Learner Autonomy Theoretical and Practices

Learner Autonomy
Theoretical and practical information for
language teachers
Adela Țurloiu and Ína Sif Stefánsdóttir
Lokaverkefni lagt fram til fullnaðar B.Ed.-gráðu
í Grunnskólakennarafræðum við Háskóla Íslands, Menntavísindasvið
Janúar 2011

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Janúar 2011 Lokaverkefni til B.Ed. -prófs
Learner autonomy
Theoretical and practical information for language teachers
Adela Ţurloiu and Ína Sif Stefánsdóttir
261081-2459
130280-3669
Háskóli Íslands
Menntavísindasvið
Kennaradeild, grunnskólakennarafræði
Janúar 2011

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Abstract
This essay deals with the concept of learner autonomy and how it may be
implemented in the classroom. Main ideas and concepts are explained and the
findings of leading scholars in this field are presented. There is special focus on
practical information that teachers can make use of when taking their first steps
towards learner autonomy in regards, for example, to group work, logbook use,
reflection and assessment. In addition, ideas are presented on how activities can be
adapted to learner autonomy and how a lesson plan can be organized with the
principles of learner autonomy in mind.

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Contents
Abstract..................................................................................................................................3
Table of Figures...................................................................................................................6
Introduction .........................................................................................................................7
1. Moving the spotlight from teaching to learning..............................................9
1.1 The learner’s role........................................................................................................10
1.2 The teachers role.........................................................................................................11
1.3 The autonomous classroom ....................................................................................14
2. Implementing learner autonomy...................................................................... 16
2.1 Learners’ logbooks......................................................................................................17
2.2 Teacher's logbook.......................................................................................................19
2.3 Posters.............................................................................................................................19
2.4 Classroom routine.......................................................................................................20
2.4.1 “Two minutes talk” .....................................................................................................21
2.4.2 Free activities ...............................................................................................................22
2.4.3 Homework .....................................................................................................................22
2.4.4 Reflection .......................................................................................................................23
3. Organizing classroom work ................................................................................ 24
3.1 Activities in an autonomous classroom ..............................................................24

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3.2 Group work....................................................................................................................25
4. Assessment................................................................................................................ 28
4.1 Assessment in Icelandic schools............................................................................28
4.2 The European Language Portfolio.........................................................................29
4.2.1 The Finnish ELP project............................................................................................31
5. Learner Autonomy and Differentiation in Icelandic Elementary Schools
33
6. Successes and problems in implementing learner autonomy................ 35
6.1 Success experienced by teachers when implementing learner autonomy
35
6.1.1 Tinne Seeman and Connie Tavares.......................................................................35
6.1.2 Hanne Thomsen...........................................................................................................37
6.1.3 Leni Dam and Lienhard Legenhausen..................................................................38
6.2 Problems encountered by teachers......................................................................40
6.2.1 Discouraging environment......................................................................................41
6.2.2 Reluctant teachers ......................................................................................................42
7. Concluding remarks............................................................................................... 44
References.......................................................................................................................... 46

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Table of Figures
Table 1: A classroom routine poster (Dam, 2000).......................................................21

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Introduction
Learner autonomy in language learning is nothing new, but in the last twenty years it
has had significant influence on English learning, be it English as a Second Language
(ESL) or English as a Foreign Language (EFL). The educational system today in
Iceland puts a lot of emphasis on differentiation and catering to individual learners
with different abilities and individual interests. The National Curriculum makes
several references to giving learners choice and creativity in both input and output.
Learner autonomy caters to all of this as it moves the focus from teaching to learning.
It allows learners to work on different tasks, not all doing the same thing at the same
time. It accentuates self-assessment with emphasis on logbooks and written journals.
This kind of self-assessment has in some schools already been introduced with the use
of the European Language Portfolio (ELP). When implementing learner autonomy in
the classroom teachers need to take a lot into consideration, and we will try to shed
light on the main factors in the following pages.
As teacher students, we are particularly interested in implementing learner autonomy
in our future classrooms, but how exactly does one do that? In theory, it sounds
simple and effective, but for new teachers it can be daunting to shift the focus from
the teacher to the learner and thus give the learners more power. In this essay we will
try to clarify the meaning of learner autonomy in relation to the ESL/EFL classroom,
and discuss its value for English teachers in Icelandic schools. Chapter 1 will look at
the roles of teachers and learners in the autonomous classroom, and also the main
characteristics of the autonomous classroom. In addition, contrast between policy and
reality in European and Japanese schools will be briefly discussed.
Chapter 2 will focus on methods of implementing learner autonomy, such as
logbooks, autonomous activities and reflection. Chapter 3 deals with the organization
of classroom work. We provide examples of activities for the autonomous classroom
and give special attention to group work which is a prominent feature in the
autonomous classroom. Chapter 4 is dedicated to assessment methods which are well
suited for learner autonomy such as logbooks, self- and peer- assessment. Chapter 5
sheds light on how learner autonomy complements differentiation, an educational

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approach that is very common in Icelandic elementary schools. Finally, chapter 6
recounts three success stories from teachers that have implemented learner autonomy
in their classrooms. In addition it points out problems a teacher might encounter when
implementing learner autonomy.

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1. Moving the spotlight from teaching to learning
“The concept of learner autonomy … emphasizes the role of the learner rather than
the role of the teacher. It focuses on the process rather than the product and
encourages learners to develop their own purposes for learning and to see learning as
a lifelong process” (Jacobs & Farrell, 2001).
One of the key principles of learner autonomy is moving the focus from teaching to
learning; take the teacher out of his spotlight and point it at the learners. This may
seem daunting to new teachers or indeed experienced teachers who have been the
centre of attention and in control of their classroom. But as David Little wrote:
“I believe that all truly effective learning entails the growth of autonomy in the
learner as regards both the process and the content of learning; but I also
believe that for most learners the growth of autonomy requires the stimulus,
insight and guidance of a good teacher” (Little, 2000).
Moving the focus from teaching to learning clearly doesn’t mean that the teacher
becomes obsolete or redundant. It means a change of pace from where lessons are
organized around textbook material and the ground a teacher needs to cover. Lessons
are now organized in collaboration with learners in regards to both material and
methods.
Daunting though it may seem, this radical change is not impossible and has been
implemented all over the world. A teacher student in an action research study initiated
at the University of Iceland used the theory and methods behind learner autonomy in
her teaching practice in a classroom at the lower secondary level of elementary
school. She wanted to increase learner autonomy by creating a collaborative learning
situation. The learners were given opportunities to choose and take responsibility for
their own learning. They chose topics, working approaches and formed their own
groups. The learners organized themselves, decided upon homework and did final
presentations. The teacher student’s role was that of a facilitator. Assessment was
partly peer and self-assessment (Lefever, 2005).

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At the beginning, learners’ reactions ranged from enthusiasm to displeasure, but
according to the teacher student, the results of the experience were positive for most
of the learners. The learners came to the conclusion that even though they were
responsible for their own learning, the teacher also shared a part of the responsibility.
They found that they paid more attention to presentations because they were given the
responsibility of giving feedback to their peers (Lefever, 2005). By moving the focus
from teacher to learners the learners got motivated and involved in their own learning
and what was going on in the classroom.
To fully understand the concept of autonomy and its focus on learning rather than
teaching, we must take a closer look at what is entailed in both the learner’s and
teacher’s roles. We will then shed light on what characterizes the autonomous
classroom.
1.1The learner’s role
“The students have responsibility for their learning but through scaffolding, the
teacher takes more responsibility than in a traditional class” (Lacey, 2007, p. 8).
The learner’s role in an autonomous environment is not that of a passive receiver of
information. Learners are the makers of their own fortune and valued members of a
learning community that is their class. Autonomous learners have the ability and
willingness to learn on their own. Learners become successful if they take
responsibility for their own learning. It is up to learners if they want to learn (Lowes
& Target, 1999)!
Leni Dam characterized learner autonomy by “a readiness to take charge of one’s own
learning in the service of one’s needs and purposes”. Autonomous learners are those
who understand why they are learning specific topics, accept responsibility for their
learning, take the initiative in planning and executing learning activities and are
willing to assess their own learning (Little, 2002). Learners’ active participation in
and responsibility for their own learning process are essential in the field of foreign
language learning (Dam, 1995). The learner needs to be willing to “act independently
and in co-operation with others, as a socially responsible person” (Dam, 1995).

