2. Tables of content
✤ General characteristic of post-Soviet nationalism in Eurasia;
✤ Brief overlook on history of Ukraine and Belarus;
✤ Variables, which influence national identity
3. Nationalism in
Eurasia after the
USSR in the 1990’s
✤ What relations should be established
between new countries and Russia?
✤ National movements vs. ex-
Communist elite.
✤ Three types of post-Soviet nationalism:
✤ Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia
✤ Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Moldova
✤ Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan
4. ✤ The past influences the present.
✤ The post-Soviet development is influenced by:
✤ Prior experience with statehood;
✤ The timing of the republic’s incorporation in USSR;
✤ The mechanism of their incorporation;
✤ The spread of literacy;
✤ Institutional context where nationalist movements appear (late 19 century).
Why states take different paths?
5. Ukraine and Belarus - more
similar than different
✤ Deutsche Bank index score was very similar in the Ukraine and
Belarus in 1990: homogeneity of population, proximity to Western
Europe for trade, industrialization, infrastructure, education);
✤ Reforms’ capability (A.Motyl): Ukraine received slightly higher score;
✤ Main difference: population and area size.
✤ Why did the paths of the countries diverge after the
independence?
✤ Possible answer: national identity.
6. ✤ Accession of Ukraine territory to the
Russian Empire/USSR:
✤ Eastern Ukraine - 1654 (Treaty of
Pereiaslav);
✤ Central Ukraine - 1793-1795 (last
partition of Polish Lithuanian
Commonwealth);
✤ Western Ukraine - (1939-1945).
✤ Diversity of the Ukrainian historical
experience influenced content and
contestation of national identity -
diverse interpretations.
Nationalism in Ukraine
Taras Shevchenko Ivan Franko
1814-1861 1856-1916
7. ✤ Appearance of Ukrainian identity - 1820’s and 1830’s in Central and
Eastern Ukraine, later moved to Western Ukraine.
✤ Russian Empire’s reaction:
✤ banning the Ukrainian language (1876), Russification;
✤ hindering the development of Ukrainian consciousness;
✤ eliminating distinctively Ukrainian institutions.
✤ Russian Empire considered both Ukrainians and Belarusians to
be part of a Russian identity that included them all - Great
Russians, Little Russians and White Russians.
Ukrainian territories under the
Russian Empire
8. Ukrainian territories under the
Habsburg Empire
✤ Appearance of nationalistic ideas - late 19th century;
✤ Galicia - center for literary expression and popular nationalism
(Prosvita society - promotion of culture and language; Ruthenian Club
- create first Ukrainian theatre)
✤ Ukrainian nationalism was seen as a counterweight to Polish
influence in the region;
✤ Eastern Ukraine’s persecuted nationalists fled to Austrian Galicia;
“nationally conscious Ukrainian intellectuals took advantage of the
relatively freedom allowed by the Hamburgs”;
✤ Galician vernacular in 1893 was accepted in Galicia and Bukovina for
use in schools and for official purposes;
9. After the WWI
✤ Creating an independent state:
✤ Ukrainian People’s Republic (Kiev,
1918) - lasted less than a year, was
suppressed by Soviet’s.
✤ West Ukrainian National Republic
(Lviv, 1918) - existed one year,
suppressed by Poland.
✤ Unification of all Ukrainian
territories under the USSR in 1945 -
territory of modern Ukrainian state
(independent since 1991).
✤The Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA)
fought with Soviets till early 1950s.
General Secretary of UNR, 1918
10. Late Soviet era/Independent
Ukraine
West Ukraine and Central Ukraine (Kiev)
Popular Movement of Ukraine for Reconstruction - Rukh - 300,00 members in 1989 (Watern Ukraine
and Kiev) - democratization, cultural and linguistic renewal, economic autonomy, but not political
independence.
Nationalists’ proposals:
Contemporary Ukraine - descendent of Kievan Rus (Ukrainian, not Russian state);
Economic dependence on Russia - threat to the independent Ukraine;
“Anti-Russian, pro-Europe orientation”
East and South Ukraine
Rejection of nationalist parties in favor of the Communist and Socialists Parties.
