measurement Data collection

Prepared by
Hoda Fawzy
Manal Gharib
A beer Mohamed
Naglaa Hamid
Naglaa fouzy
Under Supervision
Prof. Dr./sohair mekhaemar
Prof. Dr./ shadia hamido


Out line
 Introduction
 measurement principles
 Levels of measurement
 Converted data to a lower level of measurement
 Determining The appropriate level of measurement
 Data-collection process
 Data-collection methods
 Data-collection instrument
 Criteria for selection of data – collection instrument
 validity of instrument
 Categories of validity
 1- Face validity –
 2- Content validity
 3-Criterion validity
 4- Construct validity

• Relation ship between reliability and validity
-Sources of error in data collection
Preparing data for analysis
Use of statistical consultant
Critiquing the data-collection procedures
Guidelines for critiquing
the data-collection procedures

Data collection method :-
1- Questionnaire.
2- Interviews.
3- Observation methods.
4- Physical measures.
5- Attitude scale.
6- Psychological tests.
7- Q sorts.
8- Delphi technique.
9- Visual analogue scale.
10- Preexisting data
summary

introduction
Many researchers get excited when they talk
about the data collection phase of their studies.
this when the real detective work begins
An understanding of measurement
principles and the data collection process is
important for the nurse researcher

measurement principles
 Measurement is the process of assigning
numbers to variables it include counting
,ranking, and comparing objects or events
 Some qualitative studies gather data in
narrative form and numbers are not
associated with these data so these data
not included in the concept of
measurement

 classification by name
 Numbers are obtained for this type of data through
counting the frequency or percentages of objects or
events in each of the categories .e.g. ( gender,
religious affiliation, marital status, and political
party membership )
 The nominal level of measurement is considered the
lowest level of the measurement levels

 Numbers are obtained form this
measurement process indicate the order
rather than the exact quantity of
variable
 For example, anxiety levels of people in a
therapy group might be categorized as
mild, moderate, and severe.

 Data not only can be placed in
categories and ranked but also the
distance between the ranks can be
specified
 The categories in Interval data are
the actual numbers on the scale (such
as on a thermometer)

 Data collected at the ratio level of
measurement are considered the
'highest' level of data. Ratio level of
measurement includes data that can be
categorized and ranked; in addition, the
distance between ranks can be specified,
and a 'true' or natural zero point can be
identified.

 Data can always be converted from one
level to a lower level of measurement,
but not to a higher level.
 Interval and ratio data can be converted
to ordinal or nominal data, and ordinal
data can be converted to nominal data.

If the researcher is very
concerned about the precision of
the data, the interval or ratio
level of measurement should be
selected when possible.

 If ranked or categorized data will be
sufficient to answer the research
questions or test the research
hypotheses, ordinal data may be
used. Finally, if categories of data
are all that is called for, nominal
data will be appropriate.

 There are five important
questions to ask when the
researcher is in the process of
collecting data:
What? How? Who? Where?
When?

 , the type of data needed to
answer the research questions
or to test the research
hypothesis should be the main
consideration in data collection

 Some type of research
instrument will be needed
to gather the data.
 This can vary from a self-report
questionnaire to the
most sophisticated of
physiological instruments.

 By researchers themselves or as in
scientific investigations frequently
involve a team of researchers.
 Other people outside the research
team may also be used in the data-collection
phase, sometimes data
collections are paid for their services.

 Any time more than one person is involved,
assurances must be made that the data are
being gathered in the same manner.
 Training will be needed for the data
collectors, and checks should be made on
the reliability of the collected data

 The setting for data collection
must be carefully determined.
Optimum conditions should be
sought

 If questionnaires are being used, a
researcher might ask respondents to
complete the questionnaires while the
researcher remains in the same
immediate or general area. This
procedure will help ensure return of
the questionnaires.

• The determination will need to be
made about the month, day, and some
times even the hour, for data
collection.
• Also, how long will data collection
take?

 questionnaires will be used, they
should be pretested with people
similar to the potential research
subjects, to determine the length of
time for completion of instrument.
 Unfortunately, data collection
usually takes longer than you
envisioned.

