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Balancing freedom of expression with
national laws and domestic policies
DR. MATT J. DUFFY
INTERNATIONAL MEDIA LAW RESEARCHER
Kennesaw State University, USA
Twitter: @mattjduffy
‫جان‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫الوطنية‬ ‫والقوانين‬ ‫التعبير‬ ‫حرية‬ ‫بين‬ ‫الموازنة‬‫ب‬
‫المحلية‬ ‫السياسات‬
‫دافي‬ ‫جونز‬ ‫مات‬ ‫الدكتور‬
‫الدولي‬ ‫اإلعالم‬ ‫قانون‬ ‫في‬ ‫باحث‬
‫األميركية‬ ‫المتحدة‬ ‫الواليات‬ ،‫كينيسو‬ ‫والية‬ ‫جامعة‬
Twitter: @mattjduffy
‫الجزيرة‬ ‫منتدى‬
Al Jazeera
Forum
‫حول‬ ‫اإلنسان‬ ‫لحقوق‬ ‫السامي‬ ‫المتحدة‬ ‫األمم‬ ‫مفوض‬’‫الممارسات‬ ‫أفضل‬‘‫تنظيم‬ ‫مع‬
‫اإلعالم‬ ‫وسائل‬
• 5 areas of global agreement
from UN officials, global
courts on ‘best practices’
• Balances free speech vs.
society’s need to protect
reputations, secure public
order and national security
and promote good morals
• Defamation laws
• Insult laws
• False news laws
• Licensing of journalists
• Public order laws
‫مسؤولين‬ ‫من‬ ‫عالمية‬ ‫إلتفاقية‬ ‫مجاالت‬ ‫خمس‬
‫حول‬ ‫الدولية‬ ‫والمحاكم‬ ،‫المتحدة‬ ‫األمم‬ ‫في‬
’‫الممارسات‬ ‫أفضل‬‘
‫المجتمع‬ ‫وحاجة‬ ‫التعبير‬ ‫حرية‬ ‫بين‬ ‫التوازن‬
‫واألمن‬ ‫العام‬ ‫النظام‬ ‫وحفظ‬ ،‫السمعة‬ ‫لحماية‬
‫الحميدة‬ ‫لألخالق‬ ‫والترويج‬ ‫القومي‬
‫التشهير‬ ‫قوانين‬
‫والقدح‬ ‫السب‬ ‫قوانين‬
‫الكاذبة‬ ‫األخبار‬ ‫قوانين‬(‫اإلفترائية‬)
‫الصحافيين‬ ‫تراخيص‬
‫العام‬ ‫النظام‬ ‫قوانين‬
UNHighCommissioneronHumanRights
and‘bestpractices’withmediaregulation
‫التشهير‬ ‫قوانين‬-‫الممارسات‬ ‫أفضل‬
• Charges of libel and slander
should not be criminal
• No one should go to jail for
practicing journalism
• Civil lawsuits, monetary
fines can adequately
address defamation
• African Court of HR ruling
• Defamation charges cannot
prevail if message is true
• Public figures must
withstand more scrutiny
than private figures
‫جنائية‬ ً‫ا‬‫تهم‬ ‫والتشهير‬ ‫القدح‬ ‫يكون‬ ‫أن‬ ‫ينبغي‬ ‫ال‬
‫الصحافة‬ ‫لممارسته‬ ‫أحد‬ ‫سجن‬ُ‫ي‬ ‫أن‬ ‫يجوز‬ ‫ال‬
‫تكون‬ ‫أن‬ ‫يمكن‬ ‫المالية‬ ‫والغرامات‬ ‫القضائية‬ ‫الدعاوي‬
‫التشهير‬ ‫لمواجهة‬ ‫كافية‬
‫اإلنسان‬ ‫حقوق‬ ‫ألحكام‬ ‫األفريقية‬ ‫المحكمة‬
