization of
strength of self with the advancement of the century. As regard to the women
characters, it is typical for Narayan to present them differently facing equally different
dilemmas and arriving at different solutions.
Mathur‟s (2001), study discovers that in The Dark Room (1982), Savitri is a
woman of strong and deep character helpless and suffering although she lives in a
comfortable house with her children. As a homemaker, she hardly feels freedom, thus
38

39. her desires and potentials remain unexpressed. Meanwhile, Rosie of The Guide (1978),
is the daughter of a temple dancer. She lives liberatedly during her early years having
great passion for dancing. She is married to „Marco‟ a rich man who does not respond
to her requirements. Unable to suppress her multiple instincts, she starts to lead her
own life seeing her favourite cobra dance and gradually falls in love with her only
companion Raju, the guide. On the other hand, Daisy in The Painter of Signs (1977) is
peculiarly modern for whom the cult of independent individuality is the supreme value
in life. Thus, Mathur (2001), discovers that in the novels of Narayan, the awareness of
self in the grumbling but helpless femininity of Savitri evolves into Rosie‟s realization
of her potentiality of independent life and ultimately into Daisy‟s self of a missionary
zealot. Mathur‟s study however, did not address the power relationship evolving along
with the construction of self, which is rather obvious in the process of self
development among the characters.
The awareness of self in Narayan‟s novel by Mathur (2001), depicted that the
women characters have evolved through the century. Thus, Mathur‟s (2001), study is a
proof that Narayan‟s women characters practice power to a considerable extent. They
are not helpless or oppressed in the novels. However, Marthur (2001) did not mention
anything about these women exercising power in any way. Nevertheless, the presence
of power practice is obvious in Narayan‟s The Guide (1978) and The Painter of Signs
(1977). Living it unexamined will be a waste. What is the purpose of merely proving
the construction of self among Narayan‟s women characters? How would one arrive at
the notion that the women characters have evolved through the time? The question of
how it did happen will remain a mystery. Therefore, there are adequate benefits in
39

40. examining the role of power in the construction of self of Mathur‟s (2001), study.
Furthermore, this study will be a complement for Mathur‟s (2001) study because it
will help to explain how the three women characters evolved through the century.
Consequently, there will be influencing factors along the process. Thus, studying
women and power of Narayan‟s will be an advancement to investigate the role of
power in relation to women‟s lives.
On the other hand, Sen‟s (2004), critical essay on Narayan‟s The Guide (1978),
concentrated on the author‟s yet another essential trademark; humour and irony. Sen‟s
study on Narayan‟s sense of humour and the way he ideally illustrates the absurdities
and contradiction of Indian people‟s daily lives. Sen specifically refers to the character
of Raju in The Guide (1978), who appears to be the reluctant guru. He identified
Narayan as a supreme ironist who with his gentle humour exposes the absurdities of
Indian cultural practices in India. In his study, Sen (2004), presents how Narayan
develops a sympathetic character out of his rogue of a hero demonstrating comically,
how Raju attempts to make the best out of a bad business. Sen‟s (2004), study is an
interesting one, however it is not anywhere near the theme of power and women.
Ironically, The Guide (1978), of Narayan is filled with these elements, where Rosie a
women with passion for dancing leads her own life. There are many elements of
power embedded in the novel related to women in The Guide (1978). However, this
theme is again left unearthed. There are many other works of Narayan folding
numerous interesting issues pertaining to women and power. However, largely themes
like humour, symbolism, myth, to mention a few occurring in Narayan‟s work
overshadow this very important theme regarding women and power.
40

41. Many other past research on Narayan‟s work are based on other aspects
namely, Sex, Symbolism, Illusion, and Reality by Acharya (2003). On the other hand,
Sen (2004) contributed a study on Social Reality and Myth of Narayan‟s work.
Adding to this according to Bhatnagar (2008, p.5), “Rama Kundu performs a
complementary exercise highlighting the element of rituals and folklore in Narayan‟s
fictional universe.” Meanwhile S. Girija in Bhatnagar (2008) brings the element of
customs and conventions as a part of Narayan‟s endeavour to capture Indian ambience.
Among others are of the Gandhian phenomenon researched by Aikant (2007) based on
the novel Waiting for the Mahatma (Bhatnagar, 2008). Certainly, there are sufficient
numbers of research conducted on Narayan‟s writings. However, feminism is
obviously a theme that is left without much exploration.
Narayan‟s character presentation is an interesting area of study for it brings to
bear the same complexity with which he had dealt with other related issues namely,
humour, irony, religion, myth, and family relationships to mention a few. Among
scholars who attempted to explore this theme are Bai (1996), in Women‟s Voice, who
uncovered the treatment of female characters in The Dark Room (1982), Singh (1997),
scrutinises The Guide (1978), on oppression towards the female characters in the novel.
However, the amount of studies done pertaining to feminism is fairly less. Thus, there
is adequate significance to carry out more research of this theme. Therefore, it brings
about the need to study the role of power in relation to women in Narayan‟s The
Waiting for the Mahatma (1955) and The Painter of Signs (1977). It not only adds to
the number of studies in this area but, discovers another subject matter left untouched.
41

