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Biology in Focus - Chapter 21
1.
CAMPBELL BIOLOGY IN
FOCUS © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson • Reece Lecture Presentations by Kathleen Fitzpatrick and Nicole Tunbridge 21 The Evolution of Populations
2.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Overview: The Smallest Unit of Evolution One common misconception is that organisms evolve during their lifetimes Natural selection acts on individuals, but only populations evolve Consider, for example, a population of medium ground finches on Daphne Major Island During a drought, large-beaked birds were more likely to crack large seeds and survive The finch population evolved by natural selection
3.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 21.1
4.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 21.2 1978 (after drought) 10 1976 (similar to the prior 3 years) Averagebeakdepth(mm) 9 8 0
5.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Microevolution is a change in allele frequencies in a population over generations Three mechanisms cause allele frequency change Natural selection Genetic drift Gene flow Only natural selection causes adaptive evolution
6.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Variation in heritable traits is a prerequisite for evolution Mendel’s work on pea plants provided evidence of discrete heritable units (genes) Concept 21.1: Genetic variation makes evolution possible
7.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Genetic Variation Phenotypic variation often reflects genetic variation Genetic variation among individuals is caused by differences in genes or other DNA sequences Some phenotypic differences are due to differences in a single gene and can be classified on an “either- or” basis Other phenotypic differences are due to the influence of many genes and vary in gradations along a continuum
8.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 21.3
9.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Genetic variation can be measured at the whole gene level as gene variability Gene variability can be quantified as the average percent of loci that are heterozygous
10.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Genetic variation can be measured at the molecular level of DNA as nucleotide variability Nucleotide variation rarely results in phenotypic variation Most differences occur in noncoding regions (introns) Variations that occur in coding regions (exons) rarely change the amino acid sequence of the encoded protein
11.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 21.4 1,000 Substitution resulting in translation of different amino acid Base-pair substitutions Insertion sites Deletion Exon Intron 1 500 2,5002,0001,500
12.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Phenotype is the product of inherited genotype and environmental influences Natural selection can only act on phenotypic variation that has a genetic component
13.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 21.5 (a) Caterpillars raised on a diet of oak flowers (b) Caterpillars raised on a diet of oak leaves
14.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 21.5a (a) Caterpillars raised on a diet of oak flowers
15.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 21.5b (b) Caterpillars raised on a diet of oak leaves
16.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Sources of Genetic Variation New genes and alleles can arise by mutation or gene duplication
17.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Formation of New Alleles A mutation is a change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA Only mutations in cells that produce gametes can be passed to offspring A “point mutation” is a change in one base in a gene
18.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. The effects of point mutations can vary Mutations in noncoding regions of DNA are often harmless Mutations to genes can be neutral because of redundancy in the genetic code
19.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. The effects of point mutations can vary Mutations that alter the phenotype are often harmful Mutations that result in a change in protein production can sometimes be beneficial
20.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Altering Gene Number or Position Chromosomal mutations that delete, disrupt, or rearrange many loci are typically harmful Duplication of small pieces of DNA increases genome size and is usually less harmful Duplicated genes can take on new functions by further mutation An ancestral odor-detecting gene has been duplicated many times: Humans have 350 functional copies of the gene; mice have 1,000
21.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Rapid Reproduction Mutation rates are low in animals and plants The average is about one mutation in every 100,000 genes per generation Mutation rates are often lower in prokaryotes and higher in viruses Short generation times allow mutations to accumulate rapidly in prokaryotes and viruses
