This is a lecture on Systems Analysis and design. It focuses on encapsulation.

1. +
Encapsulation
Systems Analysis and Design
Michael Heron

2. +
Introduction
 One of the things that distinguishes object orientation from
other kinds of programming is the tight coupling between
functions and data.
 This is a principle known as encapsulation.
 In this lecture we are going to talk about why this is such an
important technique.
 And the problems it was designed to resolve.
 This is the second of the Great Pillars of OO
 Inheritance
 Encapsulation
 Polymorphism

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Scope
 Cast your minds back to a few weeks ago when we talked
briefly about scope.
 I mentioned this was an easy way to cause problems in large
programs.
 Hard to identify potential side effects
 Hard to guarantee fidelity of access.
 By storing data along with the methods that act on that data (in
a class), it is possible to have access to data without global
scope.
 Variables inside a class have class-wide scope.
 They are available provided someone has access to that class.

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Encapsulation
 Encapsulation is the principle of keeping data and functions
together in one unit.
 The class
 By doing this, we have a highly portable unit of data we can
manipulate.
 But only through the functions that we set.
 We can set an interface on an object that permits us fine-
grained control over access.
 We don’t have to ferret around for methods to manipulate data.
 The methods come along with the data in a single capsule.

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Encapsulation in VB .NET
Class BankAccount
private balance as Integer
property Balance() as Integer
Get
return balance
End Get
Set (ByValue Value as Integer)
balance = Value
End Set
End Property
public Function doubleBalance()
balance = balance * 2;
end Function
End Class

6. +
Encapsulation in Java
Class ExtendedBankAccount
inherits BankAccount
private overdraft as Integer
Function adjustBalance (byVal val as Integer) as Boolean
if Me.Balance – val < 0 – overdraft then
return false
end if
Me.Balance = (getBalance() - val);
return true;
End Function
End Class

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Private and Public
 We set sections of the code to be either private or public.
 private for variables
 public for functions
 These are known as visibility modifiers.
 They change how visible these things are to other pieces of code.
 There exists a third called protected.
 Of more niche benefit.
 We need to carefully manage our visibility modifiers.
 They will in a large part define to what extent your code is easily
maintainable in large multi-developer environments.

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Private
 Private visibility means that variables (or functions) are
available only to the class in which they are defined.
 We can access balance and overdraft as variables within the
methods of our object.
 We cannot access them outside of that object.
 Including within ExtendedAccount.
 We have to do that through our property.
 We do this to make sure that people cannot simply set the
value on our data.
 They have to go through methods or properties we provide.
 That way we can ensure that they don’t get set to crazy values.

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Public
 Public means anything has access.
 It’s the highest level of visibility.
 If you can get access to an object, you have access to its public bits.
 We reserve this visibility for methods that we don’t mind
everyone being able to use.
 These methods make up our interface to the object.
 This is why we use properties around variables in VB .NET
 The raw variable is made private so that other objects cannot
change it.
 We provide an ‘official interface’ through the property.

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Protected
 Protected means that the class in which the item is defined and
any children of that class can get access.
 It’s not available to external objects.
 Any child that is specialised from, at some point, the class in which
the item is defined has access.
 Limits the impact of change to the defining class and
specialisations only.
 Refactoring can be limited to these classes.
 Protected offers an opportunity to provide fine grained control
over inherited methods.
 Rarely advisable to do with variables.

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Impact of Change
 It’s very common when writing a program to have to change the
way things work.
 Alas, this comes with major side-effects for many situations.
 Maintenance is an ongoing ‘manage the impact of change’
scenario.
 When working with other developers especially, you need to be
wary.
 The interface to the objects you write is a kind of informal contract
with your colleagues.
 It’s important to be respectful when developing.
 You cannot unilaterally make adjustments to shared code if you
want to make it home alive at the end of a day.

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Impact of Change
 Impact of Change defines how much code is likely to need
changed if you make an adjustment to your code.
 The higher the impact, the more code will need modified.
 Some things are almost always safe to do.
 Extension is usually safe:
 Add in variables.
 Add in methods
 Usually.
 Overloading and overriding are an issue.
 Some things are almost never safe to do.
 Change what a method does.