42. Narayan‟s according to Naik (2001), is a major contributor to the Indian
English fiction. Firstly, Naik (2001), claims that Narayan has created a tiny but
perfectly credible universe in Malgudi, which is in the same class as Hardy‟s Wessex
and Faulkner‟s Yoknapatawpha, he has filled it with men, and women who are as real
to us as the people actually around us are. Secondly, he is an “eagle-eyed observer of
life and human nature; who has illuminated the basic ironies, deep-seated ambiguities,
and existential dilemmas of human condition” (Naik, 2001, p.22). Likewise,
Bhatnagar (2008) also claims that Narayan is a writer who picks the ordinary matters
of everyday life and depicts them in stories and novels. Thus, they please everyone
who reads his writings. Similar to any other great writers, Narayan‟s works are no
exception to critics. Contradicting to Naik (2001) and Bhatnagar (2008), Philips
(1986), says that Narayan‟s work is different from Naipaul and Chaudury because,
Narayan‟s work does not share the same theme with them. Furthermore, Narayan‟s
writing commonly depicts Indian reality in its simplicity. He merely focuses on a
simple man‟s and woman‟s daily life that everyone is aware of. Thus, Philips (1986)
argues that, Narayan‟s extreme simplicity and artless use with which he has portrayed
the Indian scene restricts the appeal of his novels due to his writing that operates deep
within his society. Philips (1986) claims that India of Narayan‟s novels is not the real
India. In other words, he says complex metaphoric lines do not accompany Narayan‟s
work as Naipaul‟s and Chaudhury‟s, rather, it is too “simple despite the real
complicated community occurring in the nation” (Philips, 1986, p.97). Philips (1986),
questions the very authentic property belonging to Narayan‟s work and defines it as
his weak area which makes his work not appealing. Although Philips (1986) is right
42

43. about the simplicity in the work of Narayan but his comment that says Narayan‟s
works appear less appealing is rather questionable.
Narayan‟s work is widespread and his work is read all around the world
because of the simplicity that he uses. Should he use the same complex genre as Raja
Rao and Naipaul, then he would just make an addition to an existing list of commonly
spotted complicated metaphoric work of any other literature figure. His works are
outstanding because he takes effort to look into the very important essence of an
ordinary human being. More than often, he unveils the ordinary voices of India who
remain hidden in the country not only the common difficulties they go through but
also the other end where they too enjoy life. Thus, Narayan is not a revolutionary riot
who calls for a change in his works. Instead, he is a writer who “penetrates the core of
the Indian mind and reveals it with all its bewildering contradictions, superstitions,
and traditions” (Khatri, 2006, p.141), with his ultimate simplicity. Indeed, he is not
firm in calling for a change, but if he is, then the chronology of his novels and stories
speak on behalf of him. For instance, reading his novels and stories by itself will give
a different experience, but reading them in an organised chronology will magnify the
change that he adapts as he writes along his years. An outstanding example would be
the women characters that grow stronger from his earlier novels as compared to his
recent. Rather than focusing on the bigger picture of a country‟s complex culture and
staying ignorant of the simple social environment that influences the bigger surface,
Narayan takes just a little more concern and has done it well and wisely through his
writings.
43

