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Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
              (7th Ed)




        Chapter 9
         Memory
     James A. McCubbin, PhD
       Clemson University

        Worth Publishers
Memory
  Memory
    persistence of learning over time
     via the storage and retrieval of
     information
  Flashbulb Memory
    a clear memory of an
     emotionally significant moment
     or event
Memory
 Memory as Information Processing
   similar to a computer
     write to file
     save to disk
     read from disk
 Encoding
   the processing of information into the
    memory system
   i.e., extracting meaning
Memory
  Storage
    the retention of encoded information
     over time
  Retrieval
    process of getting information out of
     memory
Memory
  Sensory Memory
   the immediate, initial recording of
    sensory information in the memory
    system
  Working Memory
   focuses more on the processing of
    briefly stored information
Memory
 Short-Term Memory
  activated memory that holds a few
   items briefly
  look up a phone number, then quickly
   dial before the information is forgotten
 Long-Term Memory
  the relatively permanent and limitless
   storehouse of the memory system
A Simplified Memory
Model

                          Attention to important
       Sensory input       or novel information

                                                         Encoding
External               Sensory              Short-term                Long-term
 events                memory                memory                    memory
                                 Encoding                Retrieving
Encoding: Getting
Information In


               Encoding



   Effortful              Automatic
Encoding
 Automatic Processing
   unconscious encoding of incidental
    information
     space
     time
     frequency
   well-learned information
     word meanings
   we can learn automatic processing
     reading backwards
Encoding
  Effortful Processing
    requires attention and conscious
     effort
  Rehearsal
    conscious repetition of information
      to maintain it in consciousness
      to encode it for storage
Encoding
 Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables
   TUV ZOF GEK WAV
   the more times practiced on Day 1,
    the fewer repetitions to relearn on
    Day 2
 Spacing Effect
   distributed practice yields better long-
    term retention than massed practice
Encoding
Time in
minutes    20
taken to
relearn
list on
day 2      15



           10



           5

           0
                8   16      24       32       42        53    64
                     Number of repetitions of list on day 1
Encoding: Serial Position
 Effect

Percent    90
 age of    80
 words                                                     Serial Position
recalled   70
                                                           Effect--tendency
           60
                                                           to recall best
           50
                                                           the last items in
           40
                                                           a list
           30
           20
           10
           0
                1   2   3   4 5 6 7 8       9   10 11 12
                             Position of
                             word in list
What Do We Encode?
    Semantic Encoding
      encoding of meaning
      including meaning of words
    Acoustic Encoding
      encoding of sound
      especially sound of words
    Visual Encoding
      encoding of picture images
Encoding
Encoding
 Imagery
   mental pictures
   a powerful aid to effortful processing,
    especially when combined with semantic
    encoding
 Mnemonics
   memory aids
   especially those techniques that use vivid
    imagery and organizational devices
Encoding
 Chunking
   organizing items into familiar, manageable
    units
     like horizontal organization--1776149218121941
   often occurs automatically
   use of acronyms
     HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
     ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat
      Tom’s Ice Cream
Encoding: Chunking
 Organized information is more easily recalled
Encoding
 Hierarchies
    complex information broken down into broad concepts and
     further subdivided into categories and subcategories
                          Encoding
                          (automatic
                          or effortful)



     Meaning              Imagery             Organization
     (semantic            (visual
     Encoding)            Encoding)



                              Chunks           Hierarchies
Storage:
Retaining Information

 Iconic Memory
   a momentary sensory memory of visual
    stimuli
   a photographic or picture image memory
    lasting no more that a few tenths of a
    second
 Echoic Memory
   momentary sensory memory of auditory
    stimuli
Storage:
   Short-Term Memory

Percentage
            90
who recalled
consonants 80
                                                Short-Term
                                                 Memory
            70
            60
            50
            40                                    limited in
            30
            20
                                                   duration and
            10                                     capacity
             0
                 3   6   9   12   15   18         “magical”
        Time in seconds between presentation       number 7+/-2
           of contestants and recall request
                (no rehearsal allowed)
Storage:
Long-Term Memory
 How does storage work?
   Karl Lashley (1950)
      rats learn maze
      lesion cortex
      test memory
 Synaptic changes
   Long-term Potentiation
      increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid
       stimulation
 Strong emotions make for stronger memories
   some stress hormones boost learning and retention
Storage:
Long-Term Memory
 Amnesia--the loss of memory
 Explicit Memory
   memory of facts and experiences that one can
    consciously know and declare
   also called declarative memory
   hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that
    helps process explicit memories for storage
 Implicit Memory
   retention independent of conscious recollection
   also called procedural memory
Storage: Long-Term
Memory Subsystems
                              Types of
                             long-term
                             memories