Data collection method
Data collection methods are governed by
several factors including:
 The research question or hypothesis
 The design of study
 The amount of knowledge available
about the variable of interest

 Many studies use more than one method as
questionnaires ,interview ,physiological
measures, attitude scales , observational
methods,……
 When several types of methods produce
similar results ,greater confidence in the
study findings will occur

Data collection instruments
 Instruments or tools are the
devices used to collect data which
facilitates the observation and
measurement of the variables ,that
determined by the data collection
methods selected
 Great care should be taken to
select the most appropriate
instruments

Use of existing instrument
 While conducting a review of literature a
researcher may discover that an
instrument is already available to measure
the research variables ,use of the already
tested instrument helps connect the
present study with the existing body of
knowledge on the variables

Con…
There are many sources of
available instruments to use in
nursing research:
 Mental Measurement Year
books
 Instrument for clinical health
care research
 Measurement of nursing
outcomes
 The health and psychosocial
instrument

Developing an instrument
 If no instrument can be discovered the
researcher is faced with devolving a new
instrument , it may be possible to revise an
existing instrument. If any items are
altered or deleted or added to an existing
instrument , the validity and real ability of
the tool may be altered

Pilot study
 A pilot study is a small scale trial run of the actual
research project
A group of people similar to the study subject should be
tested in condition similar to those that will be used in
the actual study
The role of a pilot study:
 Pre test the newly designed instrument
 Test a long and a short version of the instrument
 Try multiple instrument that are purported to
measure the same factor or construct
 Test various approaches for administrating the tools
or instruments

Criteria for selection of
data – collection instrument
1. Practicality of the instrument
2. Reliability of the instrument
3. Stability of the instrument
4. Equivalence reliability
5. - Internal consistency
reliability

1- Practicality of the
instrument
Before the researcher examines the Reliability of
the instrument question should be asked
 How much will the instrument cost ?
 How long will it take to administer the
instrument?
 Will the population have the physical and mental
stamina to complete the instrument
 Dose the researcher require special training to
administer or score the instrument ?
 If so is this training available?

Example
 If psychological instrument such
as the Minnesota multiphase
personality inventory(MMPI)will
be used is money available and is
someone available who is
qualified to analyze the data?

2-Reliability of the instrument
 Reliability needs to be determined
whether the instrument is a mechanical
device a written questionnaire or human
observer
Ex
 If you are using a thermometer to measure body
temperature you would expect it to provide the
same reading each time was placed in a constant
temperature
Water bath

 The degree of reliability is usually determined
by correlation coefficients
correlation coefficients can range between -
1.00 and +1.00
 The reliability of the instrument are expected
to be positive correlations
 It frequently used when are used in a study the
percentage or agreement
 Reliability must continually be assessed the
instrument is used with different subjects and
under different environ mental condition

Example
 An instrument to measure patient
autonomy might be highly reliable when
administered to patient while in their
hospital rooms but it may be very
unreliable when administered to these
same patient while they are lying on a
stretcher out side the operating room
before surgery

3- Stability of the
instrument
 A - Stability Reliability of an instrument refers to
over time
 EX
 If a thermometer was to be used in a study it
would need to be checked for reliability before
the study began and probably again during the
study ( test – retest Reliability )

 B- Equivalence Reliability
When two forms of attest are used
both forms should contain the same
number of items have the same level
of difficulty and the other form is
administered either at the same time
or shortly to these same people

C- Internal consistency reliability
 This type of reliability is appropriate only when
the instrument is examining one concept
EX
 If an instrument is supposed to measure
depression all of the items on the instrument
must consistently measure depression if some
items measure guilt the instrument is not an
Internally consistent

 Several procedure can be used to
measure the Internal consistency one
procedure is (the split –half method )
 A common type of Internal consistency
procedure is the coefficient alpha (α )

The definition of instrument validity
is the extent to which an instrument
measures what it is supposed to. Validity
is established by correlating the scores
with a similar instrument. Also, expert
review establishes validity

Validity maybe established through
 Use of a panel of experts.
 An examination of the existing literature on the
topic
 Statistical procedures.


