For easy understanding about research concepts and basics.

1. DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
PUNJABI UNIVERSITY PATIALA
PAPER:
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN GEOGRAPHY
SEMINAR ON:
CONCEPT AND BASICS OF RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY; THE RESEARCH
PROCESS; PARAMETERS OF
GEOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
SUBMITTED TO :
DR. BALJIT KAUR(ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)
SUBMITTED BY :
LAKHVEER SINGH
OCTOBER,2016

2. Learning Objectives
By the end of this presentation you will able to:
 1-Define and explain the concept of scientific
research, deduction and induction reasoning ,
theory, hypothesis and empiricism, etc.
 2- Steps in conducting a research and
research process.
 3- parameters in geographic research.

3. Concepts & Basics of Research
Methodology

4. Definition of Research
 Research is a scientific way of answering questions
and testing hypothesis.
 More specifically According to Merriam Webster
Dictionary:
“Research is the systematic and objective analysis
and recording of controlled observations that may
lead to the development of generalizations, principles,
or theories, resulting in prediction and possible control
of events”.

5. Approaches to Knowledge
 Five sources of evidence in the pursuit of truth:
1. Authority
2. Custom and tradition
3. Personal experience
4. Deductive reasoning
5. Scientific inquiry

6. Approaches to Research
Deductive Reasoning
 Thinking proceeds from general assumption to specific
application
 GENERAL SPECIFIC
Inductive Reasoning
 Conclusions about events (general) are based on
information generated through many individual and
direct observations (specific).
 SPECIFIC GENERAL

7. Deductive vs. Inductive
Reasoning
• Deductive: –
All rivers are perennial. All mountains have rivers.
Therefore, every mountain has perennial river.
• Inductive: –
Every mountain has been observed has perennial
river.
Therefore, every mountain has perennial river.

8. DEDUCTION: INDUCTION:
THEORY OBSERVATION
HYPOTHESIS PATTERN
OBSERVATION TENTATIVE
HYPOTHESIS
CONFIRMATION THEORY

9. Hypothesis
 – A belief or prediction of the final outcome of the
research
 – A concrete, specific statement about the
relationships between phenomena
 – Based on deductive reasoning

10. Theory
 – A belief or assumption about how things relate
to each other
 – A theory establishes a cause-and-effect
relationship between variables with a purpose of
explaining and predicting phenomena
 – Based on inductive reasoning

11. hypotheses
In an ideal world… theory
law

12. Empiricism :
• Acquiring information and facts through the
observation of our world
Pragmatic observations :
 Developing theory through experience and
observation.

13. Research Design and
Methodology
 In general, a research design is like a
blueprint for the research.
 Research Methodology concerns how the
design is implemented, how the research is
carried out.

14. A few designs
 Cross-Sectional Design
 Longitudinal Design
 Time Series Design
 Panel Design

15.  A Cross-sectional design is used for research
that collects data on relevant variables one time
only from a variety of people, subjects, or
phenomena.
 A longitudinal design collects data over long
periods of time. Measurements are taken on
each variable over two or more distinct time
periods.
 A Time Series Design collects data on the
same variable at regular intervals in the form
of aggregate measures of a population. For
example, Indian census.
 A Panel Designs collect repeated
measurements from the same people or

16. TYPES OF RESEARCH
METHODLOGY
 Research Classifications
• System #1:
– Basic research
– Applied research
• System #2:
– Quantitative research
– Qualitative research
• System #3:
– Experimental research
– Non-experimental research

17. BASIC APPLIED
•Pure Fundamental
Research
•Discovery Of New
Knowledge;
Theoretical In Nature
•Takes Many Years For
Results Of Basic
Research To Find
Some Practical Utility
•Central Purpose To
Solve Immediate
Problem
•Improved Products
And Processes
•Interpretation Of
Results Is Relies Upon
Basic Research

18. QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
•Numerical And
Observable Data
•Traditional And
Positivist Approach
i. Clearly Stated
Questions
ii. Relational
Hypotheses
iii. Developed
Research
Procedures
iv. Large Samples
v. Tradition And
•Generally Non-
numerical Data
•Typically
Anthropological And
Sociological Method
•Observation Of
Natural Settings
•In-depth Description
Of Situations
•Interpretative And
Descriptive

19. EXPERIMENTAL NON-EXPERIMENTAL
•Cause- And- Effect
•Extraneous Variable
Controls
•Prediction Variables
And Outcome
Variables
•Causal – Comparative
•Descriptive
•Correctional
•Historical

20. Action research
 Action research is a style of research, rather than a
specific methodology. In action research, the
researchers work with the people and for the people,
rather than undertake research on them. The focus of
action research is on generating solutions to problems
identified by the people who are going to use the
results of research. Action research is not
synonymous with qualitative research. But it typically
draws on qualitative methods such as interviews and
observations.