              Explicit                          Implicit
           (declarative)                    (nondeclarative)
          With conscious                   Without conscious
               recall                            recall


Facts-general       Personally                       Dispositions-
 knowledge          experienced      Skills-motor    classical and
 (“semantic            events       and cognitive       operant
  memory”)           (“episodic                      conditioning
                      memory”)                           effects
Storage:
Long-Term Memory
 MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)




                         Hippocampus
Retrieval: Getting
Information Out
  Recall
    measure of memory in which the
     person must retrieve information
     learned earlier
    as on a fill-in-the blank test
  Recognition
    Measure of memory in which the
     person has only to identify items
     previously learned
    as on a multiple-choice test
Retrieval
   Relearning
     memory measure that assesses
      the amount of time saved when
      learning material a second time
   Priming
     activation, often unconsciously,
      of particular associations in
      memory
Retrieval Cues
Percentage of
words recalled
                 40


                 30


                 20


                 10


                 0
                      Water/        Land/      Water/     Land/
                      land          water      water      land

                      Different contexts for   Same contexts for
                      hearing and recall       hearing and recall
Retrieval Cues
 Deja Vu (French)--already seen
   cues from the current situation may subconsciously
    trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience
   "I've experienced this before."
 Mood-congruent Memory
   tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with
    one’s current mood
   memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues
   State-dependent Memory
      what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or
       depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same
       state
Retrieval Cues

                  After learning to move
                   a mobile by kicking,
                   infants had their
                   learning reactivated
                   most strongly when
                   retested in the same
                   rather than a different
                   context (Butler &
                   Rovee-Collier, 1989).
Forgetting
  Forgetting as encoding failure
  Information never enters the long-term
   memory
                     Attention

                              Short- Encoding        Long-
External     Sensory
                               term                   term
 events      memory Encoding
                             memory                 memory

                                    Encoding
                                    failure leads
                                    to forgetting
Forgetting
 Forgetting as
  encoding failure

 Which penny is the
  real thing?
Forgetting
Percentage of
                60
list retained                                               Ebbinghaus
when
relearning
                50                                           forgetting
                40                                           curve over
                                                             30 days--
                30
                                                             initially
                20                                           rapid, then
                10
                                                             levels off
                                                             with time
                0
                     12345    10     15    20      25     30

                       Time in days since learning list
Forgetting
 The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school
Percentage of 100%
      original  90
  vocabulary             Retention
     retained   80
                         drops,
               70
                                  then levels off
               60
               50
               40
               30
               20
               10
                     1 3 5   9½    14½         25   35½           49½
                0
                     Time in years after completion of Spanish course
Retrieval
   Forgetting can result from failure to
    retrieve information from long-term
    memory

                        Attention
                                             Encoding
External      Sensory               Short-term           Long-term
events        memory    Encoding    memory     Retrieval memory



                                           Retrieval failure
                                           leads to forgetting
Forgetting as
Interference
 Learning some items may disrupt
  retrieval of other information
   Proactive (forward acting) Interference
     disruptive effect of prior learning on recall
      of new information
   Retroactive (backwards acting)
    Interference
     disruptive effect of new learning on recall of
      old information
Forgetting as
Interference
Forgetting
     Retroactive Interference

Percentage 90%                                  Without interfering
of syllables 80                                 events, recall is
                                                better
    recalled 70               After sleep
            60
            50
            40
            30
            20
            10
                          After remaining awake
             0
                  1      2     3      4     5      6       7      8
                      Hours elapsed after learning syllables
Forgetting

              Forgetting can
               occur at any
               memory stage
              As we process
               information,
               we filter, alter,
               or lose much
               of it
Forgetting-
Interference

 Motivated Forgetting
   people unknowingly revise memories
 Repression
   defense mechanism that banishes from
    consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts,
    feelings, and memories
Memory Construction
  We filter information and fill in missing
   pieces
  Misinformation Effect
    incorporating misleading information into
     one's memory of an event
  Source Amnesia
    attributing to the wrong source an event
     that we experienced, heard about, read
     about, or imagined (misattribution)
Memory Construction
Depiction of actual accident
                                   Eyewitnesses
                                    reconstruct
                                    memories when
                                    questioned
  Leading question:
  “About how fast were the cars
  going when they smashed into
  each other?”