Categories of validity
 :1- Face validity -
 It appears to be an adequate means of
obtaining the data needed for the research
project.
 When cursory examination shows that it is
measuring what it is supposed to measure.
 Ex : For face validity.
- The nurse knowledge of heart failure education
principles tool was used to describe nurses
knowledge of heart failure.

2- Content validity
 Concerned with the scope of range of items used
to measure the variable in other word are the
number and type of items adequate to measure the
concept
 there are several methods of evaluating the
content

 First method :
 Is a accomplished by comparing the content
of the instrument with the available literature
on the topic.

 Second method :
 use of a panel of experts these experts are given
copies of the instrument and the purpose and
objectives of the study
 Third method :
 Used when knowledge tests are being
developed

3- Criterion validity :
 Is concerned with the extent to which an
instrument corresponds to or correlated
with some criterion measure of the variable
of interest.

types of criterion validity
 - Concurrent validity :
 Compares instrument’s ability to obtain a
measurement of subjects behavior that is
comparable to some other criterion of that
behavior.
 * Predictive validity of an instrument :
 It can be used with confidence to discriminate
between people.


 4- Construct validity :
 Is the most difficult to measure.
 Is the concerned with the degree to which an
instrument measures the construct it is
supposed to measure.
 Involves the measurement of a variable that is
not directly observable but rather is a construct
or abstraction derived from observable
behavior.

Relation ship between reliability and validity :
 Reliability and validity are closely associated
both of these qualities are considered when
selecting are search instrument.
 Reliability is usually considered first because it
is a necessary condition for validity.
 Reliability was considered first in the discussion
of reliability and validity.

 Instrument can be reliableant not valid.
 Validity is often considered first in the
construction of an instrument.
 Reliability of an instrument tells nothing about
the degree of validity.


Sources of error in data collection :
 Instrument in a adequacies such as a questionnaire.
 Instrument administration biases is the instrument
administration in the same fashion to all subject.
 Environmental conditions during data collection
process , such as temperature, noise levels and
lighting.
 Temporary subject characteristics during the data
collection process as anxiety levels , hunger
tiredness influencing responses this called
transitory personal factors.


Preparing data for analysis
 Data analysis by computer
Put Data in a form that facilitates entry into
computer:
 1-Quantitative data
such as age weight entered directly into computer
 2-Qualitative data
such as information obtained from open end
questions will need to be transferred into
symbols that computer can under stand

Use of statistical
consultant
 Researchers can use computer in data analysis
but the use of statistical consultant is still a
much needed part of many research projects .
 to Use of statistical consultant
 include statistical consultation costs in the
budget.
 the time to seek help is in the early planning
stages of study.

Critiquing the data-collection
procedures
 Aim of Critique
to researcher determine if the
measurement &collection of data
has been conducted appropriately.

Guidelines for critiquing
the data-collection procedures
1-did the research report provide
information on
• What data were collected?
• How the data were collected?
• Who collected the data?
• Where the data were collected?
• When the data were collected?

 2-Was the appropriate level of
measurement used to measure the
research variables?
 3-Was there a section in the research report
Where the data – collected instruments
were described
 4-Was the description of the instruments
thorough?

5-Has the instruments been used
previously?
6-Has the instruments been tested
reliability?
7-If so, what type of reliability was
assessed and was the reliability
sufficiently high to warrant the use of
the instruments?

8- Had the instruments been tested for
validity?
9- If so, what type of validity was assessed
, and was there sufficient evidence to
indicate that the instruments were valid?
10-Was a pilot study conducted using the
instruments?

1- Questionnaire:-
Definition:-
Is a paper-and-pencil self-report instrument, it contains questions
that respondents are asked to answer in writing.
Important of questionnaires:-
1-Used to measure knowledge level, opinion, attitudes,
beliefs, ideas, feelings and perceptions.
2-To gather factual information about the respondents.
3-Provide accurate information.
4-Obtaining data on certain human responses.
5-Important in nursing research.