21. Experimental Design
1. Pre Experimental
2. Quasi Experimental
3. True Experimental

22. 1. Pre Experimental :Pre-experimental designs are so
named because they follow basic experimental steps
but fail to include a control group. In other words, a
single group is often studied but no comparison
between an equivalent non-treatment group is made.
2. Quasi Experimental :Quasi designs fair better than
pre-experimental studies in that they employ a
means to compare groups. They fall short, however
on one very important aspect of the experiment:
randomization.
3. True Experimental :The true experiment is often
thought of as the only research method that can
adequately measure the cause and effect
relationship.

23. Thus, Research Methodology:
1. Quantitative methods
2. Qualitative methods
3. Mixed methods
The methodological history can be summarized as
three waves __
The dominance of quantitative methods as wave..1
The emergence of qualitative methods as wave ….2
The growth of mixed methods as wave ……………..3

24. Criteria for a good research topic
A good research topic should be
feasible (can be done),
interesting, novel, ethical and
relevant (has an implication).
These criteria have been
collectively called the
F.I.N.E.R

25. The Research Process

26. Purposes of Research
 Exploration
 gaining some familiarity with a topic, discovering some of its
main dimensions, and possibly planning more structured
research
 Description
Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a
situation, problem, phenomenon, service or programme, or
provides information about , say, living condition of a community,
or describes attitudes towards an issue.e.g.,
 Census Bureau’s report on number of Indians.
 Political poll predicting who will win an election
 Anthropologist’s ethnographic account of a preliterate tribe
 Explanation
 Take it one step further.
 Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a
relationship between two or more aspects of a situation or

27. Research ‘Musts’
 Problem must be clearly recognized.
 Determine information already available and
what further information is required, as well as
the best approach for obtaining it.
 Obtain and assess information objectively to
help inform the decision.

28. Main ‘Six’ Phases of Research
1. Problem definition
2. Literature review
3. Selection of research design, subjects, and
data collection techniques
4. Data gathering
5. Data processing and analysis
6. Implications, Conclusions, and
Recommendations

29. Problem Definition
 Describe broader context (background)
 State the objectives or purposes
 Inform reader about the scope of the study,
including defining any terms, limitations, or
restrictions
 Reduces potential criticisms
 State the hypothesis (es)

30. Demarcation of study area
After deciding the problem of research we should
demarcate the research or study area of relevant
discipline. for example: punjab.

31. Unit of Analysis
 Major entity you are analyzing in your study
 It is the type of object that makes up each data
point
 Individuals
 Geographical units
 Political units
 Social interactions

32. Unit of Analysis Error
 In some studies people are studying long time
period, rather than short. When this is done, the
unit of study presently is different from the unit of
previous (usually).
 This is sometimes called a unit of analysis error.
 It can result in studies having narrower confidence
intervals and receiving more weight than is
appropriate.

33. Literature Review
 Gives theoretical rationale of problem being studied,
what research has been done and how it relates to
the problem
 Helpful to divide the literature into sub-topics for ease
of reading
 Quality of literature should be assessed
 Be sure to include well respected ‘individuals’ in the
research area (if they exist)

34. Selection of Research Design
 The research design indicates the steps that
will need to be take and the sequence they
will occur
 Each design can rely on one ore more data
collection technique
 Assess reliability and validity
 Critical consideration in determining
methodology is the selection of subjects

35. Data Gathering
Data collection is the most important work, is research. The
collection of information must be containing on facts
which is from the following two types of research.
Primary Data Collection: primary data may be from
following.
1. Experiment
2. Questionnaire
3. Observation
4. Interview
Secondary data Collection: it has the following
categories:
1. Review of literature
2. Officials and non- officials reports
3. Census data
4. Library approach