22.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Sexual Reproduction In organisms that reproduce sexually, most genetic variation results from recombination of alleles Sexual reproduction can shuffle existing alleles into new combinations through three mechanisms: crossing over, independent assortment, and fertilization
23.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Concept 21.2: The Hardy-Weinberg equation can be used to test whether a population is evolving The first step in testing whether evolution is occurring in a population is to clarify what we mean by a population
24.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Gene Pools and Allele Frequencies A population is a localized group of individuals capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring A gene pool consists of all the alleles for all loci in a population An allele for a particular locus is fixed if all individuals in a population are homozygous for the same allele
25.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 21.6 Porcupine herd Beaufort Sea Fortymile herd Porcupine herd range Fortymile herd range MAP AREA ALASKA CANADA NORTHWEST TERRITORIES YUKON ALASKA
26.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 21.6a Porcupine herd
27.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 21.6b Fortymile herd
28.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. The frequency of an allele in a population can be calculated For diploid organisms, the total number of alleles at a locus is the total number of individuals times 2 The total number of dominant alleles at a locus is 2 alleles for each homozygous dominant individual plus 1 allele for each heterozygous individual; the same logic applies for recessive alleles
29.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. By convention, if there are 2 alleles at a locus, p and q are used to represent their frequencies The frequency of all alleles in a population will add up to 1 For example, p + q = 1
30.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 21.UN01 CR CR CR CW CW CW
31.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. For example, consider a population of wildflowers that is incompletely dominant for color 320 red flowers (CR CR ) 160 pink flowers (CR CW ) 20 white flowers (CW CW ) Calculate the number of copies of each allele CR = (320 × 2) + 160 = 800 CW = (20 × 2) + 160 = 200
32.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. To calculate the frequency of each allele p = freq CR = 800 / (800 + 200) = 0.8 (80%) q = 1 − p = 0.2 (20%) The sum of alleles is always 1 0.8 + 0.2 = 1
33.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. The Hardy-Weinberg Principle The Hardy-Weinberg principle describes a population that is not evolving If a population does not meet the criteria of the Hardy-Weinberg principle, it can be concluded that the population is evolving
34.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a population remain constant from generation to generation In a given population where gametes contribute to the next generation randomly, allele frequencies will not change Mendelian inheritance preserves genetic variation in a population Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
35.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium describes the constant frequency of alleles in such a gene pool Consider, for example, the same population of 500 wildflowers and 1,000 alleles where p = freq CR = 0.8 q = freq CW = 0.2
36.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 21.7 Frequencies of alleles Gametes produced p = frequency of CR allele q = frequency of CW allele Alleles in the population Each egg: Each sperm: = 0.8 = 0.2 80% chance 80% chance 20% chance 20% chance
37.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. The frequency of genotypes can be calculated CR CR = p2 = (0.8)2 = 0.64 CR CW = 2pq = 2(0.8)(0.2)= 0.32 CW CW = q2 = (0.2)2 = 0.04 The frequency of genotypes can be confirmed using a Punnett square
38.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 21.8 Sperm Eggs 80% CR (p = 0.8) 20% CW (q = 0.2) p = 0.8 q = 0.2CR CR CW CW p = 0.8 q = 0.2 0.64 (p2 ) CR CR 0.16 (pq) CR CW 0.16 (qp) CR CW 0.04 (q2 ) CW CW Gametes of this generation: 64% CR CR , 32% CR CW , and 4% CW CW 64% CR (from CR CR plants) 16% CR (from CR CW plants) 4% CW (from CW CW plants) 16% CW (from CR CW plants) 80% CR = 0.8 = p 20% CW = 0.2 = q + + = = 64% CR CR , 32% CR CW , and 4% CW CW plants With random mating, these gametes will result in the same mix of genotypes in the next generation:
39.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 21.8a Sperm Eggs 80% CR (p = 0.8) 20% CW (q = 0.2) p = 0.8 q = 0.2CR CR CW CW p = 0.8 q = 0.2 0.64 (p2 ) CR CR 0.16 (pq) CR CW 0.16 (qp) CR CW 0.04 (q2 ) CW CW
40.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 21.8b Gametes of this generation: 64% CR CR , 32% CR CW , and 4% CW CW 64% CR (from CR CR plants) 16% CR (from CR CW plants) 4% CW (from CW CW plants) 16% CW (from CR CW plants) 80% CR = 0.8 = p 20% CW = 0.2 = q + + = = 64% CR CR , 32% CR CW , and 4% CW CW plants With random mating, these gametes will result in the same mix of genotypes in the next generation:
41.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. If p and q represent the relative frequencies of the only two possible alleles in a population at a particular locus, then p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 where p2 and q2 represent the frequencies of the homozygous genotypes and 2pq represents the frequency of the heterozygous genotype
42.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 21.UN02
43.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium The Hardy-Weinberg theorem describes a hypothetical population that is not evolving In real populations, allele and genotype frequencies do change over time
44.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. The five conditions for nonevolving populations are rarely met in nature 1. No mutations 2. Random mating 3. No natural selection 4. Extremely large population size 5. No gene flow
45.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Natural populations can evolve at some loci while being in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium at other loci Some populations evolve slowly enough that evolution cannot be detected
46.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Applying the Hardy-Weinberg Principle We can assume the locus that causes phenylketonuria (PKU) is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium given that 1. The PKU gene mutation rate is low 2. Mate selection is random with respect to whether or not an individual is a carrier for the PKU allele
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Education, Inc. 3. Natural selection can only act on rare homozygous individuals who do not follow dietary restrictions 4. The population is large 5. Migration has no effect, as many other populations have similar allele frequencies
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Education, Inc. The occurrence of PKU is 1 per 10,000 births q2 = 0.0001 q = 0.01 The frequency of normal alleles is p = 1 – q = 1 – 0.01 = 0.99 The frequency of carriers is 2pq = 2 × 0.99 × 0.01 = 0.0198 or approximately 2% of the U.S. population
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Education, Inc. Three major factors alter allele frequencies and bring about most evolutionary change Natural selection Genetic drift Gene flow Concept 21.3: Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can alter allele frequencies in a population
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Education, Inc. Natural Selection Differential success in reproduction results in certain alleles being passed to the next generation in greater proportions For example, an allele that confers resistance to DDT increased in frequency after DDT was used widely in agriculture
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Education, Inc. Genetic Drift The smaller a sample, the more likely it is that chance alone will cause deviation from a predicted result Genetic drift describes how allele frequencies fluctuate unpredictably from one generation to the next Genetic drift tends to reduce genetic variation through losses of alleles, especially in small populations Animation: Causes of Evolutionary Changes Animation: Mechanisms of Evolution
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.9-1 CW CW CR CR CR CW CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CW CR CW CR CW p (frequency of CR ) = 0.7 q (frequency of CW ) = 0.3 Generation 1
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.9-2 CW CW CR CR CR CW CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CW CR CW CR CW CW CW CR CR CR CW CR CR CR CR CR CW CR CW CR CW CW CW CW CW 5 plants leave offspring p (frequency of CR ) = 0.7 q (frequency of CW ) = 0.3 p = 0.5 q = 0.5 Generation 2Generation 1
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.9-3 CW CW CR CR CR CW CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CW CR CW CR CW CW CW CR CR CR CW CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CW CR CW CR CW CW CW CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CR CW CW 5 plants leave offspring 2 plants leave offspring p (frequency of CR ) = 0.7 q (frequency of CW ) = 0.3 p = 0.5 q = 0.5 p = 1.0 q = 0.0 Generation 2 Generation 3Generation 1
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Education, Inc. The Founder Effect The founder effect occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population Allele frequencies in the small founder population can be different from those in the larger parent population due to chance
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Education, Inc. The Bottleneck Effect The bottleneck effect can result from a drastic reduction in population size due to a sudden environmental change By chance, the resulting gene pool may no longer be reflective of the original population’s gene pool If the population remains small, it may be further affected by genetic drift
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.10 Original population Surviving population Bottlenecking event (a) By chance, blue marbles are overrepresented in the surviving population. (b) Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi)
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.10a-1 Original population (a) By chance, blue marbles are overrepresented in the surviving population.