                                      Memory
                                      construction
Memory Construction
 Memories of Abuse
   Repressed or Constructed?
     Child sexual abuse does occur
     Some adults do actually forget such episodes
 False Memory Syndrome
   condition in which a person’s identity and
    relationships center around a false but strongly
    believed memory of traumatic experience
   sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists
Memory Construction
 Most people can agree on the following:
   Injustice happens
   Incest happens
   Forgetting happens
   Recovered memories are commonplace
   Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs
    are especially unreliable
   Memories of things happening before age 3
    are unreliable
   Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting
Improve Your Memory
   Study repeatedly to boost recall
   Spend more time rehearsing or
    actively thinking about the material
   Make material personally meaningful
   Use mnemonic devices
     associate with peg words--something
      already stored
     make up story
     chunk--acronyms
Improve Your Memory
   Activate retrieval cues--mentally
    recreate situation and mood
   Recall events while they are fresh--
    before you encounter misinformation
   Minimize interference
   Test your own knowledge
      rehearse
      determine what you do not yet
       know

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Ch9 ppt

  • 1. Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (7th Ed) Chapter 9 Memory James A. McCubbin, PhD Clemson University Worth Publishers
  • 2. Memory  Memory  persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information  Flashbulb Memory  a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
  • 3. Memory  Memory as Information Processing  similar to a computer  write to file  save to disk  read from disk  Encoding  the processing of information into the memory system  i.e., extracting meaning
  • 4. Memory  Storage  the retention of encoded information over time  Retrieval  process of getting information out of memory
  • 5. Memory  Sensory Memory  the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system  Working Memory  focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information
  • 6. Memory  Short-Term Memory  activated memory that holds a few items briefly  look up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information is forgotten  Long-Term Memory  the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
  • 7. A Simplified Memory Model Attention to important Sensory input or novel information Encoding External Sensory Short-term Long-term events memory memory memory Encoding Retrieving
  • 8. Encoding: Getting Information In Encoding Effortful Automatic
  • 9. Encoding  Automatic Processing  unconscious encoding of incidental information  space  time  frequency  well-learned information  word meanings  we can learn automatic processing  reading backwards
  • 10. Encoding  Effortful Processing  requires attention and conscious effort  Rehearsal  conscious repetition of information  to maintain it in consciousness  to encode it for storage
  • 11. Encoding  Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables  TUV ZOF GEK WAV  the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2  Spacing Effect  distributed practice yields better long- term retention than massed practice
  • 12. Encoding Time in minutes 20 taken to relearn list on day 2 15 10 5 0 8 16 24 32 42 53 64 Number of repetitions of list on day 1
  • 13. Encoding: Serial Position Effect Percent 90 age of 80 words Serial Position recalled 70 Effect--tendency 60 to recall best 50 the last items in 40 a list 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Position of word in list
  • 14. What Do We Encode?  Semantic Encoding  encoding of meaning  including meaning of words  Acoustic Encoding  encoding of sound  especially sound of words  Visual Encoding  encoding of picture images
  • 16. Encoding  Imagery  mental pictures  a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding  Mnemonics  memory aids  especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
  • 17. Encoding  Chunking  organizing items into familiar, manageable units  like horizontal organization--1776149218121941  often occurs automatically  use of acronyms  HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior  ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream
  • 18. Encoding: Chunking  Organized information is more easily recalled
  • 19. Encoding  Hierarchies  complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories Encoding (automatic or effortful) Meaning Imagery Organization (semantic (visual Encoding) Encoding) Chunks Hierarchies
  • 20. Storage: Retaining Information  Iconic Memory  a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli  a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second  Echoic Memory  momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
  • 21. Storage: Short-Term Memory Percentage 90 who recalled consonants 80  Short-Term Memory 70 60 50 40  limited in 30 20 duration and 10 capacity 0 3 6 9 12 15 18  “magical” Time in seconds between presentation number 7+/-2 of contestants and recall request (no rehearsal allowed)
  • 22. Storage: Long-Term Memory  How does storage work?  Karl Lashley (1950)  rats learn maze  lesion cortex  test memory  Synaptic changes  Long-term Potentiation  increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation  Strong emotions make for stronger memories  some stress hormones boost learning and retention
