2. Ecology is the study of interaction between living organisms
and their environment, which includes atmosphere ,water and
pollutants.
The pollutants in water and atmosphere are either present
naturally like micro-organism ,or introduced by man through
industrial gases and effluent.
These pollutants interfere with the natural growth of the
living beings, including plants, animals and human beings.
Thus insecticide, pesticides, herbicides, chemical wastes, gases
of nitogen oxides and sulphur oxides, formaldehyde,
chlorine, oil spills and radio active contaminants have a direct
bearing on the ecology of a given area.
Ecology
3. Acid rain is precipitation containing harmful amounts of nitric and
sulfuric acids.
These acids are formed primarily by nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides
released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned.
These acids fall to the Earth either as wet precipitation (rain, snow, or
fog) or dry precipitation (gas and particulates).
Some are carried by the wind, sometimes hundreds of miles.
In the environment, acid rain damages trees and causes soils and water
bodies to acidify, making the water unsuitable for some fish and other
wildlife. It also speeds the decay of buildings, statues, and sculptures that
are part of our national heritage.
4. Eutrophication is a condition in a water body where high
concentrations of nutrients (such as nitrogen) stimulate blooms of
algae, which in turn can cause fish kills and loss of plant and
animal diversity. Although eutrophication is a natural process in
the aging of lakes, human activities can greatly accelerate
eutrophication by increasing the rate at which nutrients enter
aquatic ecosystems.
Haze is caused when sunlight encounters tiny pollution particles
in the air. Haze obscures the clarity, color, texture, and form of
what we see.
Some haze-causing pollutants (mostly fine particles) are directly
emitted to the atmosphere by sources such as power plants,
industrial facilities, trucks and automobiles, and construction
activities.
Others are formed when gases emitted to the air (such as sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides) form particles as they are carried
downwind.
5. Ozone depletion:
Ozone is a gas that occurs both at ground-level and in the Earth's upper
atmosphere, known as the stratosphere. At ground level, ozone is a
pollutant that can harm human health.
In the stratosphere, however, ozone forms a layer that protects life on
earth from the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. ozone is gradually
being destroyed by man-made chemicals referred to as ozone-depleting
substances, including chlorofluorocarbons,
hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and halons.
These substances were formerly used and sometimes still are used in
coolants, foaming agents, fire extinguishers, solvents, pesticides, and
aerosol propellants. Thinning of the protective ozone layer can cause
increased amounts of UV radiation to reach the Earth, which can lead
to more cases of skin cancer, cataracts, and impaired immune systems.
UV can also damage sensitive crops, such as soybeans, and reduce
crop yields.
6. Global climate change: The Earth's atmosphere contains a delicate
balance of naturally occurring gases that trap some of the sun's heat
near the Earth's surface.
This "greenhouse effect" keeps the Earth's temperature stable.
Unfortunately, evidence is mounting that humans have disturbed this
natural balance by producing large amounts of some of these
greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide and methane.
As a result, the Earth's atmosphere appears to be trapping more of the
sun's heat, causing the Earth's average temperature to rise - a
phenomenon known as global warming.
7. Textile Ecology
Textile ecology consists of four sectors.
Textile Ecology
Human Ecology
Production
Ecology
Performance
Ecology
Disposal
Ecology
8. Production Ecology
Production ecology examines the impact of production
processes on people and environment.
e.g. occupational health and safety, material,
water and energy consumption,
waste water and waste treatment as well as generation of dust
and noise.
9. PRODUCTION ECOLOGY COMPRISING :
1. Cultivation and harvesting of natural fibres
2. Manufacture of manmade fibre
3. Manufacture of threads and fabric
4. Bleaching, dyeing, printing and finishing of textiles
5. Garments manufacture ,with the application of fertilizers, growth
regulator, crop protection agents (pesticides etc),dyes, pigments and
textile chemicals ,auxiliaries and finishing agents.
10. Parameters: Parameters which affects the production of ecology
Important parameters in theoretical production models thus are:
Climate
Temperature -
The temperature determines the speed of respiration and the dark
reaction.
A high temperature combined with a low intensity of sunlight
means a high loss by respiration.
11. Light - Light, also called photosynthetic Active Radiation (PAR) is
the energy source for green plant growth.
PAR powers the light reaction, which provides ATP and NADPH
for the conversion of carbon dioxide and water
into carbohydrates and molecular oxygen.