44. Nevertheless, Bhatnagar (2008), argues that Narayan fails to portray the
simmering discontent, squalor and poverty of the Indians as does Mulk Anand Raj. He
further claims that Narayan leaves “the socio-politic and socio-psychic aspects of
Indian reality untouched” hence he fails to picture the real Indian reality (Bhatnagar,
2008, p.17). Bhatnagar‟s (2008), is a very vague claim. Narayan in his novel The
English Teacher (1989), brings in the poor character of Krishnan who suffers years of
bad experience undertaking an emotional, intellectual, and spiritual journey of Indian
culture after his wife‟s death. Through the character of Krishna in The English
Teacher (1989), Narayan touches the socio-physical aspect. The only difference is he
dives into one character and writes the story from the person‟s point of view, thus,
seemingly, his works lacks these properties but they are there, all he does is
concentrate and narrow it to one individual‟s life and thus it is not obvious.
Furthermore, Narayan brings out the real Indian reality by going into a person‟s
personal life and starts to write from there, where a real Indian leads his or her daily
life without leaving out the socio-comic aspect of the society. As Khatri (2006) says, it
is true that Narayan‟s narrative is essentially naturalistic. Perhaps a little tedious
scrutiny will disperse Bhatnagar‟s (2008), false claims on Narayan‟s works.
Normally, the depiction of the outer sphere is easy, the challenge is to dwell
inside in order to unearth the truth beneath. Narayan writes about the life he does not
live. He is a creative man who can walk through any character‟s life easily despite the
fact that he does not share the same social environment presented in his works
(Trivedi, 2007).
44

45. Thwaite (1976), brings up another observation on the issue of simplicity of
Narayan. He argues that Narayan‟s use of English as a medium of expression to
delineate the social reality appears dim and inadequate and he marks it as a literary
pitfall. Thwaite (1976), further comments that Narayan‟s low proficiency of English
makes his work look insufficient. Thus, he claims that Narayan‟s inadequate command
of the English language brings out a fake or too fictitious an expression. Further, he
claims that Narayan could have expressed more genuine and authentic picture of
Indian reality if he had written in Tamil, his mother tongue (Thwaite, 1976). Thus, this
brings another query of whether Thwaite (1976), questions Narayan‟s English
language proficiency or is he mocking a writer‟s creativity?
On one count, Narayan uses simple language with straightforward sentence
structures and very natively translated sentences from Tamil to English. Thus, his
syntax appears monotonous in the arrangement of the same subject-predicate-object
form and his vocabulary is labelled „modest‟ with compression of suggested meanings
conspicuous by their absence (Thwaite, 1976). However, that does not reflect the
academic background of the writer. Instead, the habitual informal interaction with
native speakers of the language should be taken as circumstances responsible for this
inadequacy and inefficiency of his linguistic armour. Narayan himself states in an
interview with William Walsh (1971), that he is never aware that he is “using a
foreign language when he writes” (Walsh, 1971, p.7).
On another count, Narayan is just another creative writer who deliberately
writes in such a language in order to maintain the authenticity of his story lines. For
45

46. instance, it will be very contradicting for a character‟s command of language to be
upgraded due to the reason that the author of the novel is a proficient user of the
language. Should the author improve the character‟s language proficiency, than the
originality of the story will not sustain in the written form. At the same time, Narayan
also bridges a relationship between ordinary Indian people with the people at the other
end of the world through his writing. Thus, if the language in Narayan‟s works is
rearranged and reformed, than it will lose its Indian touch and it will deliver less of
India to the readers. Therefore, there are probabilities for the novels not to be as
appealing as the original works of Narayan.
Indeed, Narayan‟s writings may not carry complicated revolutionary messages
as Tharoor‟s Riot: A Love Story (2001) or The Great Indian Novel (1989) who
classified Narayan‟s writing as having a “pedestrian style with shallow vocabulary and
narrow vision” (Tharoor, 2001, p.15). However, Narayan‟s writings carry numerous
literature of India‟s social reality along with his alluring sense of humour throughout
his works. Therefore, it is convincing that Narayan‟s use of English is simple, readable,
and enjoyable. In one way or the other, his writings will always be remembered for the
simplicity of his language and spontaneity of expression as the writer himself claims
that he “successfully conveyed the thoughts and acts of a set of personalities who
flourish in a small town named Malgudi located in a corner of South India”
(Bhatnagar, 2008, p.22).
Besides the feature of simplicity, Narayan‟s character representations are also
widely criticized. Bhatnagar (2008) argues that Narayan‟s new women in his later
46