‫المضمون‬ ‫كان‬ ‫إذا‬ ‫تسود‬ ‫أن‬ ‫التشهير‬ ‫لجرائم‬ ‫يمكن‬ ‫ال‬
‫حقيقي‬
‫من‬ ‫أكثر‬ ‫تدقيق‬ ‫تحمل‬ ‫العامة‬ ‫الشخصيات‬ ‫على‬ ‫يجب‬
‫الخاصة‬ ‫الشخصيات‬
Defamationlaws–BestPractices
‫والقدح‬ ‫السب‬ ‫قوانين‬–‫الممارسات‬ ‫أفضل‬
• Insult laws are not
compatible with guarantees
of free expression
• If insult makes a specific
allegation, then a libel
lawsuit may be filed
• Closely related speech not
allowed/protected
• Threats/intimidation
• ‘Fighting words’
• Often public officials use
‘insult laws’ as method to
silence journalism
‫مع‬ ‫والقدح‬ ‫السب‬ ‫قوانين‬ ‫تتوافق‬ ‫ال‬
‫التعبير‬ ‫حرية‬ ‫ضمانات‬
‫حينها‬ ،‫محددة‬ ‫واقعة‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫السب‬ ‫أسند‬ ‫إذا‬
‫قضائية‬ ‫تشهير‬ ‫بدعوى‬ ‫التقدم‬ ‫يجوز‬
‫غير‬ ‫وثيقة‬ ‫بصورة‬ ‫المترابط‬ ‫الخطاب‬
‫بحماية‬ ‫يحظى‬ ‫وال‬ ‫مسموح‬
‫تهديدات‬/‫ترهيب‬
’‫بالكلمات‬ ‫التناحر‬‘
‫الحكومي‬ ‫المسؤوليين‬ ‫يستغل‬ ‫ما‬ ً‫ا‬‫غالب‬‫ين‬
’‫والقدح‬ ‫السب‬ ‫قوانين‬‘‫إلسكات‬ ‫كوسيلة‬
‫الصحافة‬
Insultlaws–BestPractices
‫الكاذبة‬ ‫األخبار‬ ‫قوانين‬(‫اإلفترائية‬)–‫الممارسات‬ ‫أفضل‬
• Laws that make illegal the
reporting of ‘false news’ are
not compatible with free
expression
• Journalists cannot
guarantee truth – they
quote other people who
may or may not be lying
• Also, truth can be subjective
– journalist and government
official may differ over what
is true
• Zimbabwe court ruling
‫بأن‬ ‫تنص‬ ‫التي‬ ‫القوانين‬’‫التغطية‬
‫الكاذبة‬ ‫الصحفية‬‘‫ال‬ ‫مشروعة‬ ‫غير‬
‫التعبير‬ ‫حرية‬ ‫مع‬ ‫تتوافق‬
‫الحقيقة‬ ‫ضمان‬ ‫للصحفيين‬ ‫يمكن‬ ‫ال‬–‫ه‬‫م‬
‫أن‬ ‫يمكن‬ ‫أخرين‬ ‫أناس‬ ‫أقوال‬ ‫يقتبسوا‬
‫كاذبين‬ ‫يكونوا‬ ‫ال‬ ‫أو‬ ‫يكونوا‬
‫غير‬ ‫تكون‬ ‫أن‬ ‫للحقيقة‬ ‫يمكن‬ ،ً‫ا‬‫أيض‬
‫موضوعية‬–‫الصحفي‬ ‫يختلف‬ ‫قد‬
‫الحقيقة‬ ‫مفهوم‬ ‫على‬ ‫الحكومة‬ ‫ومسؤول‬
‫زيمبابوي‬ ‫محكمة‬ ‫حكم‬
FalseNewsLaws–BestPractices
‫الصحفيين‬ ‫تراخيص‬-‫الممارسات‬ ‫أفضل‬
• Licensing of journalists
incompatible with freedom
of expression
• While licensing is a noble
goal, better to give
journalists freedom to make
their own ethical standards
• If government can take
away right to be a journalist
then they have power over