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Learner autonomy includes the learner’s reflective involvement in all aspects of the
learning processes. Learners become autonomous by assuming responsibility for their
own learning. This includes being involved in all aspects of the learning process:
planning, implementation (monitoring) and assessment. Their autonomy grows as
they become conscious of the process of learning (Little, Ridley, & Ushioda, 2003).
A factor that is vital to learner autonomy is self-assessment. Learners need to build up
their own personal criteria for the quality of their work and develop independence
from the teacher as the sole judge of their weaknesses and strengths. This helps the
learners make informed decisions about their next steps in the learning process and
removes the dependence on the teacher. They do not have to wait for him to tell them
what to do next and how well they are doing. Even though the teacher remains the
more knowledgeable and experienced person in the classroom, the goal is for learners
to increase their knowledge and level of competence.
1.2The teachers role
“Let me first of all mention the fact that learners do not necessarily learn what
we believe ourselves to be teaching… What we can do is give our learners an
awareness of how they think and how they learn – an awareness which
hopefully will help them come to an understanding of themselves and thus
increase their self-esteem” (Dam, 2000, p. 18).
The traditional view is that teachers should be in control of the classroom and direct
learning. To some, learner autonomy may sound more like bringing chaos in the
classroom. Nevertheless teachers can successfully make the choice of relinquishing
control and sharing it with the learners (Lacey, 2007).
Dominant traditions in psychology and education see learning as internal to the
individual, and it is clear that any substantial effort to learn within a traditional
educational environment requires an exceptional individual effort. Thus, it is not
surprising that teachers tend to think of their classes as collections of individual
learners who may sometimes come together in small groups for purposes of practice.
Neither is it surprising that they tend to think that individual learning is in some way

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more economical and effective than group work. Social-interactive principles of
learning, on the other hand, see the group as the primary focus of learning activity and
individual learning as a matter of consolidating on past and preparing for future group
learning (Little, 2000).
Fostering autonomy in the classroom is done by providing learners with
“opportunities to make significant choices and decisions about their learning” in an
informed way (Nunan, 2003, p. 290). That means the learners have a say in what and
how they learn, and the teacher encourages this by giving the learners opportunities
and tools to make informed decisions regarding their learning. This applies both to
choosing appropriate material and learning strategies. Giving choices to the learners is
a change that needs to be made gradually by taking into consideration their age and
how much responsibility they are used to (Lowes & Target, 1999).
The teachers’ role in an autonomous language classroom is to help learners learn by
exposing them to the language and providing opportunities for them to practice the
new language in class as well as at home (Lowes & Target, 1999). A teacher aiming
to foster learner autonomy in his classroom also has to be aware of the importance of
differentiation. Differentiating instruction is the idea of accommodating different
ways learners learn; to design the lessons according to learners’ needs and differences
in the classroom. In a differentiated classroom it should be taken into consideration
that learners have different abilities, skills and backgrounds. All of this affects the
way they learn (Tomlinson, 2003).
A big part of implementing autonomy in the classroom is to teach diverse learning
strategies, and assist the learners in finding the methods that best suit them. The
learners have to be given the tools they need to become more self sufficient and
independent. The Ministry of Education is exceedingly clear in its regard to learner
autonomy and independence. It stipulates that practice in learning strategies is a solid
part of language learning and should be related to the material being dealt with at any
time (Menntamálaráðuneytið, 2007).
In an autonomous classroom, teachers do not play the role of imparters of information
or sources of facts. Their role is more that of a facilitator. The teacher’s position is to

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manage the activities in the classroom and help learners plan their learning both for
long and short term. The teacher has to be able to establish a close collaboration with
the learners and make sure that all learners know what is expected of them at all times
(Lowes & Target, 1999).
Teachers have the role of counselors. They need to inform learners and make them
capable of choosing the best learning strategies. Learners have to be able to make
informed choices. This means knowing the rationale behind the strategies and having
time to experiment to find which suits best for each occasion. Teachers must,
however, be careful not to guide the learners implicitly to the strategies they
themselves prefer (Nunan, 2003).
A learner autonomous classroom is a place where learners and teachers have
constructive interaction with each other and learn from each other. The teacher is
responsible for helping learners become aware of alternative strategies and learning
styles (Camilleri, 1999).
The teacher gives praise and feedback but this is also supplied by the other learners
when group work and product is jointly assessed after projects are finished. Learners
then get more personal feedback and guidance from the teacher through the logbooks
which serve as a medium of communication as well as a tool of organization and
reflection.
A teacher that intends to foster his learners’ autonomy should not only introduce
various learning strategies but also give his learners ample opportunity to try them out
in different circumstances. It is necessary to build up an atmosphere in the classroom
that invites such experiments and lets learners feel comfortable sharing their findings
with their teacher and their classmates. Interaction in the classroom directly influences
the learners’ learning processes.

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1.3The autonomous classroom
“The students achieve ownership of their learning. The teacher no longer knows all
the answers, meaning that communication in the FL classroom becomes authentic and
the language becomes the means, as well as the goal” (Lacey, 2007, p. 5).
Leni Dam defines a learning centered environment as an environment where the
learners are able to be consciously involved in their own learning. They are made
aware of the various elements involved in the learning process by being expected to
be actively engaged in their own. Some of the prerequisites for establishing such an
environment are:
• A willingness on the part of the teacher to let go, and on the part of the
learners to take hold;
• An understanding of what to do and why and how it should be done, this
applies to teachers as well as learners;
• An experience-based insight into the learning process for both teachers and
learners;
• An atmosphere of security, trust and respect (Dam, 2000).
One of the things that characterize the autonomous classroom is a strong emphasis on
pair and group work as means to develop learner autonomy. The fact is that learners
become less dependent on the teacher by learning to collaborate with their peers.
Group activities play a large part in this because learners acquire a lot of learning
strategies when collaborating with, and receiving support from their peers and not just
the teacher (Jacobs & Farrell, 2001).
In learner autonomous classrooms teachers and learners become a learning
community and the target language is one of the principal tools with which the
collaborative process is shaped. (Little & Dam, 1998). The target language is used not
just in communication, but also as a channel for learning, and a tool for reflection
(Little, Ridley, & Ushioda, 2003). The teaching is not steered by the textbook, but the
needs and experiences of the learners. Leni Dam suggests that language is learned

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partly “from the inside out”, as learners express their own meaning for learning
purposes (Little & Dam, 1998).
To manage learners’ learning process the teacher negotiates with them the course
content and methodology. At the same time, the learners are informed about the
learning process and discuss it. The learner forms his own conclusions about learning
and is respected for his individual points of view (Camilleri, 1999). This process starts
at the beginning of each school year and continues throughout. It is a continuous cycle
of learning; each step leads to the next. Learners negotiate a project, and decide upon
both material and process. The outcome is discussed and reflected upon; the next step
is a consequence of the one taken before. One project leads to the next, and each time
the learners come away aware of what they have learned, how they have learned and
why.
The learners form groups based on their interests or other criteria chosen by them. The
differences between able and low ability learners are less obvious because the learners
work on self-assigned tasks as a part of a class and not a divided one (Lacey, 2007).
This type of collaborative group work calls for different communication skills. The
use of the target language and more learner-learner interaction and communication
due to group work and general discussion, opens up a whole new world of speaking
exercises and peer scaffolding. Learners also learn to work with different people and
gain communicative skills.