Data collection method
Data collection method :-
1- Questionnaire.
2- Interviews.
3- Observation methods.
4- Physical measures.
5- Attitude scale.
6- Psychological tests.
7- Q sorts.
8- Delphi technique.
9- Visual analogue scale.
10- Preexisting data.

Questionnaire cont,:-
Wording of questions:-
The most difficult aspect of questionnaire constructed
is the actual wording of individual question.
Here some general guidelines:-
1-Avoid double negative question.
2-Avoid ambiguous question.
3-Question should contain neutral
wording.
4-Avoid double-barreled
question.

1- Demographic questionnaire:-
Gather data on the characteristics of the sample.
Demographic can be variables or attribute variables
such as age, educational background and religion.
2- Open-Ended questionnaire:-
The researcher asks respondents to complete questions in
their own words in open-ended questionnaire.
3- Closed-Ended questionnaire:-
The most structured questions, in which the respondents are
asked to choose from given alternatives, may be only two as
true or false or may be many as chick list type, multiple
choice and matching questions.

4- Contingency questionnaire:-
Questionnaire items that is relevant for some
respondents and not for other. The determination
of whether respondents should
Answer certain question is dependent, or contingent
on their answer to other questions.
5- fiuer questions:-
fiuer questions are items in which the researcher
has no direct interest but included on agues tinnier
to reduce the emphasis on the specific purpose of
the other questions .

Factors influencing response rate:-
1- Mailing at a time other than holiday sea popular vocation times.
2- Hand – addressed outer envelopes.
3- Personal signature of the researcher on the cover letter.
4- Information in the cover letter that motivates respondent.
5- An incentive, such as a small cash pay meant or sample of instant
to drink while completing the questionnaire.
6- Neatness and clarity of the instrument.
7- Ease of completion of the instrument.
8- Time to complete the instrument does not exceed from 10 to15
minutes.
9- Guarantee or anonymity.
10- Inclusion of preaddressed, stamped envelop.

Advantages of questionnaires:-
1- Quick and inexpensive means of obtaining data from
large number of respondents.
2- One of the easiest research instruments to test for
reliability.
3- Less time consuming than interview or observation.
4- Data can be obtained from respondents in wide
spread in graphical areas.
5- Respondents can remain anonymous.
6- If anonymity is assured, respondents are more likely
to provide honest answers.

Disadvantages of questionnaires:-
1- Mailing of questionnaires may be costly.
2- Response rate may be low.
3- Respondents may provide socially acceptable
answers.
4- Respondents may fail to answer some of the
items.
5- There is no opportunity to clarify items that may
be misunderstood by respondents.
6- Respondents must be literate.
7- Respondents must have no physical disability
that would prevent them from completing questioning.
8- Respondents may not be representative of the
population

2-Interviews:-
Definition:-
A meeting of person's face to face encounter or
through telephone call.
Types of interviews:-
1- Unstructured:-
Are conducted more like a normal conversation, it
appropriate for qualitative research studies .depending on how the
persons respond to the opening question.
2- Structured:-
The interviewer uses a structured interview schedule in
this type to asking the structured question, the main purposes of this
type to produce data that can be compared between respondents.

Interviews cont,:-
3- Semi structured:-
Contains the both closed – ended and open –ended questions. In this
type of interview data are gathered that can be compared between all respondents
in addition, individualized.
Interview instrument:
1- Schedule:-
Contains asset questions.
Advantage:-
Simpler recording process.
Disadvantage:-
The writing recording reduces the amount of eye contact.
2- Audiotapes:-
Advantage:-
- Total interview process can be captured.
- The interviewer free to observe the respondents.
Disadvantage:-
Length of time needed in data analysis phase.

Interviews c0nt,:-
3- Video taping :-
Become an important means of collecting research data.
4- Telephone:-
Collection of data through phone call.
Advantage:-
- Quick and inexpensive.
- The respondent's anonymity can be protected.
Disadvantage:-
- Can’t observe non verbal responses.
- Not answer the phone if don’t recognize the caller’s.
Interview questions:-
The questions would be much simpler, clear, unambiguous and
short.
There are two basic categories of question:-
Open –Ended and Closed-Ended question.