47. novels remain as unconvincing as the traditional Hindu wife in The Dark Room (1982)
does. He says that the probability for his women characters to appear such could be
“due to the reluctance of Narayan to arrive at a systematic philosophy of life”
(Bhatnagar, 2008, p.27-28). Bhatnagar‟s (2008), claim is also very vague because
Narayan is a writer whose writing evolves as the time changes. Starting from his very
first book, Swami and Friends (1983) to his last The Painter of Signs (1977), the
difference between the story lines and character representation is rather obvious. To
pick a sample, Rosie of The Guide (1978) represents a new class of women who
experiences opportunity to join colleges and universities, unlike Savitri in The Dark
Room (1982) who suffers bad treatment from her husband and is caught in between
the traditional clutches of Indian culture. This novel was written many years before
The Guide (1978). Contrasting from Savitri, Rosie‟s education enhances in her the
awareness of the individuality despite the contemporary social attitudes towards
women during that period. On the other hand, Daisy of The Painter of Signs (1977) is
a prospering model of women. She is entirely so different from Savitri of The Dark
Room (1982), an unorthodox cast of Narayan‟s new women. Furthermore, Narayan
explained that in The Dark Room (1982), he emphasized in “presenting the utter
dependence of woman on man in Indian society” (Bhatnagar, 2008, p.27). Thus,
Bhatnagar‟s (2008), claim is not valid because Narayan‟s later works portray much
liberated and modernized women characters that are not under the suppression of
contemporary Indian tradition as he claims. Instead, they are of open-minded women
who do not depend on men in many circumstances. Daisy for instance, is different as
she is not dependent on men, rather she is completely independent and able to stand by
47

48. herself. This explains that Narayan‟s maintained the development of his new women
and he has moved along with the time in forming up the women characters in his
writings.
Another interesting angle of Narayan is his Hindu ideals. More than often, he
is largely criticized for being a writer devoted to this aspect due to the claim that his
writings lack purpose. Although it is convincing that he concentrates on Hindu ideals
but that does not make his work lack purpose. He is a writer who writes about
everyday life. He describes daily happenings and brings out many simple issues of
daily life. Narayan leaves The Guide (1978) without an ending neither did he in The
Painter of Signs (1977). Many regard this as the writer‟s inability to make his work
purposeful. However, from another point of view, Nayaran leaves his novels open
ended and this could be a deliberate deed. Thus, he leaves his readers to reflect on the
story before they arrive at a decision. Furthermore, belonging to a Hindu background,
it is common to find his writing reflecting his origins. Moreover, he is very artistic at
picking up the happenings of Indian reality and placing them in the city of Malgudi.
Along with it he forwards his ideas gently through his humour without offending
anyone reading his works.
All in all, despite many critics on his writing, Narayan‟s work traverse from
one end to another end of the world for its genuine story line, promising the readers a
satisfying piece of work.
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49. 2.5 SUMMARY
Concisely, the relationship between women and power is very complex. Thus,
it is important to discern the role of power in women‟s life in order to understand the
improvement power would bring into their life. Therefore, the researcher chooses
Foucault‟s theory of power to examine and study how power influences women‟s life
in Narayan‟s Waiting for the Mahatma (1955) and The Painter of Signs (1977). Since
power is a central concept in the study of women‟s movement, the researcher also
considered the relationship between feminism and Foucault‟s theory of power. On the
other hand, the researcher has also provided a literary review on Narayan‟s writing,
the previous research conducted and the criticism on his works. Besides that, since
Narayan is an Indian author who writes English novels and stories, the researcher has
also included review on Indian women living in India to provide profound information
relating to this study.
Besides that, the researcher also provided a framework for this study in figure
2.1 in the next page for better understanding on the flow of this study. Figure 2.1
comprises Foucault‟s theory of power. Firstly, power is exercised rather than
possessed, secondly, power is productive, and thirdly, power is analysed as coming
from the bottom. The researcher uses these three main ideas of Foucault‟s in analysing
Narayan‟s selected novels. The researcher has provided an extensive review and
explanation about Foucault‟s theory of power in Chapter Two of this study. Foucault‟s
theory of power then leads to the thematic analysis on Narayan‟s selected novels
namely The Painter of Signs (1977) and Waiting for the Mahatma (1955).
49