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.10a-2 Original population Bottlenecking event (a) By chance, blue marbles are overrepresented in the surviving population.
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.10a-3 Original population Surviving population Bottlenecking event (a) By chance, blue marbles are overrepresented in the surviving population.
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.10b (b) Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi)
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Education, Inc. Understanding the bottleneck effect can increase understanding of how human activity affects other species
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Education, Inc. Case Study: Impact of Genetic Drift on the Greater Prairie Chicken Loss of prairie habitat caused a severe reduction in the population of greater prairie chickens in Illinois The surviving birds had low levels of genetic variation, and only 50% of their eggs hatched
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.11 Pre-bottleneck (Illinois, 1820) Post-bottleneck (Illinois, 1993) Range of greater prairie chicken Illinois 1930–1960s 1993 Greater prairie chicken Kansas, 1998 (no bottleneck) Nebraska, 1998 (no bottleneck) 1,000–25,000 <50 75,000– 200,000 5.2 3.7 Location Population size 750,000 Number of alleles per locus Percentage of eggs hatched 93 <50 5.8 5.8 99 96 (a) (b)
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.11a Pre-bottleneck (Illinois, 1820) Post-bottleneck (Illinois, 1993) Range of greater prairie chicken Greater prairie chicken (a)
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.11b Illinois 1930–1960s 1993 Kansas, 1998 (no bottleneck) Nebraska, 1998 (no bottleneck) 1,000–25,000 <50 75,000– 200,000 5.2 3.7 Location Population size 750,000 Number of alleles per locus Percentage of eggs hatched 93 <50 5.8 5.8 99 96 (b)
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.11c Greater prairie chicken
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Education, Inc. Researchers used DNA from museum specimens to compare genetic variation in the population before and after the bottleneck The results showed a loss of alleles at several loci Researchers introduced greater prairie chickens from populations in other states and were successful in introducing new alleles and increasing the egg hatch rate to 90%
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Education, Inc. Effects of Genetic Drift: A Summary 1. Genetic drift is significant in small populations 2. Genetic drift can cause allele frequencies to change at random 3. Genetic drift can lead to a loss of genetic variation within populations 4. Genetic drift can cause harmful alleles to become fixed
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Education, Inc. Gene Flow Gene flow consists of the movement of alleles among populations Alleles can be transferred through the movement of fertile individuals or gametes (for example, pollen) Gene flow tends to reduce genetic variation among populations over time
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Education, Inc. Gene flow can decrease the fitness of a population Consider, for example, the great tit (Parus major) on the Dutch island of Vlieland Immigration of birds from the mainland introduces alleles that decrease fitness in island populations Natural selection reduces the frequency of these alleles in the eastern population where immigration from the mainland is low In the central population, high immigration from the mainland overwhelms the effects of selection
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.12 Survivalrate(%) Central population Vlieland, the Netherlands Eastern population NORTH SEA 2 km Population in which the surviving females eventually bred Females born in central population Parus major Central Eastern Females born in eastern population 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.12a Survivalrate(%) Population in which the surviving females eventually bred Females born in central population Central Eastern Females born in eastern population 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.12b Parus major
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Education, Inc. Gene flow can increase the fitness of a population Consider, for example, the spread of alleles for resistance to insecticides Insecticides have been used to target mosquitoes that carry West Nile virus and other diseases Alleles have evolved in some populations that confer insecticide resistance to these mosquitoes The flow of insecticide resistance alleles into a population can cause an increase in fitness
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Education, Inc. Gene flow is an important agent of evolutionary change in modern human populations
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Education, Inc. Evolution by natural selection involves both chance and “sorting” New genetic variations arise by chance Beneficial alleles are “sorted” and favored by natural selection Only natural selection consistently results in adaptive evolution, an increase in the frequency of alleles that improve fitness Concept 21.4: Natural selection is the only mechanism that consistently causes adaptive evolution
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Education, Inc. Natural Selection: A Closer Look Natural selection brings about adaptive evolution by acting on an organism’s phenotype
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Education, Inc. Relative Fitness The phrases “struggle for existence” and “survival of the fittest” are misleading as they imply direct competition among individuals Reproductive success is generally more subtle and depends on many factors
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Education, Inc. Relative fitness is the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation, relative to the contributions of other individuals Selection indirectly favors certain genotypes by acting directly on phenotypes
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Education, Inc. Directional, Disruptive, and Stabilizing Selection There are three modes of natural selection Directional selection favors individuals at one end of the phenotypic range Disruptive selection favors individuals at both extremes of the phenotypic range Stabilizing selection favors intermediate variants and acts against extreme phenotypes