  • 23. Storage: Long-Term Memory  Amnesia--the loss of memory  Explicit Memory  memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare  also called declarative memory  hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage  Implicit Memory  retention independent of conscious recollection  also called procedural memory
  • 24. Storage: Long-Term Memory Subsystems Types of long-term memories Explicit Implicit (declarative) (nondeclarative) With conscious Without conscious recall recall Facts-general Personally Dispositions- knowledge experienced Skills-motor classical and (“semantic events and cognitive operant memory”) (“episodic conditioning memory”) effects
  • 25. Storage: Long-Term Memory  MRI scan of hippocampus (in red) Hippocampus
  • 26. Retrieval: Getting Information Out  Recall  measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier  as on a fill-in-the blank test  Recognition  Measure of memory in which the person has only to identify items previously learned  as on a multiple-choice test
  • 27. Retrieval  Relearning  memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time  Priming  activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
  • 28. Retrieval Cues Percentage of words recalled 40 30 20 10 0 Water/ Land/ Water/ Land/ land water water land Different contexts for Same contexts for hearing and recall hearing and recall
  • 29. Retrieval Cues  Deja Vu (French)--already seen  cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience  "I've experienced this before."  Mood-congruent Memory  tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood  memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues  State-dependent Memory  what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state
  • 30. Retrieval Cues  After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context (Butler & Rovee-Collier, 1989).
  • 31. Forgetting  Forgetting as encoding failure  Information never enters the long-term memory Attention Short- Encoding Long- External Sensory term term events memory Encoding memory memory Encoding failure leads to forgetting
  • 32. Forgetting  Forgetting as encoding failure  Which penny is the real thing?
  • 33. Forgetting Percentage of 60 list retained  Ebbinghaus when relearning 50 forgetting 40 curve over 30 days-- 30 initially 20 rapid, then 10 levels off with time 0 12345 10 15 20 25 30 Time in days since learning list
  • 34. Forgetting  The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school Percentage of 100% original 90 vocabulary Retention retained 80 drops, 70 then levels off 60 50 40 30 20 10 1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½ 0 Time in years after completion of Spanish course
  • 35. Retrieval  Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory Attention Encoding External Sensory Short-term Long-term events memory Encoding memory Retrieval memory Retrieval failure leads to forgetting
  • 36. Forgetting as Interference  Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information  Proactive (forward acting) Interference  disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information  Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference  disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information
  • 38. Forgetting  Retroactive Interference Percentage 90% Without interfering of syllables 80 events, recall is better recalled 70 After sleep 60 50 40 30 20 10 After remaining awake 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Hours elapsed after learning syllables
  • 39. Forgetting  Forgetting can occur at any memory stage  As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it
  • 40. Forgetting- Interference  Motivated Forgetting  people unknowingly revise memories  Repression  defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
  • 41. Memory Construction  We filter information and fill in missing pieces  Misinformation Effect  incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event  Source Amnesia  attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)
  • 42. Memory Construction Depiction of actual accident  Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” Memory construction
  • 43. Memory Construction  Memories of Abuse  Repressed or Constructed?  Child sexual abuse does occur  Some adults do actually forget such episodes  False Memory Syndrome  condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience  sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists
  • 44. Memory Construction  Most people can agree on the following:  Injustice happens  Incest happens  Forgetting happens  Recovered memories are commonplace  Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs are especially unreliable  Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable  Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting
  • 45. Improve Your Memory  Study repeatedly to boost recall  Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material  Make material personally meaningful  Use mnemonic devices  associate with peg words--something already stored  make up story  chunk--acronyms
  • 46. Improve Your Memory  Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate situation and mood  Recall events while they are fresh-- before you encounter misinformation  Minimize interference  Test your own knowledge  rehearse  determine what you do not yet know