50. The novels are analysed based on two research questions. The first research
question addresses when the women characters of Narayan exercise power in the
microlevel power relation. Meanwhile the second research question tackles how
Narayan‟s women characters gain empowerment through the notion of „power-over‟
and „power-to‟. Both of these research questions seek the answers from Narayan‟s
selected novels with the intention to understand the role of power in women‟s life. In
attempt to answer this research questions the researcher uses thematic analysis. Power
and women are the main theme of this research. These themes are derived from the
Foucault‟s theory of power.
In short, figure 2.1 illustrates the framework of this study where it starts from
the central element of this research, which is Foucault‟s theory of power (1978). Than
the figure illustrates the method that the researcher choose to use, which is thematic
analysis to analyse Narayan‟s selected novels which leads to the research questions of
this study. Lastly, figure 2.1 illustrates the results of the analyses in form of the role of
power in women‟s life through the microlevel power relations.
50

51. Foucault’s theory of power:
1. Power is exercised rather than
possessed
2. Power is not primarily repressive,
but productive
3. Power is analyzed as coming from
the bottom up
(Foucault,
1978, p.92-93)
Thematic analysis on
R.K Narayan’s
1. The Painter of Signs
(1977)
2. Waiting for the
Mahatma (1955)
In what circumstances do the women How do Narayan’s women characters
characters in Narayan’s Waiting for gain empowerment through the notion
the Mahatma (1955) and The Painter of ‘power-over’ and ‘power-to’ in his
of Signs (1977) exercise power in the Waiting for the Mahatma (1955) and
microlevel power relations? The Painter of Signs (1977)?
The role of power in
women’s life
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52. CHAPTER 3
3.0 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the researcher describes the methodology used to analyze
women and microlevel power in Narayan‟s Waiting for the Mahatma (1955) and The
Painter of Signs (1977). Firstly, the researcher defines and explains thematic analysis.
Secondly, researcher describes the selection of the novels and the theory selected for
the study and in the last section, the researcher describes the interpretation of the
analysis.
3.1 Thematic Analysis
In the attempt to conduct this study, the researcher used thematic analysis, a
form of textual analysis used widely in the social sciences (Thatchenkery & Metzker,
2006). According to Thatchenkery & Metzker (2006), thematic analysis is normally
used to find commonalities, trends or patterns in a set of subjects in order to answer
questions, as in the terms of this paper, to answer the research questions.
On the other hand, Marks & Yardley (2004), define theme as a precise pattern
encountered in the data in which one is interested and that it is directly observable.
Thus, as in for this research, power and women are two themes the researcher
encountered in Narayan‟s novels. Therefore, the researcher finds it rational to use
thematic analysis as it consist of themes and as well allows the researcher to draw
inferences from the text likened to fiction and non-fiction (Reinharz, 1992, p.145).
Furthermore, many studies involving novels or text-based materials use thematic
analysis as their method to analyze the outcome. Therefore, the researcher found
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53. thematic analysis, which is one of the research techniques in the social sciences to be
appropriate to analyze the extracts from Narayan‟s Waiting for the Mahatma (1955)
and Painter of Signs (1977).
Among scholars, Betty Friedan used the technique of thematic analysis in her
book, The Feminine Mystique (Quindlen, 2001). Friedan analyzed articles on women‟s
magazine fiction where she explains the childish themes that dominate women‟s
magazine fiction (Reinharz, 1992, p.150). Besides that, Elma (2006), also adopted
thematic analysis as the methodology to study the representation of women‟s agency
by the female character in Harry Potter and the Sorcerer‟s Stone. Millett on the other
hand, used thematic analysis to examine male writer‟s language in describing
heterosexual sex and women (Reinharz, 1992, p.154) and Katherine Pope analyzed a
pattern of inconsistency between the self and the female role in many famous novels
written by women and men (Reinharz, 1992, p.154).
3.2 Selected Novels & Theory
Having decided the method, researcher selected two novels written by Narayan,
namely Waiting for the Mahatma (1955) and The Painter of Signs (1977). Next, the
researcher reads the novels critically and selects relevant extract from the novel based
on the theme and the context of the study, which are power and women. The selection
of the extracts was based on Foucault‟s notion of power and the occurrence of women
characters. After identifying the extracts the researcher than attempted to answer her
research questions on how power operate among women characters and how the
53