Anti-reform and pro-CIS;
Multiple identity:
a pan-Slavic identity;
a residual Soviet identity;
regional identity within Ukraine;
Russians and Ukrainians are more similar than different.
11. Nationalism in Belarus
✤ First state entity - Polatsk principality was
subjugated by Kievan Rus in 10th century;
✤ Since 1263 part of Duchy of Lithuania - till 1793-
1795 (last partition of Polish Lithuanian
Commonwealth) - legal code written in old
Belarusian language;
✤ All Belarusian territory - part of Russian Empire,
successfully subjected to Russification;
✤ Emerging of small groups of Belarusian nationalist
(late 19th century) - reintegrate Poland and Lithuania
into a new Commonwealth;
✤ No Belarusian identity - broader Slavic identity;
✤ Belarusian Democratic Republic (BdR) 1918-1919
proclaimed under the German occupation;
✤ 1919:creation of the BSSR, which joined the SU in
1922,
✤ “the foundation stone for the later manifestations of
Belarusian nationalism.”
Ivan Lutsevich
1881-199
12. Under the Soviet Union
✤ Treaty of Riga (1921) divided Belarus between Poland and Soviet Union until
reunification in 1939;
✤ Western Belarus, unlikely Western. Ukr., never became a regional stronghold for the
nationalist movements (but primarily, was belarusian speaking territory);
✤ The rebuilding, modernization, and industrialization following the war further
indoctrinated Belarusians to support Soviet identity (Russification)
✤ The words “Belarus” and “Belarusian” were embraced only in the wake of the
formation of the BSSR. They became part of the Republic’s national emblem and
anthem and circulated widely in regional print media and state documents, such as
internal passports.
✤ Belarusian National Front - Adradzhenie (1988) - first national political party, faced
strong opposition from CP of Belarus and was not popular among wide masses;
✤ Triggers of Belarusian fight for independence: Chornobyl accident and discovering of
mass graves in Kurapaty.
14. Belarusian National Front
✤ Pro-European orientation (Central European identity);
✤ Complete economic independence from Russia;
✤ Belarusian identity should be based against Russian state and nation (Belarus was historically part of Europe until
Russia wrested it from the influence of the West);
✤ Experience of independent state building - Belarusian Democratic Republic and Grand Duchy of Lithuania;
✤ State policy of economic integration with Russia and CIS - selling out the Belarusian interest;
✤ Joining EU and NATO;
✤ Movement failed to mobilize popular support;
✤ By 1995, 15% of population viewed the break-up of the Soviet Union as beneficial.
15. Language Question
✤ 1989 Soviet census: russian as native language
✤ Belarus - 20%, Ukraine 12%;
✤ More real figures are: 1992 - russian language preference
✤ 96% of Belarusians, 56% of Ukrainians.
✤ Mixes of languages: tryasanka, surzhyk;
✤ Russian as a state’s second language was supported by 83% of
Belarusians (1995);
✤ Bill on second regional language (2012).
16. Alternative arguments/variables
which define type of nationalism
✤ Soviet Federalism - “prison-house” or “incubator”?
✤ Prior statehood and history of national identity;
✤ Timing: difference between 40-years and 70-years old yeares of Soviet power;
✤ Three distinct mechanism of incorporation: a most-favored-lord pattern, colonial
model and integralist model;
✤ Secure of mass literacy before/after incorporation to the USSR;
✤ The institutional context within which appeared national identity (Habsburg/Roman
Empires, independent nation-state);
✤ Supplement variables: role of the capital city, religion and first presidents’ policy.
17. Conclusions
✤ The history of Belorussian and Ukrainian territories shares much in
common;
✤ After dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine and Belarus took
different paths in terms of national identity;
✤ Many variables influence the national identity of a state in which
historical legacy plays a crucial role.