what journalist can say
• Inter-American Court of
Human Rights ruing
‫حرية‬ ‫مع‬ ‫تتعارض‬ ‫الصحفيين‬ ‫تراخيص‬
‫التعبير‬
،‫نبيل‬ ‫هدف‬ ‫هو‬ ‫الترخيص‬ ‫أن‬ ‫حين‬ ‫في‬
‫حرية‬ ‫الصحفيين‬ ‫إعطاء‬ ‫المستحسن‬ ‫من‬
‫بأنفسهم‬ ‫األخالقية‬ ‫معايرهم‬ ‫تحديد‬
‫سلب‬ ‫على‬ ‫قادرة‬ ‫الحكومة‬ ‫كانت‬ ‫إذا‬
‫سيكون‬ ً‫ا‬‫صحفي‬ ‫يصبح‬ ‫بأن‬ ‫الحق‬
‫للحكومة‬
‫الصحفيون‬ ‫يقوله‬ ‫ما‬ ‫على‬ ‫السلطة‬
Licensingof Journalists-BestPractices
‫العام‬ ‫النظام‬–‫الممارسات‬ ‫أفضل‬
• Important because without
public order, none of the
other ‘best practices’ matter
• These include
• Anti-terrorism laws
• Incitement to violence
• Disturbing the peace
• Hate speech
• Laws must be:
• Narrowly tailored
• Independently evaluated
• Not restrictive of legitimate
speech
‫تكون‬ ‫لن‬ ،‫دونه‬ ‫من‬ ‫ألنه‬ ‫مهم‬ ‫العام‬ ‫النظام‬
‫من‬ ‫أي‬’‫الممارسات‬ ‫أفضل‬‘‫ذات‬ ‫األخرى‬
‫أهمية‬
‫تشمل‬ ‫هي‬
‫اإلرهاب‬ ‫مكافحة‬ ‫قوانين‬
‫العنف‬ ‫على‬ ‫التحريض‬
‫السلم‬ ‫صفو‬ ‫تعكير‬
‫الكراهية‬ ‫خطاب‬
‫القوانين‬ ‫تكون‬ ‫أن‬ ‫بد‬ ‫ال‬:
‫ومضبوطة‬ ‫محددة‬
‫مستقل‬ ‫بشكل‬ ‫مقييمة‬
‫الشرعي‬ ‫التعبير‬ ‫تقييد‬ ‫ال‬
PublicOrder–BestPractices
‫العام‬ ‫النظام‬–‫الممارسات‬ ‫أفضل‬
• More on hate speech
• Office of the High
Commissioner for Human
Rights concluded that “[t]he
public intent of inciting
discrimination, hostility or
violence must be present
for hate speech to be
penalized.”
• In US, no hate speech law.
• Line is drawn at “inciting
imminent lawless action.”
‫الكراهية‬ ‫خطاب‬ ‫عن‬ ‫المزيد‬
‫لحقوق‬ ‫السامي‬ ‫المفوض‬ ‫مكتب‬ ‫اختتم‬
‫بأن‬ ‫اإلنسان‬”‫عل‬ ‫للتحريض‬ ‫العامة‬ ‫النية‬‫ى‬
‫تكون‬ ‫أن‬ ‫يجب‬ ‫العنف‬ ‫أو‬ ‫العداوة‬ ،‫التمييز‬
‫الكراهية‬ ‫خطاب‬ ‫ليعاقب‬ ‫حاضرة‬
ً‫ا‬‫قانوني‬.“
‫يوجد‬ ‫ال‬ ‫األميركية‬ ‫المتحدة‬ ‫الواليات‬ ‫في‬
‫الكراهية‬ ‫خطاب‬ ‫قانون‬
‫عند‬ ‫القانون‬ ‫يقف‬”‫فعل‬ ‫على‬ ‫التحريض‬
‫الحدوث‬ ‫قريب‬ ‫قانوني‬ ‫غير‬.“
Publicorder–BestPractices
‫النهاية‬
• Slides/more at:
• www.mattjduffy.com
• Follow me: @mattjduffy
• Please ask me about the
Arab Media Law Project
• We’ll be translating media
law rulings and research
into Arabic for judges,
prosecutors, NGOs,
academics and students.