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.13 Original population Evolved population Original population Frequencyof individuals Phenotypes (fur color) (a) Directional selection (b) Disruptive selection (c) Stabilizing selection
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Education, Inc. The Key Role of Natural Selection in Adaptive Evolution Striking adaptations have arisen by natural selection For example, certain octopuses can change color rapidly for camouflage For example, the jaws of snakes allow them to swallow prey larger than their heads
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.14 Bones shown in green are movable. Ligament
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.14a
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Education, Inc. Natural selection increases the frequencies of alleles that enhance survival and reproduction Adaptive evolution occurs as the match between an organism and its environment increases Because the environment can change, adaptive evolution is a continuous, dynamic process
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Education, Inc. Genetic drift and gene flow do not consistently lead to adaptive evolution, as they can increase or decrease the match between an organism and its environment
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Education, Inc. Sexual Selection Sexual selection is natural selection for mating success It can result in sexual dimorphism, marked differences between the sexes in secondary sexual characteristics
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.15
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Education, Inc. Intrasexual selection is competition among individuals of one sex (often males) for mates of the opposite sex Intersexual selection, often called mate choice, occurs when individuals of one sex (usually females) are choosy in selecting their mates Male showiness due to mate choice can increase a male’s chances of attracting a female, while decreasing his chances of survival
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Education, Inc. How do female preferences evolve? The “good genes” hypothesis suggests that if a trait is related to male genetic quality or health, both the male trait and female preference for that trait should increase in frequency
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.16 SC male gray tree frog LC male gray tree frog Female gray tree frog Recording of SC male’s call Recording of LC male’s call Offspring of SC father SC sperm × Eggs × LC sperm Offspring of LC father Survival and growth of these half-sibling offspring compared Experiment Results
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.16a SC male gray tree frog LC male gray tree frog Female gray tree frog Recording of SC male’s call Recording of LC male’s call Offspring of SC father SC sperm × Eggs × LC sperm Offspring of LC father Survival and growth of these half-sibling offspring compared Experiment
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.16b Results
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Education, Inc. The Preservation of Genetic Variation Neutral variation is genetic variation that does not confer a selective advantage or disadvantage Various mechanisms help to preserve genetic variation in a population
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Education, Inc. Diploidy Diploidy maintains genetic variation in the form of hidden recessive alleles Heterozygotes can carry recessive alleles that are hidden from the effects of selection
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Education, Inc. Balancing Selection Balancing selection occurs when natural selection maintains stable frequencies of two or more phenotypic forms in a population Balancing selection includes Heterozygote advantage Frequency-dependent selection
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Education, Inc. Heterozygote advantage occurs when heterozygotes have a higher fitness than do both homozygotes Natural selection will tend to maintain two or more alleles at that locus For example, the sickle-cell allele causes deleterious mutations in hemoglobin but also confers malaria resistance
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.17 Distribution of malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum (a parasitic unicellular eukaryote) Key Frequencies of the sickle-cell allele 10.0–12.5% >12.5% 7.5–10.0% 5.0–7.5% 2.5–5.0% 0–2.5%
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Education, Inc. Frequency-dependent selection occurs when the fitness of a phenotype declines if it becomes too common in the population Selection can favor whichever phenotype is less common in a population For example, frequency-dependent selection selects for approximately equal numbers of “right-mouthed” and “left-mouthed” scale-eating fish
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.18 “Left-mouthed” P. microlepis “Right-mouthed” P. microlepis Sample year Frequencyof “left-mouthed”individuals 1981 ’83 ’85 ’87 ’89 0.5 0 1.0
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Education, Inc. Why Natural Selection Cannot Fashion Perfect Organisms 1. Selection can act only on existing variations 2. Evolution is limited by historical constraints 3. Adaptations are often compromises 4. Chance, natural selection, and the environment interact
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.19
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.UN03
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.UN04 Original population Evolved population Directional selection Disruptive selection Stabilizing selection
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Education, Inc. Figure 21.UN05 Salinity increases toward the open ocean Long Island Sound Atlantic Ocean Sampling sites (1–8 represent pairs of sites) Allele frequencies Other lap alleleslap94 alleles Data from R. K. Koehn and T. J. Hilbish, The adaptive importance of genetic variation, American Scientist 75:134–141 (1987). N
Notas del editor
Figure 21.1 Is this finch evolving?