54. women character gain empowerment through the themes of „power-over‟ and „power-
to‟ at the microlevel dimension in the selected novels of Narayan.
3.3 Interpretation of the Analysis
The researcher used thematic analysis in order to analyse Narayan‟s Waiting
for the Mahatma (1955) and The Painter of Signs (1977). Following the themes and
Foucault‟s (1978) theory of power, the researcher firstly selected suitable texts for the
study and read them. Then, the researcher selected extracts from the novels through
the selected themes, namely power and women where the researcher looks up for
suitable excerpts from the novels that reflect to Foucault‟s theory of power in relation
to Narayan‟s women characters. Later, the researcher made inferences with reference
to Foucault‟s (1978), theory of power and the women characters. Next, the researcher
discussed the occurrence of power relations found in the extract taken from the novel
and critically analyzed the microlevel power relations found in the extracts with regard
to Narayan‟s women characters. The researcher finally, answers the research questions
for the study in context to Foucault‟s (1978), theory of power and presents the analysis
accordingly.
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55. CHAPTER 4
4.0 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the researcher analyses Narayan‟s Waiting for the Mahatma
(1955) and The Painter of Signs (1977) and attempts to answer research question one,
that is, in what circumstances do the women characters in Narayan‟s Waiting for the
Mahatma (1955) and The Painter of Signs (1977) exercise power. The researcher
analyses the research question with close reference to Foucault‟s (1978), theory that
says power can only be exercised over free subjects and there should be possibilities
for the subjects to react and behave in a different way in order for power relations to
take place. Since there are four women characters in these novels namely, Daisy and
Laxmi in The Painter of Signs (1977) and Sriram‟s grandmother and Bharathi in
Waiting for the Mahatma (1955), the researcher divides the analysis into two sections.
Thus, section 4.1 is on Freedom and Power Relations in The Painter of Signs (1977)
and 4.2 is on Freedom and Power Relations in Waiting for the Mahatma (1955). Lastly,
section 4.3 comprises a summary for this chapter.
4.1 FREEDOM AND POWER RELATIONS IN THE PAINTER OF SIGNS
In this section, the researcher analyses instances in which Daisy and Laxmi
exercise power. The following are the analyses of the excerpts when Daisy and Laxmi
exercise power in Narayan‟s The Painter of Signs (1977).
His thoughts hovered around the person who commissioned him this
work...Daisy (pg.31)
55

56. Daisy, a new entrant to Malgudi is a social servant bent on bringing India‟s population
down. She is a woman who pays Raman to design a signboard for her clinic. Daisy, an
Indian woman who belongs to a society that looks down on women at work is
involved in social work. She has the freedom to enforce the notion of bringing India‟s
population down. At such, Daisy pays Raman to get her mission on the move. She is
not bound under any types of power. She exercises power and has freedom to move
towards her aims. By paying Raman, Daisy exercises power through the power
relation of painter-customer. She exercises power without any constraint at the
microlevels of the society.
Daisy and Raman are also found to be in a woman-man power relation. In this
relation of power, Daisy has the freedom to exercise power:
There seem to be no one else in her house- courageous of her to admit a fellow
in (pg.34).
Raman and Daisy are strangers to each other. In the woman-man power relation, Daisy
exercises power by letting Raman into her house bravely. She is not shown as a
woman who is bound to let Raman into the house. Instead, she herself invites him in,
thus allowing Raman to enter her house. In Indian society, it is seen as a crime if a
man enters a woman‟s house when she is home alone. However, Daisy is courageous
enough to overlook their culture by giving Raman permission to enter her house. Thus,
Daisy has the freedom to let Raman into her house through woman-man power
relationship.
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57. In another circumstance, Daisy exercises power through the relation of
customer-painter again:
He stood at the door paused for a moment, and said, „I can come later if you
please. „Yes,‟ said the lady drily, and noticing the board he was carrying, „Is
that our board?‟
„Yes, it‟s only a trial writing, not final.‟
Leave it there and come back‟- she glanced at her watch- „in thirty minutes.‟
(pg.41)
Here, Daisy exercises power as a person who orders Raman to work on the signboard
for her clinic. She requests him to come later, and due to the reason that she is paying
him, Raman has to obey her demand. She asks him to come back later at her
convenience. Narayan presented Daisy, as a woman who is not under control but who
controls herself. She is free to do, as she desires. The author did not present anyone in
the mode of being ultimately powerful. They are all in a neutral mode and only
exercise power when they are in a free power relation.
Although Raman was paid to work on her signboard, it does not put him under
any repressing mode of power. Raman could have said that he can‟t wait for 30
minutes, but he did not. Thus, he was also in the mode to exercise power but he did
not choose to do so and this means, both Daisy and Raman were in a free power
relation to exercise power. As Foucault (1978) says, power relation will only occur
when both parties involved in the power relation are free to act and react. Hence, there
should not be any restriction in the power relation. Therefore, in this circumstance,
57