• mattjduffy@
gmail.com
‫العرض‬/‫على‬ ‫المزيد‬:
www.mattjduffy.com
‫تويتر‬ ‫على‬ ‫تابعوني‬:
‫مشروع‬ ‫عن‬ ‫تسألوني‬ ‫أن‬ ‫منكم‬ ‫أرجوا‬
‫العربي‬ ‫اإلعالم‬ ‫قانون‬
‫اإلعالم‬ ‫قانون‬ ‫أحكام‬ ‫بترجمة‬ ‫نقوم‬ ‫سوف‬
،‫للقضاة‬ ‫العربية‬ ‫باللغة‬ ‫واألبحاث‬
‫غير‬ ‫والمنظمات‬ ،‫العامين‬ ‫والمدعين‬
‫والطلبة‬ ‫واألكاديميين‬ ،‫الحكومية‬
TheEnd

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Balancing freedom of expression with national laws and domestic policies

  • 1. Balancing freedom of expression with national laws and domestic policies DR. MATT J. DUFFY INTERNATIONAL MEDIA LAW RESEARCHER Kennesaw State University, USA Twitter: @mattjduffy ‫جان‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫الوطنية‬ ‫والقوانين‬ ‫التعبير‬ ‫حرية‬ ‫بين‬ ‫الموازنة‬‫ب‬ ‫المحلية‬ ‫السياسات‬ ‫دافي‬ ‫جونز‬ ‫مات‬ ‫الدكتور‬ ‫الدولي‬ ‫اإلعالم‬ ‫قانون‬ ‫في‬ ‫باحث‬ ‫األميركية‬ ‫المتحدة‬ ‫الواليات‬ ،‫كينيسو‬ ‫والية‬ ‫جامعة‬ Twitter: @mattjduffy ‫الجزيرة‬ ‫منتدى‬ Al Jazeera Forum
  • 2. ‫حول‬ ‫اإلنسان‬ ‫لحقوق‬ ‫السامي‬ ‫المتحدة‬ ‫األمم‬ ‫مفوض‬’‫الممارسات‬ ‫أفضل‬‘‫تنظيم‬ ‫مع‬ ‫اإلعالم‬ ‫وسائل‬ • 5 areas of global agreement from UN officials, global courts on ‘best practices’ • Balances free speech vs. society’s need to protect reputations, secure public order and national security and promote good morals • Defamation laws • Insult laws • False news laws • Licensing of journalists • Public order laws ‫مسؤولين‬ ‫من‬ ‫عالمية‬ ‫إلتفاقية‬ ‫مجاالت‬ ‫خمس‬ ‫حول‬ ‫الدولية‬ ‫والمحاكم‬ ،‫المتحدة‬ ‫األمم‬ ‫في‬ ’‫الممارسات‬ ‫أفضل‬‘ ‫المجتمع‬ ‫وحاجة‬ ‫التعبير‬ ‫حرية‬ ‫بين‬ ‫التوازن‬ ‫واألمن‬ ‫العام‬ ‫النظام‬ ‫وحفظ‬ ،‫السمعة‬ ‫لحماية‬ ‫الحميدة‬ ‫لألخالق‬ ‫والترويج‬ ‫القومي‬ ‫التشهير‬ ‫قوانين‬ ‫والقدح‬ ‫السب‬ ‫قوانين‬ ‫الكاذبة‬ ‫األخبار‬ ‫قوانين‬(‫اإلفترائية‬) ‫الصحافيين‬ ‫تراخيص‬ ‫العام‬ ‫النظام‬ ‫قوانين‬ UNHighCommissioneronHumanRights and‘bestpractices’withmediaregulation
  • 3. ‫التشهير‬ ‫قوانين‬-‫الممارسات‬ ‫أفضل‬ • Charges of libel and slander should not be criminal • No one should go to jail for practicing journalism • Civil lawsuits, monetary fines can adequately address defamation • African Court of HR ruling • Defamation charges cannot prevail if message is true • Public figures must withstand more scrutiny than private figures ‫جنائية‬ ً‫ا‬‫تهم‬ ‫والتشهير‬ ‫القدح‬ ‫يكون‬ ‫أن‬ ‫ينبغي‬ ‫ال‬ ‫الصحافة‬ ‫لممارسته‬ ‫أحد‬ ‫سجن‬ُ‫ي‬ ‫أن‬ ‫يجوز‬ ‫ال‬ ‫تكون‬ ‫أن‬ ‫يمكن‬ ‫المالية‬ ‫والغرامات‬ ‫القضائية‬ ‫الدعاوي‬ ‫التشهير‬ ‫لمواجهة‬ ‫كافية‬ ‫اإلنسان‬ ‫حقوق‬ ‫ألحكام‬ ‫األفريقية‬ ‫المحكمة‬ ‫المضمون‬ ‫كان‬ ‫إذا‬ ‫تسود‬ ‫أن‬ ‫التشهير‬ ‫لجرائم‬ ‫يمكن‬ ‫ال‬ ‫حقيقي‬ ‫من‬ ‫أكثر‬ ‫تدقيق‬ ‫تحمل‬ ‫العامة‬ ‫الشخصيات‬ ‫على‬ ‫يجب‬ ‫الخاصة‬ ‫الشخصيات‬ Defamationlaws–BestPractices