When temperature, moisture, carbon dioxide and nutrient levels
are optimal, light intensity determines maximum production
level.
12. Carbon dioxide levels - Atmospheric carbon dioxide is the sole carbon
source for plants. About half of all proteins in green leaves have the sole
purpose of capturing carbon dioxide.
Although CO2 levels are constant under natural circumstances [on the
contrary, CO2 concentration in the atmosphere has been increasing
steadily for 200 years], CO2 fertilization is common in greenhouses and
is known to increase yields by on average 24% [a specific value, e.g.,
24%, is meaningless without specification of the "low" and "high" CO2
levels being compared] .
13. C4 plants like maize and sorghum can achieve a higher yield at high
solar radiation intensities, because they prevent the leaking of
captured carbon dioxide due of the spatial separation of carbon
dioxide capture and carbon dioxide use in the dark reaction.
This advantage is sometimes offset by a higher rate of maintenance
respiration.
In most models for natural crops, carbon dioxide levels are assumed
to be constant.
14. The main challenge for the textile industry today is to modify production
methods, so they are more ecologically friendly at a competitive price, by
using safer dyes and chemicals and by reducing cost of effluent treatment
/disposal.
Recycling has become a necessary element, not because of the shortage of
any item, but because of the need to control pollution.
There are three ways to reduce pollution:
(1) use of new, less polluting technologies
(2) effective treatment of effluent so that it conforms to specified
discharge requirements; and
(3) recycling waste several times over before discharge
Production Ecology And Textile Industries
16. In general, about 50% of the water pollution is due to waste water
from desizing, which has a high BOD that renders it unusable.
The problem can be mitigated by using enzymes that degrade starch
into ethanol rather to anhydroglucose.
The ethanol can be recovered by distillation for use as a solvent or
fuel, thereby reducing the BOD load.
Alternatively, an oxidative system like H2O2 can be used to fully
degrade starch to CO2 and H2O.
Desizing
17. Hypochlorite is one of the oldest industrial bleaching agents.
The formation of highly toxic chlorinated organic by-
products during the bleaching process is reduced by
adsorbable organically bound halogen (AOX).
Bleaching
An environmentally safe alternative to hypochlorite is peracetic
acid. It decomposes to oxygen and acetic acid, which is
completely biodegradable. One of the advantages of peracetic
acid is higher brightness values with less fibre damage.
Recently, a one-step preparatory process for desizing, scouring,
and bleaching has helped to reduce the volume of water.
18. Neutralization
Replacement of acetic acid by formic acid for neutralization of
fabric after scouring, mercerizing, bleaching, and reduction
processes is effective, economical, and environment-friendly.
The procedure also allows a sufficient level of neutralization in
a short period of time, needs low volumes of water, and results
in low levels of BOD.
19. Dye
Dye baths are generally heavily polluted. For example,
wastewater produced by reactive dyeing contains hydrolyzed
reactive dyes not fixed on the substrate (representing 20 to
30% of the reactive dyes applied on an average of 2 g/L).
This residual amount is responsible for the coloration of the
effluents, and cannot be recycled.
Dyeing auxiliaries or organic substances are non-recyclable
and contribute to the high BOD/COD of the effluents.
20. Measures adopted for the abatement of
pollution by different dyes are:
1) use of low material-to-liquor Ratios
2) use of tri-sodiumcitrate
3) replacement of reducing agent (sodium hydrosulphite)
with a reducing sugar or electrochemical reduction
21. In India, a majority of textile printing units prefer to use
kerosene in printing because of the brilliant prints and ease of
application.
In India alone, about 122 million liters of kerosene is released
into the atmosphere annually during printing, drying, and
curing.
The resulting pollution of the atmosphere and wastage of
hydrocarbon products is colossal. Air-laden kerosene is harmful
to human beings, as well as to the flora and fauna, in the
neighbourhood.
Printing
22. Printing is mainly done by a flat or rotary screen, and after every
lot of printing some residual paste is left in the wastewater.
This can be reused for printing of similar shades by adding new
stock. Recently, screenfree printing methods, such as ink-jet
printing and electrostatic printing, have been developed that make
use of an electronic control of color distribution on fabric.
Screen-free printing methods are attractive for pollution
mitigation.
23. Alok Industries' focus on activities related to sustainability is at the
core of its long term goal of being a leader in providing sustainable
and integrated textile solutions.
Alok industry is committed to:
• Achieve the lowest Specific Energy Consumption per unit of
product, thereby minimizing Greenhouse emissions, solid waste and
water pollution.