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2. Implementing learner autonomy
It is the teacher’s responsibility to provide his learners with the opportunity to become
autonomous, but it must be made clear that this does not happen in a day. A teacher
has to introduce autonomy gradually and with purpose. This must be done in
association with school administrators, learners and parents. Everyone must be aware
of the changes being made and their purpose.
In creating a learner-centered classroom, the starting point is to shift the focus from
the teacher and the textbook to the learners. One way of shifting focus away from the
teacher is to arrange the learners to sit in groups, pairs or a horseshoe, if it is necessary
to face the teacher and the blackboard. Rearranging the physical position in the
classroom would make passing over of responsibility to the learners easier (Dam,
1995). One option in organizing the classroom is to organize the tables so that learners
are seated in groups of four to six. Then each of them is facing three to five peers, and
all of them face the teacher. This setting has a number of advantages:
• It makes quick discussions and exchange of views within a group possible.
• It invites learner cooperation and peer tutoring.
• It supports individual learner participation as it is less threatening to
communicate in a small group than in a large group (Dam, 2000).
It is essential for young learners to have the impression that the teacher is interested in
them from the very beginning. It is also crucial for the teacher to get knowledge about
the learners and their English proficiency. Leni Dam talks about giving the learners
their first “homework”, which was to bring some “English” from home into the
classroom to show them that English is not just a school subject, but it exists outside
the classroom. The homework needs to be discussed and the efforts of learners who
make a contribution to the lesson need to be appreciated (Dam, 1995).
Leni Dam puts a lot of emphasis in learner awareness in her aims for beginners of
English language learning:
• “Awareness of WHY, WHAT and HOW to learn English;

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• Awareness of possible activities supporting what, and how to learn;
• Awareness of the learners’ role as well as the role of others in the learning
process;
• Readiness to cooperate,
• Willingness to make choices and accept responsibilities for them.” (Dam,
1995, p. 9).
Many teachers feel that the learners should have a right to control their learning and to
have a say in decision-making, but it is the teacher’s responsibility to ensure that they
actually learn and make progress in their language proficiency (Lacey, 2007). In order
to become learner autonomous, learners need to learn how to set their own goals and
choose which learning strategies work best for them.
Not a lot of learning takes place without motivation and active participation of the
learners. Their interests have to be utilized and the subject has to be appropriate for
their age and abilities. At the same time, it is essential that learners learn to take
responsibility for their own learning. This implies that the teacher has to allow for
freedom of choice and gradually allow the learners to spread their wings. The lesson
activities have to allow learners to be creative from time to time.
2.1Learners’ logbooks
“Autonomy means me giving control to students but logbooks give me more
control/insight than I have ever had before” (Lacey, 2007, p. 7).
Logbooks serve as a medium of communication between teachers and learners as well
as a tool of organization and reflection. A learners’ logbook is also a tool for
awareness-raising and natural, authentic language use as it is written in the target
language. Logbooks have a key role in the relationships that develop between teacher
and learners. They are essential in the learning process for the teacher to monitor
learners learning and provide scaffolding.
Knowing how to find the best learning strategies for a particular task is not something
learners automatically know how to do. They need a lot of practice. A substantial part

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of learner autonomy is reflection. Learners write in their logbooks about what they do,
how they do it and why they choose a specific method. They also write about the
results they get from this method. By doing this periodically, they begin to think about
learning in general instead of always focusing on only one project at a time and rely
on the teacher for guidance, expect the teacher to instruct them on how it is best to
perform the task.
Frank Lacey, an experienced teacher in the use of traditional teaching methods,
decided to implement learner autonomy in his classroom. At the beginning, Lacey
was skeptical about some of the methods used in an autonomous classroom, for
example, the logbooks. His learners however accepted logbooks as a step in taking
responsibility for their own learning and for keeping updated on what, how and why
they learned certain things. The information included in the learners’ logbooks was
not just documentation of their activities but also communication of their own process
of learning and thoughts. English shed the role of a subject taught in school and
became part of their real lives (Lacey, 2007).
Logbooks can be an indispensable tool for teachers to follow the progress of
individual learners. Learners use logbooks to record the activities during the lessons,
new words or expressions; register the homework decided by themselves or by the
teacher and things that they enjoy or not (Dam, 1995). The logbook is useful for group
and pair work, when organizing and distributing tasks. It provides an overview of
daily or weekly reflections and assessments. The teacher should, in association with
the learners, set up a list of guidelines or principles to be followed when writing in the
logbooks. These guidelines should be checked and discussed on a regular basis (Dam,
2000).
One of the issues in implementing learner autonomy is that learners have a propensity
to set highly ambitious goals in the beginning of their learning. It is the teacher’s
responsibility to have a talk with each learner and respond to learners’ logbooks with
appropriate feedback. The feedback should be realistic and positive to encourage
learners forward, and redirect them if necessary (Yang, 1998).

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2.2Teacher's logbook
The main purpose of teacher’s logbook is to keep track on the activities learners are
involved in and their progress. In addition it is the place where teachers keep record of
the assessment of each learner and observations of the learners’ participation in
classroom activities. The teacher could use the logbook to inform parents about the
situation of their child at any point in the school semester.
Leni Dam (1995) explains the use of the logbook in her classes. The logbook is
beneficial “to document and assess the ongoing teaching/learning process.” In her
logbook, the teacher embodies WHAT to do, lesson plans, and WHY those activities
need to be done at that point; reflections on the course of the lessons including
remarks, comments or things to remember for the following lesson.
The logbook is also a tool for keeping track of the individual learner’s work – for the
learner, the teacher and can also be of good use for parent – teacher meetings.
Teachers should carry their logbooks with them and use explicitly in class to give a
good example. There they keep track of their lessons, as well as the learning process
of the learners. Teachers can also make notes of problems, successes or needs that
emerge in discussions with learners. This way the learners see that using a logbook is
a natural part of the learning process for the teacher as well as the learner (Dam,
2000).
2.3Posters
Posters are highly effective in developing learner autonomy in the classroom. The
teachers write, in an authentic target language, the decisions they make with the
learners regarding planning the projects, group work, or assessment, for example.
Posters are hanged all over the classroom as a support for learners to organize their
work or to revise grammatical rules.
The teacher writes down decisions and assessments which are constructed by the
whole class, groups or individuals (Dam, 1995). The learners’ views, ideas and
assessments are not wiped out at the end of the lesson. They are kept on the wall for