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Impact of Change
 In large object oriented programs, there may be thousands of
classes.
 All interrelated in complex ways.
 It is not possible to know which objects may be using public
methods and variables in your code.
 You have to assume if it can be accessed, it will be accessed.
 You’d be surprised how freely people will use exposed methods.
 Can’t change code indiscriminately.
 That’s not respectful.
 Code unto others as you would have them code unto you.

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Impact of Change
 Instead, what we do is restrict visibility.
 To private, ideally.
 We do this when we write the code.
 We expose as public only those methods we are happy to
support.
 The ones that we are exposing as our public interface.
 This limits the impact of change.
 We only need to change things in our own class if we modify things.
 Important to be able to make adjustments in your code.
 Private access permits this.

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What is the benefit?
 Simplify documentation.
 External documentation can focus on only relevant functions.
 Can ensure fidelity of access.
 If the only access to data is through methods you provide, you can
ensure consistency of access.
 Hides the implementation details from other objects.
 In large projects, a developer should not have to be aware of how a
class is structures.
 Simplifies code
 All access to the object through predefined interfaces.

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Problems with Encapsulation
 They are conventions that have been adopted in some
languages..
 You can’t guarantee they are being adhered to in Java and C++.
 These are handled by accessor methods.
 Can lead to duplication of effort or over-engineering of code
solutions.
 Can lead to security leaks as people attempt to work around
restrictions.
 Especially a problem when working with pointers and object
references in languages that provide explicit access.

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Designing A Class
 A properly encapsulated class has the following traits.
 All data that belongs to the class is stored in the class.
 Or at least, represented directly in the class.
 All attributes are private.
 There’s almost never a good reason to make an attribute public.
 Hardly ever a good reason to make an attribute protected.
 Methods that all objects should have access to should be
public.
 The rest should either be protected or private.
 This allows you to internally refactor if required.

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The Class Interface
 Classes have a defined interface.
 This is the set of public methods they expose.
 A properly encapsulated class has a coherent interface.
 It exposes only those methods that are of interest to external
classes.
 It hides those methods that perform internal housekeeping or data
conversion.
 A properly encapsulated class has a clean divide between its
interface and its implementation.
 They likely won’t be handled in the same methods.

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Interfaces
 The easiest way to think of an interface is with a metaphor.
 Imagine your car’s engine.
 You don’t directly interact with the engine.
 You have an interface to the engine that is controlled by:
 Gears
 Pedals
 Ignition
 Likewise with your car wheels.
 Your steering wheel is the interface to your wheels.
 As long as the interface remains consistent…
 It doesn’t matter what engine is in the care.
 Change the interface and you can no longer drive the car the same way.

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Interface and Implementation
 Within a properly encapsulated class, it does not matter to
external developers how a class is implemented.
 I know what goes in.
 I know what comes out.
 A properly encapsulated class will work as a black box.
 The interface to a class can remain constant even while the
entirety of the class is rewritten.
 Not an uncommon act in development.
 As long as the interface remains constant, my code continues
to function.

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Interface and Implementation
 It’s important to design a clean an effective interface.
 It’s safe to change encapsulated implementation.
 It’s usually not safe to change a public interface.
 You are committed to the code that you expose publicly.
 When new versions of .NET deprecate existing functionality, they
never just switch it off.
 Some old code implementations have been supported for ten
years.
 Deprecation (marking code as obsolete) is a very slow process and
you’ll have to go through it if you’re careless.

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Conclusion
 Encapsulation is a tool for creating maintainable systems.
 And you will come to appreciate it when you start building your own
multi-person projects.
 Hint hint.
 It allows you to package together attributes and the methods
for acting on those methods in a safe way.
 By defining a public interface and restricting access to things that
shouldn’t be manipulated by others.
 Good class design employs two main rules:
 All attributes should be private.
 Only those methods that are part of the interface should be public.