• Attain sustainable development by continuously improving Energy
Conservation and Energy efficiency throughout the production
cycle.
• Prevent wastage of energy in any mode - steam, water, air or
power - by efficient and most optimal use of resources.
• Comply with all applicable legislations, and best practices on
Energy Management Community Development
24. Human Ecology
Human ecology deals with the impact of textiles and
their chemical ingredients on the health and well-being
of humans.
Irritation from textile clothing products leading to wearer
discomfort and sometimes physical effects such as skin dermatitis
may be due to a number of factor including the garment’s
manufacturing processes.
The wearer own personal preference may also influence a
garment’s perceived comfort.
26. In a study by the National Institute of Occupational Health
(1998), the work stresses of 107 women engaged in sewing in small
–scale garment manufacturing units found that 68 percent of the
women complained of back pain and these problems had
persisted over a long duration .
WHO (1998) carried out a study on ready made garment workers
in Bangladesh, on a sample size of 150 women who reported
health problems like pain in the upper and lower limbs and other
aches and pains. Around 80 percent of the workers experienced
this kind of illness quite often. This was followed by backache,
which was reported by 47 percent. The major reason was the
posture adopted while working.
27. Salnaggio (1986) described the word Byssinosis is derived from the
Greek word “Bussus” meaning fine Linen or fine flax. Byssinosis is a
respiratory disease of workers of cotton, flax, soft hemp and is
classically characterized as shortness of breath; cough and tightness of
chest.
The noise is a cause, which created hazard in the work place. Noise
exposure at work can cause critical hearing damage.
It is one of the most occurring health problems which can be difficult
to identify because the effects build up slowly with time.
28. Performance Ecology
Performance ecology comes in at the usage phase of textile
products. It examines the environmental impact of washing,
cleaning and caring for textiles.
The Ecology of Human Performance was founded by occupational
therapists at the University of Kansas in 1994.
The main focus is on the interdependent nature
of the relationship between the person and the
environment and how this relationship impacts
on human performance.
30. Establish/Restore- This occurs at the level of the person, where skills
and abilities are the focus of intervention.
The aim is to restore function by improving abilities and skills. This
remediation process takes place within context.
Adapt- the context manipulated and structured to support
performance.
Task demands can also be adapted to enable performance.
Alter- intervention focuses on selecting a context that would enable
performance with the person’s current skills and abilities.
This entails finding a suitable context rather than changing the
present context to meet abilities.
31. Prevent- the occurrence or evolution of maladaptive performance is
prevented. Prevention is the main focus of intervention.
This could be done through addressing features of the person, task
and context that could leads to occurrence or evolution of
maladaptive performance.
Create- circumstances that promote more adaptable or complex
performance within context are created.
This intervention strategy is orientated towards overall promotion
of functional performance without the assumption that disabilities
could occur or interfere with performance.
32. Disposal Ecology
Analyses the problems connected with disposal, reuse,
recycling and removal (thermal recycling or landfill) of
textiles.
Disposal Ecology, referring to the disposal of the textiles
after use, i.e. recycling,
composting,
dumping or
incinerating in a manner that ensures the least possible
environmental impact.
34. Biological treatments
Biological treatments reproduce, artificially or otherwise, the
phenomena of self-purification that exists in nature.
Self-purification is the process by which an aquatic environment
achieves the re-establishment of its original quality after pollution.
Biological treatments are different depending on the presence or
absence of oxygen (Bl’anquez et al., 2006).
Activated sludge is a common process by which rates of
elimination by oxidizable substances of the order of 90% can be
realized (Pala and Tokat, 2002).
35. Interest in ecologically friendly, wet-processing textile
techniques has increased in recent years because of increased
awareness of environmental issues throughout the world.
Consumers in developed countries are demanding biodegradable
and ecologically friendly textiles (Chavan, 2001).
Cotton provides an ecologically friendly textile, but more than
50% of its production volume is dyed with reactive dyes.
Unfortunately, dyes are un favorable from an ecological point of
view, because the effluents generated are heavily colored,
contain high concentrations of salts, and exhibit high biological
oxygen demand/chemical oxygen demand (BOD/COD) values.
36. Adsorption on powdered activated carbon
The adsorption on activated carbon without pre-treatment is
impossible because the suspended solids rapidly clog the filter
(Matsui et al., 2005).