Figure 21.2 Evidence of selection by food source
Figure 21.3 Phenotypic variation in horses
Figure 21.4 Extensive genetic variation at the molecular level
Figure 21.5 Nonheritable variation
Figure 21.5a Nonheritable variation (part 1: oak flower diet)
Figure 21.5b Nonheritable variation (part 2: oak leaf diet)
Figure 21.6 One species, two populations
Figure 21.6a One species, two populations (part 1: porcupine herd)
Figure 21.6b One species, two populations (part 2: fortymile herd)
Figure 21.UN01 In-text figure, incomplete dominance, p. 403
Figure 21.7 Selecting alleles at random from a gene pool
Figure 21.8 The Hardy-Weinberg principle
Figure 21.8a The Hardy-Weinberg principle (part 1: Punnett square)
Figure 21.8b The Hardy-Weinberg principle (part 2: equations)
Figure 21.UN02 In-text figure, Hardy-Weinberg equation, p. 405
Figure 21.9-1 Genetic drift (step 1)
Figure 21.9-2 Genetic drift (step 2)
Figure 21.9-3 Genetic drift (step 3)
Figure 21.10 The bottleneck effect
Figure 21.10a-1 The bottleneck effect (part 1, step 1)
Figure 21.10a-2 The bottleneck effect (part 1, step 2)
Figure 21.10a-3 The bottleneck effect (part 1, step 3)
Figure 21.10b The bottleneck effect (part 2: photo)
Figure 21.11 Genetic drift and loss of genetic variation
Figure 21.11a Genetic drift and loss of genetic variation (part 1: map)
Figure 21.11b Genetic drift and loss of genetic variation (part 2: table)
Figure 21.11c Genetic drift and loss of genetic variation (part 3: photo)
Figure 21.12 Gene flow and local adaptation
Figure 21.12a Gene flow and local adaptation (part 1: graph)
Figure 21.12b Gene flow and local adaptation (part 2: photo)
Figure 21.13 Modes of selection
Figure 21.14 Movable jaw bones in snakes
Figure 21.14a Movable jaw bones in snakes (photo)
Figure 21.15 Sexual dimorphism and sexual selection
Figure 21.16 Inquiry: Do females select mates based on traits indicative of “good genes”?
Figure 21.16a Inquiry: Do females select mates based on traits indicative of “good genes”? (part 1: experiment)
Figure 21.16b Inquiry: Do females select mates based on traits indicative of “good genes”? (part 2: results)
Figure 21.17 Mapping malaria and the sickle-cell allele
Figure 21.18 Frequency-dependent selection
Figure 21.19 Evolutionary compromise
Figure 21.UN03 Skills exercise: using the Hardy-Weinberg equation to interpret data and make predictions
Figure 21.UN04 Summary of key concepts: modes of selection
Figure 21.UN05 Test your understanding, question 7 (saltwater balance)
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