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future use. In this way posters also provide learners with a lot of visible, authentic
language (Dam, 2000).
There are different types of posters:
1. Lesson plan;
2. Working plan of different groups;
3. Ideas for activities or homework;
4. Demands and contracts for group work;
5. List of “helpers”;
6. New words and expressions as a support for learners in communication in class or
solving a certain task;
7. Grammatical rules (Dam, 1995, p. 41).
Leni Dam’s video (1998) gives an example of how theory can become practice. She
shows the evolution of a class of learners from a school in Denmark. The learners and
the teacher need to decide what to do. The teacher comes up with a topic or a theme
and together they form a group brainstorming about the chosen topic. The results are
put up on a poster. The blackboard is used to display posters which show the members
of each group, group’s subject, and how its members are going to gather information.
The group objective is to present their findings using posters.
2.4Classroom routine
A clear lesson plan poster can facilitate the establishment of a learning-centered
environment. It supports the teacher in letting go and the learners in taking hold in
different ways. Teachers and learners’ responsibility, as well the activities they
are expected to take part in are clearly stated. In a joint session, the learners can
share their experiences, and the knowledge they have gained with the others.
This poster makes it clear when the teacher is in charge or a participant. It gives the
classroom procedures certain stability, and provides the participants with a feeling of
security (Dam, 2000). Below is an example of a classroom routine poster from Leni
Dam which is aimed at a lesson of 2x45 minutes twice a week. This plan can be

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adapted as a week plan rather than a lesson plan as it is usual in Icelandic elementary
schools to have only 1x40 minutes four times a week.
Table 1: A classroom routine poster (Dam, 2000).
0 Opening of lesson
1 Teacher-initiated and directed activities promoting awareness-raising as regards
• Learning, the learning environment, and the roles and responsibilities expected
from its participants
• Useful language learning activities in terms of
o Interpreting
o Expressing
• Learners‘ and teacher‘s assessment of teacher-initiated and directed activities
2 Learner-initiated and directed activities:
• Sharing homework
• “2 minutes’ talk”
• “Free” learner-chosen activities in groups, pairs or individually within the given
conditions
• Planning homework – and perhaps next step
• Learners’ assessment of work carried out individually, in pairs, or in groups.
3 “Together” – a plenary session for the whole class including the teacher:
• Presentation and assessment of results or products from group work, pair work
or individual work
• Joint events such as songs, lyrics, story-telling, quizzes, etc.
• Joint assessment of the lesson
Teacher-initiated and teacher-directed activities enable the teacher to make external
demands and expectations clear to learners at successive stages in the learning
process. These might be curricular guidelines, either from the National Curriculum or
the school curriculum, or otherwise demands and expectations imposed by the teacher
(Dam, 2000).
2.4.1 “Two minutes talk”
During this activity learners communicate in the target language in pairs for two
minutes about any topic they choose. At the intermediate level “two minutes talk” and
sharing homework is sometimes combined when a group has been working on the
same project or reading the same text or book. This can be excellent preparation for

22
an exam. The “two minutes talk” can then be replaced by discussion points prepared
by the learners for the text in question (Dam, 2000).
2.4.2 Free activities
“Free” activities are not entirely free. They are chosen from the list of “Ideas of what
to do” poster. Whether the activity is done individually, in pairs or groups, a poster is
made summarizing “Who”, “What”, “Why” and “How”. The posters are then
displayed on the wall for the rest of the class to see, along with a poster giving an
overview of what each learner is doing (Dam, 2000).
2.4.3 Homework
Homework is a key factor in an autonomous classroom because typically the learners
decide it. Within a group, the members decide and share the work on the project or
activity that needs to be done for the following language class. The teacher can
interfere in deciding the work that needs to be done at home if a member of the group
did not attend the class, or when she plans extensive reading for the learners.
According to the National Curriculum, it is most important for successful language
learning that learners undertake homework. The purpose of homework is to restore
and build upon what was dealt with in a lesson, preparation for lessons or independent
work. It is imperative that learners get to choose material now and again to work with
at home. It is also ideal to encourage learners to use the target language outside of the
classroom (Menntamálaráðuneytið, 2007).
Learners working in groups or pairs present to each other what they have done at
home. Ideas for what to do when sharing homework expand all the time and are
recorded on a poster. Unless a learner is absent and a partner for sharing homework is
needed, the teacher does not take part in this activity (Dam, 2000).
At the end of learner-directed activities, the learners plan and delegate homework,
either individually or in groups. Many groups will allocate tasks to be done at home in
connection with their chosen activity. From time to time, the teacher will dictate
homework that must be done, for example, reading. Dam states that in her experience

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learners will often read far more than a teacher would think of demanding. She
suspects this is a result of the fact that they have chosen books or texts that interest
them and are at a level that suits them (Dam, 2000).
2.4.4 Reflection
It is necessary at the end of both teacher- and learner-initiated activities to allot time
for reflection on the learning process. It is essential that through reflection learners
make an attempt at self-assessment. The procedure can vary between learners
according to their skill level. Weaker learners may prefer to give themselves a
numeric grade on the scale of 1 to 10. More proficient learners might write a
comprehensive letter to the teacher. The crucial element is that the reflection process
forces all the learners to reflect systematically on what happened during the activities
undertaken. This reflection provides a solid and personally meaningful basis for future
self or shared assessment with other learners and/or the teacher (Dam, 2000).

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3. Organizing classroom work
Classroom work in the autonomous classroom is not solely dictated by the teacher.
The teacher has to keep everything together and oversee that a plan is being followed
but the main difference from the traditional classroom is that this lesson plan is set up
in collaboration with the learners.
3.1Activities in an autonomous classroom
Hanne Thomsen is an experienced teacher who worked for years with mixed-ability
learners in autonomous language classrooms in Denmark. In association with her
students she set forth criteria for a good activity. A good activity for an autonomous
classroom should be relevant, you should learn from it, and it should not be too easy
or too difficult. To this Thomsen adds that it needs to cater to individual learners’
interests and needs and be appropriate for cooperation. It should be open ended and
entail differentiated processes as well as products. Her learners had many favorite
activities such as writing reflections in the logbook, making authentic material for
future use in the classroom, to do extensive reading and other individual work, pair
and group speaking exercises and project work (Thomsen, 2000).
Activities in the learner autonomous classroom can be varied and usually there is
something that caters to the interest of every learner. The fairy tale project that
follows below is an example on how one cartoon can lead to different projects, be
they individual, pair and group work.
3.1.1 Fairy tale project
This is an example of autonomous learning through project work. The fairy tale
project was organized by Seeman and Tavares and worked on with 5th grade learners
in 1998. The learners were in their second year of learning English.
1. Learners wrote down their individual goals for the project. Some wanted to
expand their vocabulary; others wanted to improve their pronunciation, etc.
This way each learner had a genuine reason for wanting to participate.

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2. The teacher provided an input on the project by showing a video of cartoon
stories in English based on Hans Christian Andersen’s well known fairy tales.
The learners were already familiar with the fairy tales and could understand
the stories without too much difficulty. They could therefore concentrate on
the linguistic input.
3. The class discussed the video and then split up into small groups of two to four
learners to determine how they wanted to work on the fairy tale they had
chosen. One group made word cards; another wrote in their logbooks about the
fairy tales, the third group wrote their own fairy tale, etc.
4. When a group had finished their work, they shared what they had done and
learnt with the rest of the class. They presented their work, assessed it and then
asked the class for their assessment. By sharing their learning products this
way, learners can find out what other groups in the class are doing and learn
from one another. Very often different groups will emerge that want to try out
what another group was working on.
This brief description shows how a wide range of activities can be generated by a
single topic. It also demonstrates how important it is that the learners chose the topic
and the associated activities themselves, through negotiation with the teacher and their
fellow learners. The learners’ involvement in their chosen activities is shaped by
personal learning goals they individually set for themselves (Seeman & Tavares,
2000). All material produced by the learners during the lessons, working in groups or
individually, is used by the entire class. Word cards, dominoes, picture lotto or small
books provide an insight on the activities performed in the class (Dam, 1995).
3.2Group work
“The class unity is lost in the many small groups but weak students are, just like
strong students, working on their self-assigned tasks, and thus are no longer
segregated in the class, but are a part of the class” (Lacey, 2007, p. 7).
Group work is an important part of the learner autonomous classroom. By shifting the
focus from teaching to learning and diminishing the learners’ dependence on the
teacher the groundwork is laid for peer assistance. The relationship between learner