This procedure is therefore only feasible in combination with
flocculation–decantation treatment or a biological treatment.
The combination permits a reduction of suspended solids and
organic substances, as well as a slight reduction in the color
(Rozzi et al., 1999), but the cost of activated carbon is high.
37. The use of an electrolytic cell in which the dye house wastewater is
recirculated has been described (Lin and Chen, 1997; Lin and Peng, 1994).
The advantage of this process seems to be its capacity for adaptation to
different volumes and pollution loads.
Its main disadvantage is that it generates iron hydroxide sludge (from the
iron electrodes in the cell), which limits its use.
Electrochemical Processes.
38. Electro-coagulation has been successfully used to treat textile
industrial wastewaters.
The goal is to form flocs of metal hydroxides within the effluent to be
cleaned by electro-dissolution of soluble anodes.
Three main processes occur during electro-coagulation;
electrolytic reactions at the electrodes;
formation of coagulants in the aqueous phase and adsorption of
soluble or colloidal pollutants on coagulants;
removal by sedimentation and floatation.
39. Ozone treatment- used in water treatment
ozone (either singly or in combinations, such as O3-UV or O3-
H2O2) is now used in the treatment of industrial effluents
(Langlais et al., 2001).
Ozone especially attacks the double bonds that bestow color.
For this reason, decolorization of waste water by ozone alone does
not lead to a significant reduction in COD (Coste et al., 1996;
Adams et al., 1995).
Installation of ozonation plants can entail additional costs
40. Textile waste management
Depending on quality, condition and fashion accuracy there
are four basic paths for used textiles.
Textiles can be:
Used again, formally or informally
Recycled, into new textile or other products
Used for energy, incineration with energy recovery
Landfilled, waste dumps
41. MEMBRANE PROCESSES:
Increasing cost of water and its profligate consumption
necessitate a treatment process that is integrated with in-
plant water circuits rather than as a subsequent treatment
(Machenbach, 1998).
From this standpoint, membrane filtration offers potential
applications. Processes using membranes provide very
interesting possibilities for the separation of hydrolyzed
dye-stuffs and dyeing auxiliaries that simultaneously
reduce coloration and BOD/COD of the wastewater.
The choice of the membrane process, whether it is
reverse osmosis,
nanofiltration,
ultrafiltration or microfiltration, must be guided by the
quality of the final product.
42. Reverse Osmosis
Reverse osmosis membranes have a retention rate of 90% or
more for most types of ionic compounds and produce a high
quality of permeate (Ghayeni et al., 1998; Treffry-Goatley et
al., 1983; Tinghui et al., 1983).
Decoloration and elimination of chemical auxiliaries in dye
house wastewater can be carried out in a single step by reverse
osmosis.
Reverse osmosis permits the removal of all mineral salts,
hydrolyzed reactive dyes, and chemical auxiliaries. It must be
noted that higher the concentration of dissolved salt, the more
important the osmotic pressure becomes; therefore, the greater
the energy required for the separation process.
43. Nanofiltration.
Nanofiltration has been applied for the treatment of colored effluents
from the textile industry.
A combination of adsorption and nanofiltration can be adopted for
the treatment of textile dye effluents.
The adsorption step precedes nanofiltration, because this sequence
decreases concentration polarization during the filtration process,
which increases the process output (Chakraborty et al., 2003).
44. Ultrafiltration
Ultrafiltration enables elimination of macromolecules and
particles, but the elimination of polluting substances, such as
dyes, is never complete (it is only between 31% and 76%)
(Watters et al., 1991).
Even in the best of cases, the quality of the treated wastewater
does not permit its reuse for sensitive processes, such as
dyeing of textile.
Rott and Minke (1999) emphasize that 40% of the water
treated by ultrafiltration can be recycled to feed processes
termed “minor” in the textile industry (rinsing, washing) in
which salinity is not a problem.
Ultrafiltration can only be used as a pre-treatment for reverse
or in combination with a biological
reactor (Mignani et al., 1999).
45. Microfiltration
Microfiltration is suitable for treating dye baths containing pigment dyes,
as well as for subsequent rinsing baths.
The chemicals used in dye bath, which are not filtered by microfiltration,
will remain in the bath.
Microfiltration can also be used as a pre-treatment for nanofiltration or
reverse osmosis (Ghayeni et al., 1998).
46. Sustainable clothing refers to fabrics derived from eco-friendly
resources, such as sustainably grown fibre crops or recycled
materials. It also refers to how these fabrics are made.