  • 4. ‫والقدح‬ ‫السب‬ ‫قوانين‬–‫الممارسات‬ ‫أفضل‬ • Insult laws are not compatible with guarantees of free expression • If insult makes a specific allegation, then a libel lawsuit may be filed • Closely related speech not allowed/protected • Threats/intimidation • ‘Fighting words’ • Often public officials use ‘insult laws’ as method to silence journalism ‫مع‬ ‫والقدح‬ ‫السب‬ ‫قوانين‬ ‫تتوافق‬ ‫ال‬ ‫التعبير‬ ‫حرية‬ ‫ضمانات‬ ‫حينها‬ ،‫محددة‬ ‫واقعة‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫السب‬ ‫أسند‬ ‫إذا‬ ‫قضائية‬ ‫تشهير‬ ‫بدعوى‬ ‫التقدم‬ ‫يجوز‬ ‫غير‬ ‫وثيقة‬ ‫بصورة‬ ‫المترابط‬ ‫الخطاب‬ ‫بحماية‬ ‫يحظى‬ ‫وال‬ ‫مسموح‬ ‫تهديدات‬/‫ترهيب‬ ’‫بالكلمات‬ ‫التناحر‬‘ ‫الحكومي‬ ‫المسؤوليين‬ ‫يستغل‬ ‫ما‬ ً‫ا‬‫غالب‬‫ين‬ ’‫والقدح‬ ‫السب‬ ‫قوانين‬‘‫إلسكات‬ ‫كوسيلة‬ ‫الصحافة‬ Insultlaws–BestPractices
  • 5. ‫الكاذبة‬ ‫األخبار‬ ‫قوانين‬(‫اإلفترائية‬)–‫الممارسات‬ ‫أفضل‬ • Laws that make illegal the reporting of ‘false news’ are not compatible with free expression • Journalists cannot guarantee truth – they quote other people who may or may not be lying • Also, truth can be subjective – journalist and government official may differ over what is true • Zimbabwe court ruling ‫بأن‬ ‫تنص‬ ‫التي‬ ‫القوانين‬’‫التغطية‬ ‫الكاذبة‬ ‫الصحفية‬‘‫ال‬ ‫مشروعة‬ ‫غير‬ ‫التعبير‬ ‫حرية‬ ‫مع‬ ‫تتوافق‬ ‫الحقيقة‬ ‫ضمان‬ ‫للصحفيين‬ ‫يمكن‬ ‫ال‬–‫ه‬‫م‬ ‫أن‬ ‫يمكن‬ ‫أخرين‬ ‫أناس‬ ‫أقوال‬ ‫يقتبسوا‬ ‫كاذبين‬ ‫يكونوا‬ ‫ال‬ ‫أو‬ ‫يكونوا‬ ‫غير‬ ‫تكون‬ ‫أن‬ ‫للحقيقة‬ ‫يمكن‬ ،ً‫ا‬‫أيض‬ ‫موضوعية‬–‫الصحفي‬ ‫يختلف‬ ‫قد‬ ‫الحقيقة‬ ‫مفهوم‬ ‫على‬ ‫الحكومة‬ ‫ومسؤول‬ ‫زيمبابوي‬ ‫محكمة‬ ‫حكم‬ FalseNewsLaws–BestPractices
  • 6. ‫الصحفيين‬ ‫تراخيص‬-‫الممارسات‬ ‫أفضل‬ • Licensing of journalists incompatible with freedom of expression • While licensing is a noble goal, better to give journalists freedom to make their own ethical standards • If government can take away right to be a journalist then they have power over what journalist can say • Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruing ‫حرية‬ ‫مع‬ ‫تتعارض‬ ‫الصحفيين‬ ‫تراخيص‬ ‫التعبير‬ ،‫نبيل‬ ‫هدف‬ ‫هو‬ ‫الترخيص‬ ‫أن‬ ‫حين‬ ‫في‬ ‫حرية‬ ‫الصحفيين‬ ‫إعطاء‬ ‫المستحسن‬ ‫من‬ ‫بأنفسهم‬ ‫األخالقية‬ ‫معايرهم‬ ‫تحديد‬ ‫سلب‬ ‫على‬ ‫قادرة‬ ‫الحكومة‬ ‫كانت‬ ‫إذا‬ ‫سيكون‬ ً‫ا‬‫صحفي‬ ‫يصبح‬ ‫بأن‬ ‫الحق‬ ‫للحكومة‬ ‫الصحفيون‬ ‫يقوله‬ ‫ما‬ ‫على‬ ‫السلطة‬ Licensingof Journalists-BestPractices