26
autonomy and dependence means that at any particular time learners will be able to
perform some tasks by themselves but need help with others. Individual differences
will ensure that learners develop at different rates and with different emphases. This
means that almost from the beginning, learners will be able to support one another in
task performance. This is why group work plays a key role in any pedagogy derived
from Vygotskian principles. In Vygotsky’s definition of the zone of proximal
development he relied on adults or more capable peers to take on a pedagogical role.
In the principles of learner autonomy relating to group work this role is assumed first
by one learner and then another in a complex structure of interdependence (Little,
2000).
Leni Dam indicates that in an autonomous classroom learners manage their group
work by using their own resources. Leni Dam has built up some criteria that can be
used when training learners in forming their own groups:
• Learners are allowed to choose partners by their preferences, those they work
well with or they think they can learn from;
• Learners can choose partners they have seldom or never worked with before
which provides variety in the group work, helps learners get to know one
another and prevent cliques;
• Partners that have the same interests in different activities or materials,
• Partners that have certain abilities like good writing;
• Partners that can provide peer tutoring (Dam, 1995).
At the end of its task all the group members, together with the teacher, assess the
group work by using the notes they made in their logbooks. This helps the learners
make the connection between the goals they set collaboratively in the beginning, the
strategies used to achieve them and the outcome, and put them into words. The
learners assess their own contribution to solving the task and the group work. The
experiences accumulated by different groups are shared with the whole class and the
teacher, and together they try to find solutions to different problems and the most
effective way to form groups (Dam, 1998).

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At first the learners may form groups out of habit choosing to work with their friends,
but as they get used to the format, different groups begin to appear. At the upper
levels, the following criteria are a good frame of reference:
1. “What do I want to be better at? Why?
2. What do I want to do? Why?
3. Who would I like to work with? Why?” (Dam, 1995, p. 44).
Learning how to choose working partners increases learner awareness of, for example,
their strengths, weaknesses and personal working style.
Successful group work can boost learner autonomy and help implement a different
atmosphere in the classroom. A teacher has to be very much aware of how the group
work is progressing and step in if necessary. Bad group work can do as much damage
to morale as good group work can help it. It is important for teachers to give learners
ample opportunity to develop good group work habits and they may have to work
with the whole class regularly in setting up good group work principles.

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4. Assessment
One of the cornerstones of implementing learner autonomy in the classroom is that
learners are engaged in self-assessment, and that this assessment is taken into account
by their teachers. In an autonomous classroom, the curriculum is learner- centered,
and the natural consequences should be that the assessment is not only the teacher’s
responsibility, but also the learners. The goal of learner autonomy is to develop
learners who know where they stand at any point in their language learning. They are
acquainted with what tasks they can perform in the target language and approximately
what linguistic range, fluency and accuracy they possess (Little, 2005).
4.1Assessment in Icelandic schools
Assessment is defined as ‘the act of collecting information and making judgments on
a language learner’s understanding of a language and his ability to use it.’ (Nunan,
2003, p. 310) The National Curriculum for languages emphasizes the importance of
using continuous-, self- and peer-assessment among other assessment methods, such
as the European Language Portfolio (Menntamálaráðuneytið, 2007). Learners should
be involved in the assessing process by being informed of why they are being
assessed, what the results of the assessment mean, and how those results are going to
be used (Nunan, 2003).
Summative assessments are often associated with standardized tests, for example,
state assessments. However, they can also be used as a vital part of classroom
projects. Formative assessment is a form of assessment to enhance teaching and
learning. When teachers use formative assessment learners are involved in the
assessment process. Teachers give learners descriptive feedback on their learning to
inform them what they are doing well and or what they need to improve upon.
Formative assessment does not require a grade or a sticker (Garrison & Ehringhaus,
2009).
The purpose of self and peer assessment is to develop the learners’ capacity of
assessing the outcome of their own learning and also their peers learning. Learners
need to think about how they work and why they work the way they do. Garrison and

29
Ehringhaus (2009) consider that self and peer assessments promote the formation of a
learning community within a classroom. Learners should be trained to think about
their learning and assess themselves
The disadvantage of this form of assessment is that some learners in the class could
have difficulties receiving criticism from their peers and that some learners might
become malicious. This should be dealt with accordingly. Teachers should be cautious
and selective about using this form of assessment. It is important to choose only
groups of learners that are supportive of one another to avoid a disagreeable
atmosphere in the classroom.
4.2The European Language Portfolio
The ELP is defined as the best tool for promoting learner autonomy. It is a practical
tool for those learners who learn or have learnt a language to reflect on their language
learning and cultural experiences. It is also useful for those teachers who focus on
developing autonomy in learners. In her study, Hanne Thomsen (2010) revealed that
the portfolio helped learners talk about their learning experiences, and assume an
active role in their learning. Learners could share with their peers their learning
experiences by reflecting in writing on their thoughts and ideas. Portfolios are
convenient tools for teachers in the process of getting to know the learners closely as
individuals and as learners of English. In addition, it is useful when choosing
strategies for individual learners or groups of learners (Thomsen, 2010).
The European Language Portfolio (ELP) supports the development of learner
autonomy by self-assessment and goal setting. The learners are expected to record
how they progress in the target language and any intercultural experiences they may
have during the learning process (Little, 2005). ELP is a document kept by language
learners, at school and outside school, to log and reflect on their learning and cultural
experiences when learning a language. The portfolio is comprised of three parts:
Language Passport, Language Biography and Dossier (Council of Europe, 2000).
The Language Passport also includes records of formal qualifications and describes
language competence. It is the section in the portfolio the owner updates regularly.

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The learner can match his language competence according to standard criteria
accepted throughout Europe. It gives the opportunity for self-assessment, teacher
assessment and school assessment. The information in the Language Passport
expounds on what basis, when and by whom the assessment was conducted (Council
of Europe, 2000). Summary and summative self-assessment are the forms of
assessment required in the Language Passport. The self-assessment grid of the
Council of Europe is “a central component in models designed for adults and
adolescents” (Little, 2005).
The Language Biography enables learners to plan, reflect upon and assess their
learning process and progress. The learner can keep a record of his language
proficiency; reflect on linguistic and cultural experiences accumulated in a school
setting or outside school (Council of Europe, 2000).
The Dossier is the third section in the Portfolio where the learner has the option of
collecting documents to epitomize illustrated achievements or experiences from the
Language Biography or Passport (Council of Europe, 2000). The form of assessment
used in these sections is formative assessment, which uses goal setting and self-
assessment checklists, and language samples justifying the critique recorded in the
Biography (Little, 2005).
The ELP aims to motivate learners and help them keep a comprehensive record of
their linguistic and cultural skills. It acknowledges their efforts to develop and
diversify their language skills at all levels. One of its various objectives is to build up
learners’ motivation by improving their communicative skills in the target languages.
This is achieved by the learners learning additional languages and searching for new
intercultural experiences. ELP incites and helps learners reflect on their learning, plan
ahead and learn autonomously. It also suggests alternative methods and procedures in
language learning, such as contacts and visits, reading and the use of the media or
projects (Council of Europe, 2000).