Interviews c0nt,:-
Interviewer training:-
Should be carried out in groups, so that all interviewers
receive the same instruction, during the training the researcher should
be described:-
- Study purpose.
- Interview schedule in detail.
-The purpose of each question.
Timing and setting for interview:-
- Choosing the most appropriate time for interview.
- If home interview should be determine optimum time for
interview and respondent.
- If hospitalized interview determine the most optimum time for
interview according to hospital routine and patient care activities.
- The interview should be privacy and without interruptions.

Interviews cont,:-
Interviewer guidelines:-
The guidelines will be presented in three phases.
Before interview:-
The interviewer should be explain the purpose of the
study ,how they were chosen ,how long the interview and how the
information will be used to the potential respondent.
During interview:-
The interviewer should ensure a comfortable atmosphere
and position ,talk with conversational tone, Cleary and understood
language, avoid any pressure applied for answered left sensitive
question until interview end when rapport may be fully.
After interview:-
Respondent should be asked if have any question,
thanked for their respondent and indicate how respondent may
obtain the result of the study.

Types of questionnaires:-
Demographic Open-Ended Closed-Ended Contingency fiuer

Interviews cont,:-
Influence of interviewer on the respondent:-
1-In face to face interview:-
Characteristics of the interviewer such
as ethnic background, age, gender, manner of
speech and clothing influence the answers
provided by respondent.
2-Intelephon interview:-
The interviewer verbal mannerisms
such as tone of voice and dialect may have
appositive or negative factor in cooperation from
respondent.

Interviews cont,:-
Advantage of the interviews:-
1-Responses can be obtained from wide
range of subjects.
2-Response rate is high.
3-It is useful for collecting in depth
information.
4-Most of the data obtained are
usable.
5-Questions can be explained.
6-Verbal and non verbal
behavior can be observed.

Interviews cont,:-
Disadvantage of the interviews:-
1-Training programs are needed for interview.
2-Interviews are time consuming and expensive.
3-Arrangements for interviews may be difficult to
make.
4-Subjects may anxious because answers are being
recording.
5-Subjects may be influenced by interviewers
characteristics.
6-Interviewers may misinterpret nonverbal behavior.
7-The quality of data depend on quality of interviewer
and interaction.

3- Observation method
Definition
Observation may be defined as a
systematic viewing of a specific
phenomenon in its proper setting or the
specific purpose of gathering data for a
particular study. Observation as a
method includes both 'seeing' and
'hearing.' It is accompanied by
perceiving as well.

Observation method cont,:-
Importance of the observation method:-
1-Observation also plays a major role in formulating
and testing hypothesis in social sciences.
2-Behavioral scientists observe interactions in small
groups
3-Observe the behavior of political leaders and political
institutions.
. Advantages of observation method:-
• Firsthand information.
• Simple to use.
• Verifies data from other sources.
• Useful for manual and psycho-motor tasks.

. Disadvantages of observation method:-
• Time consuming.
• May bias worker performance.
• Small sample size.
• Requires skilled observer.
• Validity & reliability may be problematic.
• Not useful for jobs consisting of mostly mental tasks•
What are the types of Observation?
1. Casual and Scientific observation
– An observation can be sometimes casual in nature or sometimes it may act
scientifically. An observation with a casual approach involves observing the
right thing at the right place and also at the right time by a matter of chance
or by luck whereas a scientific observation involves the use of the tools of
the measurement, but a very important point to be kept in mind here is that
all the observations are not scientific in nature.

2. Natural Observation
– Natural observation involves observing the behavior in a normal
setting and in this type of observation; no efforts are made to
bring any type of change in the behavior of the observed.
Improvement in the collection of the information and
improvement in the environment of making an observation can
be done with the help of natural observations.
3. Subjective and Objective observation
– All the observations consist of the two main components, the
subject and the object. The subject refers to the observer
whereas the object refers to the activity or any type of
operation that is being observed. Subjective observation
involves the observation of the one’s own immediate
experience whereas the observations involving observer as an
entity apart from the thing being observed, are referred to as
the objective observation. Objective observation is also called
as the retrospection.