36. Data Analysis
When data is collected, it is forwarded for analysis
which is the most technical job. Data analysis
may be divided into two main categories.
Data Processing: It Is Sub-divided Into Following;
Data Editing, Data Coding, Data Classification,
Data Tabulation, Data Presentation, Data
Measurement
Data Exposition: Data Exposition Has Following
Sub-categories.
Description, Explanation, Narration,
Conclusion/Findings,
Recommendations/Suggestions

37. Hypothesis testing
Research data is then forwarded to test the
hypothesis. Do the hypothesis are related to the
facts or not? To find the answer the process of
testing hypothesis is undertaken which may result
in accepting or rejecting the hypothesis.

38. Generalization and interpretation
The acceptable hypothesis is possible for research
to arrival at the process of generalization or to
make and theory. Some types of research has no
hypothesis for which research depends upon on
theory which is known as interpretation.

39. Interpreting the Results
 Make sure to consider the audience
 Discuss implications for the population of interest
and future research

40. Preparation of report
A research should prepare a report for which he has
done his work. He must keep in his mind the following
points:
Report design in primary stages:
The report should carry a title, brief introduction of the
problem and background followed by
acknowledgement. There should be a table of
contents, grapes and charts.
Main test of the report
It should contain objectives, hypothesis, explanations
and methodology of the research. It must be divided
into chapters and every chapter explains separate title
in which summary of the findings should be enlisted.
The last section would be clearly of conclusions to

41. Closing the report
After the preparation of report, the last step in
business research process contains of
bibliography, references, appendices, index and
maps or charts for illustration. For this purpose
the information should be more clearer.

42. PARAMETRES OF GEOGRAPHICAL
RESEARCH

43.  PARAMETRE Is Combination of Two Greek
Words: PARA + METREN which means
subsidiary + measures
 The term is used to identified a definable,
constant or valuable characteristics, a value,
a measureable factor that can help in
defining a particular system.
 Parameters in statistics is an important
component of any statistical analysis. For
e.g., a parameter is any numerical quantity
that characterizes a given population or
some aspect of it. This means the parameter
tells us something about the whole

44. Research Methods Used By
Geographers

45.  Direct Observation: used to study the Earth and the
patterns of human activities that take place on its
surface
 Mapping: cartography; maps allow a visual
comparison between places and regions
 Interviewing: used to find out what how people think
and feel about certain places; also may want to
examine the ways in which people's beliefs and
attitudes have affected the physical environment
 Analyzing Statistics: analyze temperature, rainfall,
a region's climate, use computers to organize and
present this information, data to find patterns and
trends, then the geographers use statistical tests to
see whether their ideas are valid.
 Using Technology: GIS; computer tech. has

46. Parameters in geographic
research
The common parameters or steps which are
followed in any sub branch of geography
while conducting research are:
1. Selection and definition of problem based
on the study of relevant references of the
contemporary environments, people and
polity.
2. Defining the significant deferential of the
problem and area theme selection of
temporal and spatial factor.
3. Hypotheses formulations.

47. Cont…
4. Testing and verifying hypotheses on the basis
of primary and secondary data collected by
the researchers.
5. Using cartographic techniques to make
research geographic and scientific .
6. Finding out or suggesting the solution of
the problem that have been researched.

48. Statistical Parameters used in
geographic research
coordinate system: Coordinate systems enable
geographic datasets to use common locations for
integration.
A coordinate system is a reference system used to
represent the locations of geographic features,
imagery, and observations, such as Global
Positioning System (GPS) locations, within a
common geographic framework.
spatial reference: spatial reference is a series of
parameters that define the coordinate system and
other spatial properties for each dataset in the
geodatabase.

49. Cont…
 Geographic coordinate systems : A geographic
coordinate system (GCS) uses a three-dimensional
spherical surface to define locations on the earth. A
GCS is often incorrectly called a datum, but a datum is
only one part of a GCS.
 Geographic (datum) transformations: If two datasets
are not referenced to the same geographic coordinate
system, you may need to perform a geographic
(datum) transformation. It is very important to correctly
use a geographic transformation.
 Map projections: Whether you treat the earth as a
sphere or a spheroid, you must transform its three-
dimensional surface to create a flat map sheet. This
mathematical transformation is commonly referred to
as a map projection.

50. Thank you