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4.2.1 The Finnish ELP project
An example of ELP was the Finnish ELP pilot project conducted from 1998 to 2001.
The primary purpose of this project was to increase learners’ ownership of their
language learning. The findings of the project showed that it was vital for the teacher
who introduces learners to ELP to explain for what reason the learners need to assess
and reflect on their own learning and communicative skills. The teacher’s reasons for
encouraging learners to assume responsibility for their work in the social classroom
context also had to be made clear (Kohonen, 2007).
The project teachers gave learners ELP-orientated work to provide opportunities to
assume responsibility for their own learning. Teachers provided learners with
curriculum-related learning tasks appropriate for their age, learning skills and their
level of proficiency in the target language. Teachers and learners partially negotiated
the curriculum aims, contents and processes, which increased learners’ responsibility
for their own learning in small steps (Kohonen, 2007).
The results of the project indicated that learners were gradually becoming more
responsible for their own learning and gave positive contributions to the group work.
However, there were also learners who maintained their preferences for a teacher-
directed teaching and rejected the whole idea of learner autonomy and self-
assessment, considering it a waste of time. The teachers observed that ELP tasks and
working procedures gave them the opportunity to make stronger personal
relationships with their learners than before. By reading learners’ logbooks, teachers
became aware of their learners personal circumstances, interests, hopes and
expectations in life. Learners found the moments the teachers spent with them
personally and the individual feedback they received from the teachers useful and
memorable. Those moments were also rewarding for the teachers (Kohonen, 2007).
The findings stressed the fact that is essential for teachers to fully understand the
goals and how the ELP can be integrated with the national- or school curriculum in
the classroom. By understanding the goals of ELP and putting them into practice in
their language classes, the teachers developed new motivation from learners’ growth
and interest, and the learners experienced similar rewards and motivation. When they

32
understood the benefits of the ELP for their language learning, the learners found
more motivation to take responsibility for their learning than before (Kohonen, 2007).
Every elementary school has its own policy in regards to assessment, but in many
cases it is up to the teachers or departments what form of assessment they use. For the
ESL/EFL autonomous classroom the portfolio is especially well suited for assessment.
It may take some time for teachers to grow accustomed to it, and it requires more
from them than traditional summative tests. That being said there is no reason not to
include as many forms of assessment as the teacher sees fit. The more methods and
types of assessments used the more likely it is that all learners’ needs will be met.

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5. Learner Autonomy and Differentiation in Icelandic
Elementary Schools
Most Icelandic elementary schools follow certain educational ideologies or theories. It
may seem difficult for a teacher to envision how to implement learner autonomy
while staying true to the schools chosen policies. In this chapter, we shed light on how
learner autonomy complements differentiation, as a mainstream educational idea in
Icelandic schools.
Differentiation is a goal that many elementary schools in Iceland strive for. A teacher
working in a school that supports differentiation has a strong ally in learner autonomy
as these concepts are kindred spirits. Tomlinson defines differentiation instruction as a
way to match instruction to learner need with the goal of maximizing the potential of
each learner in a given area. Differentiating instruction is responsive instruction and
can be directly linked to learner autonomy. The key factor in achieving this goal is the
teacher. Responsive teachers are teachers who understand their learners as
individuals. They become comfortable with the meaning and structures of the subject
they teach, and teach flexibly in order to maximize learners’ potential in that area
(Tomlinson, 2003).
Ingvar Sigurgeirsson researched the ideology, emphasis and methods behind
differentiation in Icelandic elementary schools, and from his findings it is clear to see
how differentiation as we know it, goes hand in hand with learner autonomy (Ingvar
Sigurgeirsson, 2005).
Differentiated education in Icelandic elementary schools emphasizes that learners
accept responsibility for their own learning, and are exposed to varied creative work.
Learners are given the power of choice and have the opportunities to take initiative
regarding their learning. There is good cooperation between learners, parents and
teachers and the teacher has the new role of a counselor (Ingvar Sigurgeirsson, 2005).
The characteristics of a differentiated education are various: from collaborative
learning, to peer assisted learning and use of learning centers and workshops.

34
Learners form flexible study groups and work independently on different projects on
themes and integrated subjects. Differentiated education caters to learners of different
skill levels with graded and differentiated assignments (Ingvar Sigurgeirsson, 2005).
It is clear that teachers that want to foster learner autonomy but still remain true to the
official educational standard of their school have ample opportunity to implement
autonomy while still staying true to the principles of differentiation. Differentiation is
highly compatible with the theory of learner autonomy.

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6. Successes and problems in implementing learner autonomy
Teachers working on implementing learner autonomy in their classrooms will
encounter certain problems, but with sufficient preparation and good collaboration
with learners, colleagues, administration and parents, any problem should be
overcome. In the following chapter we will recount the successes of teachers that have
successfully implemented learner autonomy in their classrooms. We will also bring up
potential problems and possible solutions.
6.1Success experienced by teachers when implementing learner
autonomy
6.1.1 Tinne Seeman and Connie Tavares
Tinne Seeman and Connie Tavares are experienced English teachers that worked for
years with strict routines dominated by textbooks and teacher‘s books. They found
that both teachers and learners became tired of the rigid routine, even if the exercises
and activities were engaging in themselves. In a sense the learners were only passive
receivers most of the time and had no impact themselves on the content of the lesson.
The lessons were entirely directed by the textbook and the teacher (Seeman &
Tavares, 2000).
As the learners got older slightly more flexibility was offered. In the new series of
textbooks they could choose from a variety of topics and within each topic they could
choose different text types to work with. Typically they would work in pairs or
groups. Once the learners had chosen a topic and text type, they followed a fixed
pattern of activities as set out in the textbook. The teacher kept careful control of the
learning goals specified by the textbook writers in the teacher’s guide. The freedom
the learners and teachers enjoyed was therefore somewhat limited (Seeman &
Tavares, 2000).
In 1993 an education law was passed in Denmark which increased the emphasis on
learner responsibility. At around the same time many teachers in Denmark, Seeman

36
and Tavares included, became aware of the theory and practice of learner autonomy
through Leni Dam.
Seeman and Tavares were aware of potential problems in the move towards
autonomy. A real fear among many teachers was that they would lose the respect of
their learners’ if they were not in complete control of the classroom. They also
worried whether the learners would be capable of taking control or if things would
simply unfurl into chaos. Another concern was how to cover all the material without
following the textbook framework (Seeman & Tavares, 2000).
They soon realized that this change would not happen overnight and needed a lot of
negotiation, trial and error. They found that it was essential for learners to establish
functional and effective groups. This would only be done by letting go of control and
having faith in the learners’ abilities to take charge. When things did not go well,
learners were able to learn from their own mistakes and accept responsibility for
them. Everyone in turn could benefit from this shared knowledge and experience.
Predictably, it turned out to be a lot easier to implement autonomy in classes where
learners had experience from working in groups or pairs and assuming responsibility
up to a point, for homework and presentations (Seeman & Tavares, 2000).
A significant factor in the successful move towards learner autonomy was a positive
working environment where the administration and colleagues were on board and also
participating in the changes. Through direct experience and reflection on experience,
Seeman and Tavares came to grips with the autonomous learning processes in their
classrooms, and they discovered what worked and did not work for them and their
learners. What struck them was how excited the learners became about learning
English when they were given the freedom to choose what they were working on. By
setting their own goals they began to feel responsible for what they were doing and
take control of their own learning. Being responsible also meant being particularly
active as learners. This often led to considerable creativity, for example, the
development of artistic and performance skills, important professional skills, or useful
technical skills.