4. Direct and Indirect observation
– With the help of the direct method of observation, one comes to know
how the observer is physically present in which type of situation is he
present and then this type of observation monitors what takes place.
Indirect method of observation involves studies of mechanical
recording or the recording by some of the other means like
photographic or electronic. Direct observation is relatively more
straight forward as compared to the indirect observation.
5. Participant and Non Participant observation
Participation by the observers with the various types of operations of the
group under study refers to the participant type of observation. In
participant observation, the degree of the participation is largely
affected by the nature of the study and it also depends on the type of
the situation and also on its demands. But in the non participant type
of observation, no participation of the observer in the activities of the
group takes place and also there occurs no relationship between the
researcher and the group.

6. Structured and Unstructured observation
– Structured observation works according to a plan and involves specific
information of the units that are to be observed and also about the information
that is to be recorded. The operations that are to be observed and the various
features that are to be noted or recorded are decided well in advance. Such
observations involve the use of especial instruments for the purpose of data
collection that are also structured in nature. But in the case of the unstructured
observation, its basics are diametrically against the structured observation. In
such observation, observer has the freedom to note down what he or she feels
is correct and relevant to the point of study and also this approach of
observation is very suitable in the case of exploratory research.
7. Controlled and Non Controlled observation:
Controlled observations are the observations made under the influence of •
some of the external forces and such observations rarely lead to improvement
in the precision of the research results. But these observations can be very
effective in the working if these are made to work in the coordination with
mechanical synchronizing devices, film recording etc. Non controlled
observations are made in the natural environment and reverse to the controlled
observation these observations involve no influence or guidance of any type of
external force.

Guideline for effective observation:-
1- Observation should be systematic.
2- Observers should be knowledgeable.
3- The observers influence should be
minimized.
4- Observers should be selected
carefully.
5- Observers must be fully prepared

4- Physiological measures:-
It involve the collection of physical data from subjects,
it is more objective and accurate. it is more difficult
for subjects to provide biased data on physiological
measures intentionally or nationally than on self-report
measure.
Advantage:-
It is precision and accuracy.
Disadvantage:-
That special expertise may be necessary to
use same of these devices.

5- Attitude scales:-
Are self-report data collection
instruments that ask respondents to
report their attitudes or feeling on a
continuum.
The most commonly used
attitude scales are:-
1-The likert scale.
2-Semantic differential scale.

Attitude scales cont,:-
1-Likert scales:-
Are usually contain five or seven responses for each
items, ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree.
Although the data from alikert scale are generally at
the ordinal level of measurement, some statically tests indicate
that arithmetic operations may be performed with this type of
data.
2-Semantic differential scale:-
It asks subjects to indicate their position or attitude
about some concept along continuum between two phases that
are presented in relation to the concept being measured.
Ex. Of phases kind-unkind , friendly-unfriendly , helpful-unhelpful.

6- Physiological tests:-
Researchers have devised many methods to assess the
personality characteristics of people.
Personality inventors and projective techniques are two of
these methods,
1-Personality inventories:-
Are self-report measures used to assess the differences
in personality trios, needs or values of people.
These inventories seek information about a person by
asking question or requesting responses to statements that are
presented.
2-Projective technique:-
One of the criticisms of self-report psychological
measures. Is that they may elicit socially acceptable answers
desired by the researcher rather than the true feelings or
attitudes of the subjects.