  • 7. ‫العام‬ ‫النظام‬–‫الممارسات‬ ‫أفضل‬ • Important because without public order, none of the other ‘best practices’ matter • These include • Anti-terrorism laws • Incitement to violence • Disturbing the peace • Hate speech • Laws must be: • Narrowly tailored • Independently evaluated • Not restrictive of legitimate speech ‫تكون‬ ‫لن‬ ،‫دونه‬ ‫من‬ ‫ألنه‬ ‫مهم‬ ‫العام‬ ‫النظام‬ ‫من‬ ‫أي‬’‫الممارسات‬ ‫أفضل‬‘‫ذات‬ ‫األخرى‬ ‫أهمية‬ ‫تشمل‬ ‫هي‬ ‫اإلرهاب‬ ‫مكافحة‬ ‫قوانين‬ ‫العنف‬ ‫على‬ ‫التحريض‬ ‫السلم‬ ‫صفو‬ ‫تعكير‬ ‫الكراهية‬ ‫خطاب‬ ‫القوانين‬ ‫تكون‬ ‫أن‬ ‫بد‬ ‫ال‬: ‫ومضبوطة‬ ‫محددة‬ ‫مستقل‬ ‫بشكل‬ ‫مقييمة‬ ‫الشرعي‬ ‫التعبير‬ ‫تقييد‬ ‫ال‬ PublicOrder–BestPractices
  • 8. ‫العام‬ ‫النظام‬–‫الممارسات‬ ‫أفضل‬ • More on hate speech • Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights concluded that “[t]he public intent of inciting discrimination, hostility or violence must be present for hate speech to be penalized.” • In US, no hate speech law. • Line is drawn at “inciting imminent lawless action.” ‫الكراهية‬ ‫خطاب‬ ‫عن‬ ‫المزيد‬ ‫لحقوق‬ ‫السامي‬ ‫المفوض‬ ‫مكتب‬ ‫اختتم‬ ‫بأن‬ ‫اإلنسان‬”‫عل‬ ‫للتحريض‬ ‫العامة‬ ‫النية‬‫ى‬ ‫تكون‬ ‫أن‬ ‫يجب‬ ‫العنف‬ ‫أو‬ ‫العداوة‬ ،‫التمييز‬ ‫الكراهية‬ ‫خطاب‬ ‫ليعاقب‬ ‫حاضرة‬ ً‫ا‬‫قانوني‬.“ ‫يوجد‬ ‫ال‬ ‫األميركية‬ ‫المتحدة‬ ‫الواليات‬ ‫في‬ ‫الكراهية‬ ‫خطاب‬ ‫قانون‬ ‫عند‬ ‫القانون‬ ‫يقف‬”‫فعل‬ ‫على‬ ‫التحريض‬ ‫الحدوث‬ ‫قريب‬ ‫قانوني‬ ‫غير‬.“ Publicorder–BestPractices
  • 9. ‫النهاية‬ • Slides/more at: • www.mattjduffy.com • Follow me: @mattjduffy • Please ask me about the Arab Media Law Project • We’ll be translating media law rulings and research into Arabic for judges, prosecutors, NGOs, academics and students. • mattjduffy@ gmail.com ‫العرض‬/‫على‬ ‫المزيد‬: www.mattjduffy.com ‫تويتر‬ ‫على‬ ‫تابعوني‬: ‫مشروع‬ ‫عن‬ ‫تسألوني‬ ‫أن‬ ‫منكم‬ ‫أرجوا‬ ‫العربي‬ ‫اإلعالم‬ ‫قانون‬ ‫اإلعالم‬ ‫قانون‬ ‫أحكام‬ ‫بترجمة‬ ‫نقوم‬ ‫سوف‬ ،‫للقضاة‬ ‫العربية‬ ‫باللغة‬ ‫واألبحاث‬ ‫غير‬ ‫والمنظمات‬ ،‫العامين‬ ‫والمدعين‬ ‫والطلبة‬ ‫واألكاديميين‬ ،‫الحكومية‬ TheEnd