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There were also positive consequences for the development of important social skills.
Learners worked with different peers and learned a lot from each other. They learned
to accept and respect one another’s differences. Working together in an autonomous
learning environment certainly helped to prepare learners with the vital and
productive skills of cooperation, creativity and productivity, as well as the ability to
adapt themselves to new conditions (Seeman & Tavares, 2000).
6.1.2 Hanne Thomsen
Hanne Thomsen worked for years with mixed-ability learners in autonomous
language classrooms in Denmark. At the end, she realized that despite all her efforts
her learners displayed the exact behavior she was trying to avoid. They expected to be
entertained while learning English. In much the same way as Seeman and Tavares,
she found her learners to be passive recipients and consumers largely dependent on
their teacher. They did not want to take initiative in their learning, rather preferred to
do as their teacher decided for them (Thomsen, 2000).
In 1981 she came across the notion of learner autonomy. At that time she was
teaching a new German class which consisted of a familiar group of 13 year olds.
Thanks to her collaboration with Leni Dam and Gerd Gabrielsen, she was able to
identify two key issues that would affect her first attempts towards learner autonomy.
The first issue was learner initiative. Focusing on learner initiative calls for the
teacher to allow for different aspirations at the same time and that the teacher has to
arrange the classroom environment and lesson plan accordingly.
The second issue was regarding assessment as an ongoing process. Learners are
expected to reflect on the learning process while learning. This way they are meant to
gradually gain insight into the learning process. Through their insight they will be
able to answer the well known questions of “What”, “Why”, “How” and “What next”,
and also achieve a better and more refined level of departure for the next initiative
(Thomsen, 2000).
Stressing learner initiative the way Thomsen does, means that the content of the
teaching-learning process inevitably turns out differently in different classes within

38
the framework of the national curriculum and guidelines. The “What”, “Why”, and
“How” are always genuine open questions that can be discussed and decided upon in
cooperation. This approach makes the learning process much more active and
unpredictable and also very personal (Thomsen, 2000).
6.1.3 Leni Dam and Lienhard Legenhausen
Leni Dam and Lienhard Legenhausen initiated the Language Acquisition in an
Autonomous Learning Environment (LAALE) project, in 1992. The purpose of the
project was to follow the language development of one of Dam’s classes over a period
of several years. The Danish classes were systematically recorded and observed from
the first days of learning English in the 5th grade to the end of the comprehensive
level in the 9th grade. The participants were learners of mixed-ability, 10 girls and 11
boys. They received four English lessons weekly, and the duration of each class was
45 minutes. The participants of the study were compared with a control group which
consisted of learners who followed a traditional, textbook-based syllabus. The
traditional class was comprised of high-ability learners who attended a German
grammar school (Gymnasium) (Legenhausen, 2000).
After testing the vocabulary acquisition of the learners in both groups, the Danish
learners showed “a remarkable and superior ability to access their foreign vocabulary”
(Legenhausen, 2000, p. 44). However, the German learners were more homogenous
with the bottom ten learners scoring higher than the bottom Danish learners. In a
traditional classroom, the learners are exposed to direct and systematic grammatical
instruction. In a learner autonomous classroom, the learners “have to construct their
grammatical knowledge themselves” (Legenhausen, 2000, p. 45).
The findings regarding grammatical proficiency showed that German learners were
slightly better at asking stereotypical questions with “like” and “live” from the
number of “to do” questions than the Danish learners. On the other hand, in the effort
of using the language creatively, the autonomous learners performance improved
compared to their previous performance, while the German learners’ performance
declined significantly from their previous results over time (Legenhausen, 2000).

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Discourse behavior was another aspect of the language learning used to compare the
two groups. German learners received a direct teaching on peer-to-peer talks about
themselves, environment, etc. in previous lessons and, similar tasks were incorporated
in the textbook approach they studied. The Danish learners did not receive any
previous instructions concerning talking about themselves, but they were familiar with
peer-to-peer talks in the form of an activity called “Two minutes talk” (Legenhausen,
2000).
The similarity between the two groups was that the learners chose to talk about
similar topics. The main difference between the groups was in “how the various
subtopics were introduced and dealt with” (Legenhausen, 2000, p. 48). The Danish
learners attempted to expand and elaborate topics of interest even though they had
limited language proficiency. Communicatively competent learners do not change the
topics often during interactions with others, and use questions for maintaining and
developing the topic. When the learners become more proficient they rely less on
questions in introducing and continuing topics (Legenhausen, 2000).
Reading/writing skills were tested with a C-test, in which the second half of every
second word has been deleted. This test was chosen because none of the learners had
come across this testing format before. The results of the test indicated that, despite
having had fewer lessons, almost half of the Danish autonomous learners were equally
or more proficient than the German Gymnasium learners (Legenhausen, 2000).
The findings of this LAALE project go to show that a mixed ability class of
autonomous learners can perform just as well or even better than a group of able
students in a traditional learning environment. Autonomous learners have the same
opportunities as traditional language learners when learning a foreign language even
though they are doing it in a very different way. The main difference is that
autonomous learners have used the language naturally and thus their language
proficiency accelerated at a higher rate.

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6.2Problems encountered by teachers
When shifting the focus from teaching to learning specific problems can and will be
encountered. Insecurities on the part of the teachers arise from the necessity to fulfill
all the curricular demands and tests (Dam, 2000). Special concerns are to do with the
exam system: “Am I keeping pace with other classes?” “Do my learners feel that they
are making progress?” “How do I know that they are learning enough?” Teachers are
also concerned about the reaction of weak and difficult learners. The weak learners
will be the losers, and it might be demanding for learners to take hold and assume
responsibility. It might be difficult for the teacher to let go and take risks with a new
approach (Little, Ridley, & Ushioda, 2002).
When learners plan their own work it can take a great deal of time, and with only a
few English lessons per week this can be difficult. A solution may be to switch
lessons with colleagues, or to arrange a special “English week” (Seeman & Tavares,
2000). Leni Dam (2000) also mentions problems that occur during the period that she
was implementing learner autonomy in her classrooms, such as: the difficulty to
manage a large number of learners, lack of time and chaos. Seeman and Tavares
(2000) report the problem of the teacher not sticking to the daily plan. Problems
usually occur when the learners work with logbooks. Some learners do not like
writing and do not see the benefit of the logbooks (Dam, 2000). Weaker learners do
poor note-taking and logbook-keeping (Seeman & Tavares, 2000).
Working in a group could raise certain difficulties between members. It demands a lot
of cooperation, communication can and will break down, usually within a particular
group. Seeman and Tavares (2000) also found that learners do not initiate dialogue in
the target language and it can become problematic maintaining motivation in a mixed-
ability environment (Seeman & Tavares, 2000).
Parents are an important factor in creating an autonomous classroom. They should be
informed about the new approach of learning a language to understand the teacher’s
actions. Parents’ as well as learners’ expectations of the teacher run along the lines of:
It is the teacher’s job to teach. Parents’ attitudes to “learning” and “teaching” could be
directly related to the way they were taught.