7- Q sort
Also called Q methodology. Is means of
obtaining data in which subjects sort statements into
categories according to their attitudes toward . or
tatting of the statements .
Subjects are presented with Weber of
words of statements that are written on cards or
pieces of paper .
The number of items to be placed into
each category or pile by the subjoins is predator
mined by researcher .
This forced – choice arrangement
usually calls for piles to be distributed in the form of
a bell – shaped curve

Q sort cont,
How to use Q sort ?
If 100 items were being used the distribution might look like this.
1 4 11 21 26 21 11 4 1
The respondents are asked to in front of them according to
their attitude or belief about the items .
The first pile should conation the item about which the subject
has the most positive altitude or the strongest belief about the
importance of the item to the topic interest , and the hast pile
on the right should contain the item about which the subject
has the most negative attitude or the weakest intensity of
attitudes or beliefs .
This type of data – collection prefecture my present difficult
task for respondents , and need clear instructions be provided .

8- Delphi technique :-
Delphi technique:-
Is used to describe a date – collection terminus that
employs several rounds of questions to seek consensus on a
particular topic from a group of experts.
Purpose of Delphi technique :-
1- This method of data – collection is to obtain group
consensus from the panel of experts without bringing this
group together in a face – to – face meeting .
2- This type of procedure is apron pirate I on of exam in the
opinions, beliefs or future predication of knowledgeable people
on some special topic of interest .
3- To explain this procedure is to describe a classic study
conducted by lindeman ((1975))

9-visual analogue scale
((vas)) :-
The visual analogue scale ((vas)) presents subjects
with straight line drawn on apiece of paper .
the line is anchored on each end by wards or short
phrases that represent the extremes of some
phenomenon, such as pain .
subjects are asked to make mark on the line is 100 mm
in length, which simulates a o to 100 rating scale .
from their review of the literature, hung ,wilkie, and
berry ((1996)) have concluded that the vas is : a
simple , reliable , reproducible, valid and sensitive
tool."

10-Preexisting Data
Preexisting data involves the use of existing
information that has been collected for
research purposes .
Patient's charts are valuable source of data.
other sources of existing data include records
from agencies and organization such as
hospitals, the us government, local public
health depart mentis

Critiquing data-collection
methods:-
1- If a questionnaire was used in a study, sufficing
informing if it was appropriate for use in the study .
2- The manner in which questionnaire was
developed .
3- The reliability and validity of the instrument .
4- The number of questions. How the instrument
was scored and the range of possible scores should
be presented.
5- When am interview has used, the reader needs
information about how long the interviews took ,
who conducted the interviews?
6- How the interviewer were trained

Critiquing data-collection
methods cont,:-
7- Observation research requires that the reader be able to
determine how observation ware made.
8- Who made the observation and how data were recorded.
9- If physiological instruments were used the accuracy of
these data - collection measures needs to be addressed .
10- Does it appear that the researcher would have had the
expertise to use these instruments?
11- The researcher may have used a psychology cal data-collection
method such as am attitude scale or personality
test .
12- The reader will need to make the determination of the
appropriateness of these instruments and the qualification of
the researcher to use then.

summary
Data Collection is an important
aspect of any type of research
study. Inaccurate data collection
can impact the results of a study
and ultimately lead to invalid
results.

Summary :-
- Data collection methods are used to gather information in
systematic way.
- Data user in q quantitative studies will be of a numeric
nature and subject to statistical analysis. Data used in
qualitative studies will be a text – based nature and subject to
coding.
- Data collection methods are categorized as primary data
collection and secondary data collection . primary data
collection us when the researcher gathers the information.
- Primary data collected for another purpose.
- Collection is the use of data that were collected for another
purpose.
- The most common types of primary data collection are
physiologic mea- sacrament, psychometric instrumentation,
questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, and observation.

Summary cont,:-
-The advantage of using a valid and reliable instrument is
that it saves the researcher time in the development and
validation of a new instrument and allows for the
contribution of the study to larger body of knowledge.
- The most common data collection method is the survey.
The survey method is an approach in whish a systematic
measurement instrument is used to gather information
directly form respondents a bout their experiacnes,
behaviors, attitudes, or perceptions.
- Interviews and focus groups can help the researcher
gather rich data directly from the respondent and allow
the researcher to explore topics as they arise. The
drawback of these methods is their time – consuming
nature and the demands they place on the facilitator's skill
level.

measurement Data collection

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