Environmentally conscious towards clothing meant
(1) buying clothes from thrift stores or any shops that sell second-
hand clothing, or
(2) donating used clothes to shops previously mentioned, for reuse
or resale. In modern times, with a prominent trend
towards sustainability and being ‘green’, sustainable clothing
has expanded towards
(3) reducing the amount of clothing discarded to landfills, and (2)
(4) decreasing the environmental impact of agro-chemicals in
producing conventional fibre crops (e.g. cotton).
47. Bt cotton
To reduce the use of pesticides and other harmful chemicals,
companies have produced genetically modified (GMO) cottons
plants that are resistant to pest infestations.
Among the GMO are cotton crops inserted with the Bt (Bacillus
thuringiensis) gene. Bt cotton crops do not require insecticide
applications. Insects that consume cotton containing Bt will
stop feeding after a few hours, and die, leaving the cotton plants
unharmed.
48. Organic cotton
Organic cotton is grown without the use of any genetically
modification to the crops, without the use of any fertilizers,
pesticides, and other synthetic agro-chemicals harmful to the land.
A new type of organic cotton, soft to the touch and at the same
time, grown without chemicals.
Soy
Soy fabrics are derived from the hulls of soybean-a manufacturing
by product. Soy fabrics can be blended (i.e. 30%) or made entirely
out of soy fibres. Soy clothing is largely biodegradable, so it has a
minimal impact on environment and landfills. Although not as
durable as cotton or hemp fabrics, soy clothing has a soft, elastic
feel. Soy clothing is known as the vegetable cashmere for its light
and silky sensation. Soy fabrics are moisture absorbent, anti-
bacterial, and UV resistant.
49. Hemp
Hemp, like bamboo is considered a sustainable crop.
It requires little water to grow, and it is resistant to most pests and
diseases.
Unlike cotton, many parts of the hemp plant have a use. Hemp seeds, for
example, are processed into oil or food.
Hemp fibres are durable and are considered strong enough for construction
uses.
Compared to cotton fibre, hemp fibre is approximately 8 times the tensile
strength and 4 times the durability.
Hemp fibres are traditionally coarse, and have been historically used for
ropes rather than for clothing. However, modern technology and breeding
practices have made hemp fibre more pliable, softer, and finer.
50. Bamboo
Bamboo fabrics are made from heavily pulped bamboo grass.
Making clothing and textile from bamboo is considered
sustainable due to the lack of need for pesticides and agro-
chemicals.
Naturally disease and pest resistant, bamboo is also fast
growing.
Compared to trees, certain varieties of bamboo can grow 1–
4 inches long per day, and can even branch and expand
outward because of its underground rhizomes.
Like cotton fibers, bamboo fibers are not naturally yellowish
in color and are bleached white with chemicals during
processing.
51. PET plastic
PET plastics are also known as Polyethylene terephthalate
(PETE).
PET's recycling code within the three chasing arrows, is a number
one. These plastics are usually beverage bottles (i.e. water, soda,
and fruit juice bottles).
According to the EPA, plastic accounts for 12% of the total
amount of waste we produce.
Recycling plastic reduces air, water, and ground pollution.
Recycling is only the first step; investing and purchasing products
manufactured from recycled materials is the next of many steps to
living sustainably.
52. Clothing can be made from plastics. Seventy percent of plastic-
derived fabrics come from polyester, and the type of polyester
most used in fabrics is polyethylene terephthalate (PET).
PET plastic clothing come from reused plastics, often recycled
plastic bottles. The Coca Cola Company, for example, created a
"Drink2Wear" line of T-shirts made from recycled bottles.
main benefit of making clothes from recycled bottles is that it
keep the bottles and other plastics from occupying landfill
space. Another benefit is that it takes 30% less energy to make
clothes from recycled plastics than from virgin polyesters.
53. Organic and ecological textiles:
The organic & ecological textiles is continuing to grow, led by
the increasing awareness of the consumers who are now
informed of the risks conventional textiles pose to health and the
environment.
For ensure the customer in your responsible project, it is
important to ask for a control of your goods or activities in order
to guarantee the organic or ecological propriety. For that,
Ecocert offers you to certify according to:
GOTS (Global Organic Textile Standard) for a social and
environmental responsibility.
OCS (Organic Content Standard) to guarantee the traceability
of organic textiles .
Ecological & Recycled Textiles (Ecocert Standard) to claim
the environmental quality.