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The problems listed above are problems teachers have to confront in any foreign
language classroom. The significant difference is that in a learning-centered
environment, the teacher is not the only one responsible for solving problems. The
teacher can introduce the problems to the class and open them to discussion (Dam,
2000),
Teachers might experience situations where they find themselves in the position of
doing many things at once like scaffolding weak learners or finding additional
materials (Lacey, 2007). Teachers in autonomous classrooms are no different from
traditional teachers in one regard, they cannot be in two places at once. Leni Dam
found a solution to this problem by sharing it with her learners and thus making them
responsible for solving it with her. Together they came up with the idea of having a
list of helpers. These were able learners willing to help their peers while Dam was
busy elsewhere (Dam, 2000).
Irma Huttunen suggested that the real issue of the teachers trying to implement learner
autonomy in their classrooms was the planning. She stressed that effective planning
was the best way for teachers to overcome their worries concerning the syllabus and if
they and their learners were keeping on track. She also suggested collaborative work
between teachers to elaborate a master plan for three years of junior cycle. The
teacher should negotiate rules and goals with learners, the European Language
Portfolio could play a key role in this. The teacher should keep in mind that it is
important to plan the teaching and learning activities for short and long periods of
time. Planning ahead and gathering relevant material to different learning tasks
beforehand could save time for teachers (Little, Ridley, & Ushioda, 2002).
It is not the teacher’s responsibility to force, beg or threaten learners into learning
(Yang, 1998).
6.2.1 Discouraging environment
In a Japanese study conducted by Bill Holden and Miyuki Usuki in 1999, they tried to
remedy the notion that Japanese learners were less autonomous than learners from
other cultural backgrounds. Language teaching in Japanese schools is typically

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teacher-centered and learners depend on memorization and mechanical approaches,
such as a grammar-translation method for language learning. This learning
environment discourages learners to get involved in their learning and developing
their own learning strategies (Holden & Usuki, 1999).
Participants in the study were six groups of five to four Japanese college learners who
were asked to respond individually to 13 questions in their native language. Holden
and Usuki came to the conclusion that Japanese learners are not less autonomous, but
“the educational and behavioral norms and the goals of language study in Japan” had
the effect of discouraging learner autonomy (Holden & Usuki, 1999).
The study looked at the effect of the environment on the learners’ behavior in their
efforts to learn a foreign language. The findings showed that even though learners
were aware of different meta-cognitive language learning strategies, they were unable
to put them into practice. Learners preferred a classroom environment characteristic
of the communicative approach to language teaching where they were allowed to
express their thoughts and ideas and experiment with the target language. The
findings also showed that the learners were more aware of the teacher's role than their
own. However, learners wanted to be externally motivated and inspired by their
teachers and did not try to find motivation in themselves, the learning process or
material (Holden & Usuki, 1999).
6.2.2 Reluctant teachers
Educational planners and textbook authors can create a baggage of knowledge and
skills that are transferred to learners by teachers. When governed by the textbooks,
teachers are concerned primarily with the time they need to go through the units to be
taught rather than with the time learners need to spend in achieving an acceptable
proficiency in different areas of the target language. This thinking is remarkably
widespread among teachers as Little discovered when giving seminars for language
teachers in different European countries years ago. The participants in the seminar
worked with different ways of using authentic printed texts for exploratory language
learning which is aimed at learners with lower level proficiency skills (Little, 2000).

43
A class of language learners from a local school came and spent up to an hour and a
half working through a chain of activities related to an authentic newspaper text in
different ways. The learners were divided into groups of three or four. The groups of
learners were observed by two of the seminar participants, and the rest of the teachers
formed groups of three or four and dealt with the same chain of activities in another
room. After the learners had returned to their school, the teachers discussed the
activity chain. Typically the teachers that had worked on the activities themselves
found them appealing but too difficult for their own learners. The teachers, on the
other hand, that had worked with the local learners were surprised at how well they
had coped (Little, 2000).
Most of the teachers did not think they would have the time to use these types of
activities as they had too much ground to cover. They agreed, however, that it
prompted fascinating learning behavior. This response was similar in Ireland, the
United Kingdom, Denmark, Sweden, France, Germany, the Netherlands and the
Czech Republic. It seems clear that this view is not bound to one country or
educational culture. It is necessary to take into account how learners learn the
language, not just focus on the material. Learning has a social and interactive nature.
Learners learn by interacting with other people and the capacity to learn on their own
derives from their experience of learning with and from others (Little, 2000).
Group work is one of the foundations of the learner autonomous environment. That
being said it must be made clear that there is both good group work and bad group
work. Two hours of purposeful discussion between colleagues can pull together the
threads of a collaborative project, determine the direction of future work and give
everyone a new enthusiasm for individual effort. Then again, two hours of ill-
prepared and unfocussed talk can undermine a collaborative project and leave
everyone feeling quite frustrated and uncooperative. Not everyone has the ability to
take part in group work successfully. It depends on a combination of social and
cognitive skills, which the individual members of any group will only possess in
widely varying degrees. This is why knowing how to handle the gradual development
of effective group dynamics is one of the fundamental skills required of a good
teacher (Little, 2000).

44
7. Concluding remarks
Moving the focus from teaching to learning is not simple, easy or a change that
happens overnight. It requires a different way of thinking about classroom dynamics
and the roles of teachers, as well as learners. It requires a lot of planning and should
be undertaken in association with learners, fellow teachers, administration and
parents. For successful implementation of learner autonomy, it is important that all
those concerned are aware of the rationale behind the different working, learning and
assessment methods.
There are a number of tools that teachers and learners can use to facilitate autonomous
learning. Logbooks are beneficial because they provide an overview of the learning
process, the organization of group work and reflection thereupon. Posters also feature
prominently in the autonomous classroom as ideas for activities, directives for
logbook writing, and other information are displayed in the classroom for all to see.
They also provide a lot of authentic target language examples. Homework is
collaboratively decided and chosen by the learners themselves. Learners choose topics
and projects for their studies, and the teacher serves both as a facilitator and a
counselor. This way the learners take responsibility for their own learning and find
motivation in fulfilling their personal goals.
Group work is a key factor in the learner autonomous classroom and something that
many teachers struggle with. This is the part we find teachers need to prepare
themselves for especially. Learners do not instinctively know how to successfully
work in groups. They need training, and the teacher has to be vigilant in his
supervision of group work in the beginning. As Seeman and Tavares found, it is easier
to implement learner autonomy in classes that are used to pair and group work.
Reflection on the learning process is another key component of learner autonomy. By
reflecting on the learning process, learners become aware of how and why they
choose the methods and strategies they use in different projects, and for solving
different tasks. Being aware of the learning process helps makes them autonomous.

45
Assessment methods in an autonomous classroom differ from traditional forms of
assessment. Assessment is seen as a collaborative process between the teacher and the
learners. The learners take an active role in the assessment process with self and peer
assessment, group work assessment, portfolios and logbooks, which all play a
significant part in pupils’ language learning. Traditional assessment methods should
not be entirely overlooked since they can be included in the assessment package.
Diverse assessment methods cater to the needs of a diverse group of learners. The
European Language Portfolio is familiar to most Icelandic elementary teachers and is
therefore a good place to start to introduce learners to the idea of thinking about
learning. It supplies different ways of getting learners to become aware of their
learning process.
It is our conclusion that a lot of factors need to come together in order for learner
autonomy to thrive. In Japan, although learners are open to more modern and active
methods, the official educational policies discourage the move towards autonomy and
promote more traditional methods. In Iceland and other European countries, however,
official educational policies encourage the implementation of learner autonomy, but
teachers tend to be more conservative and stick to methods they are familiar with. It is
our belief that learners all over the world have the same capacity to embrace modern,
communicative and autonomous methods despite vast cultural differences.
The main change that needs to be made for learner autonomy to be implemented is a
change of disposition. The whole idea of teaching and learning needs to be revisited
and reoriented. In the learner autonomous classroom teachers let go and learners take
responsibility for their own learning and realize it is up to them if they want to learn.
No teacher can force, threaten or beg their learners to learn; at least they will not be
successful.
“The turn in your mind won’t come about instantly like changing clothes. It
will take a while and it will sometimes be an uphill struggle. But it is worth the
effort. Once you get there you will have a whole new horizon opening up for
you” (Aoki, 2008, p. 16).

46
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