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Research method ch01 introduction
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Research Methods in Health
Chapter 1. Introduction
Young Moon Chae, Ph.D.
Graduate School of Public Health
Yonsei University, Korea
ymchae@yuhs.ac
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Introduction
• The aim of this course is to provide an overview of the
scientific method by examining the processes of health
research.
• During your career as a health professional there will be many
advances in clinical knowledge. By understanding the scientific
processes that underpin the advances in clinical knowledge,
you will be in a better position to evaluate the strengths and
weaknesses of the various research publications.
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Objectives of Chapter 1
• Outline the scientific method
• Describe the contentiousness concerning the scientific
method
• Describe how the scientific method is applied to health
sciences research
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Concepts
• Scientific Methods
Many people, not only scientists, undertake research. What distinguishes
scientific from other forms of research is not the research itself, but the
approach to the research. Hence, science is a "systematic approach to the
discovery of knowledge based on a set of rules that defines what is
acceptable knowledge" (Dane, 1990, p.21).
• Research
The manner in which we attempt to solve problems in a systematic effort to
push back the frontiers of human ignorance or to confirm the validity of the
solutions to problems others have presumably resolved
• Health Research
Systematic gathering, recording, and analyzing of data about health
problems in order to find their solutions
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Characteristics of Research
• Begins with a problem in the form of a question in the mind of the
researcher
• Demands the identification of a problem, stated in clear, unambiguous
terms
• Requires a plan
• Deals with the main problem through appropriate sub-problems
• Seeks direction through appropriate hypotheses and is based upon
obvious assumption
• Deals with facts and their meaning – The significance of the data
depends upon the way in which the facts are regarded.
• It is circular
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What is Good Research?
• Purpose clearly defined
• Research process detailed
• Research design thoroughly planned
• Limitations frankly revealed
• High ethical standards applied
• Adequate analysis
• Findings presented unambiguously
• Conclusions justified
• Researcher’s experience reflected
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Criteria for a Research Project
• Universality – The research project should be such that it could be carried
out by any competent person other than the researcher himself.
• Replication – The research should be repeatable. Any other competent
researcher should be able to take the problem and collecting data under the
same circumstances and within the identical parameters as you have
observed, achieve results comparable to those you have been able to
secure
• Control – All research is conducted within an area sealed off by given
parametric limitation. By such control, we isolate those factors which are
critical to the research
• Measurement – The data should be susceptible to “measurement.”
• Research design – A careful early inventory of your resources, your
problem, and the sources of the data may be highly desirable to conduct a
good research
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Research Planning vs Research Methodology
• Research Planning
- It is a process of choosing a viable research problem and consider that
nature of the data which the investigation of such a problem will demand
and the feasible means of collecting and interpreting those data
- It is executed within the framework of a clearly conceived and feasible
design
• Research Methodology
- It is employed by separate academic disciplines in collecting and
processing data within the framework of the research process
- The research method the one researcher employs is entirely different
from that which the other researcher uses the data in the one situation
are entirely different from the data in the other
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Working with the Hierarchy
• Fine tune the Research question
-Examine concepts and constructs
-Break research questions into specific second-and –third-level questions
-Verify hypotheses with quality tests
-Determine what evidence answers the various questions and hypothesis
-Set the scope of your study
• Investigative questions
-Questions the researcher must answer to satisfactorily arrive at a
conclusion about the research questions
• Measurement questions
-The questions we actually ask or extract from respondents
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Research Process Problem
• The favored technique syndrome
• Unresearchable questions
• Ill-defined management problems
• Politically motivated research
• Inaccessible data
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Other Steps in Research
• Research Proposal
• Pilot testing
-To detect weakness in design and instruments
-Pre-testing
• Data collection
-Primary vs. secondary data
• Data analysis
• Reporting the results
-Executive summary
-Overview, Findings, Implications (practical and academic), Limitations,
Conclusion, appendix
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The Thought Process: Reasoning
• Rationalism vs. Empiricism
- Rationalism: The theory that an individual's actions and beliefs should be based
on reason rather than on intuition or the teachings of others
- Empiricism: Observations and propositions based on sense experience and/or
derived from such experience by methods of inductive logic, including statistics
• Deduction vs. Induction
- Deduction: A form of reasoning in which the conclusion must necessarily follow
from the reasons given; a deduction is valid if it is impossible for the conclusion to
be false if the premises are true
- Induction: A form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from one or more
particular facts or pieces of evidence; the conclusion explains the facts
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Building Block of Theory (I)
• Theory
- A set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that are
advanced to explain and predict phenomena
- Generalizations about variables and the relationships among them
- Hypothesis play an important role in the development of theory
- Theories tend to be complex, be abstract, and involve multiple variables.
- Hypothesis, in the other hand, tend to be more simple, limited-variable statements
involving concrete instances
• Model
- A representation of a system that is constructed to study some aspect of that
system or the system as a whole
- Model differ from theories in that a theory’s role is explanation whereas a model’s
role is representation
- Models are an important means of advancing theories and aiding decision makers
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Example of Model
A Model of Stages in the Innovation-Decision Process
Knowledge Persuasion Decision Implementation Confirmation
(Source: Rogers EM. Diffusion of innovations. Third Edition. The Free Press.1983
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The Role of Reasoning in Model Development
• Models are developed through the use of inductive and deductive
reasoning, which is integral to accurate conclusion about business decision
• A model may be originate from empirical observations about behavior
based on researched facts and relationships among variables
Empirical data
Theory/Experience
Conclusions about
behavior
Model development
Inductive
reasoning
Deductive
reasoning
Specify relationships
among variables
Develop premises
Test outcomes
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Building Block of Theory (II)
• Concepts
A bundle of meanings or characteristics associated with
certain events, objects, conditions, situations, and the like
• Constructs/Variables
An image or idea specifically invented for a given research
and /or theory-building purpose
• Operational definition
A definition stated in terms of specific testing criteria or
operations
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• Independent/Dependent variables
- Independent variable (IV): The variable manipulated by the researcher, thereby
causing an effect or change on the dependent variable
- Dependent variable (DV): The variable measured, predicted, or otherwise
monitored by the researcher; expected to be affected by a manipulation of the
independent variable
• Moderating/Mediating variables (MV)
-It is a second independent variable that is included because it is believed
to have a significant contributory or contingent effect on the originally
stated independent – dependent variable relationship
Variables/Propositions/Hypotheses
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• Extraneous Variables (EV)
- It is a control variable which introduced to help interpret the relationship between
variables
• Intervening variables (IVV)
- Factor which theoretically affects the observed phenomenon but cannot be seen,
measured, or manipulated
- Its effect must be inferred from the effects of the independent and moderator
variables on the observed phenomenon
- For example:
A promotion campaign (IV) will increase savings activity (DV), especially when
free prizes are offered (MV), but chiefly among smaller savers (EV- control).
The results come from enhancing the motivation to save (IVV)
Variables/Propositions/Hypotheses (cont.)
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• Propositions/Hypotheses
- Proposition: A statement about observable phenomena (concepts) that may be
judged as true or false. When a proposition is formulated fro empirical testing, we
call it a hypotheses
- Hypothesis: A proposition formulated for empirical testing; a tentative descriptive
statement that describes the relationship between two or more variables
• The Role of the Hypothesis
- It guides the direction of the study
- It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not
- It suggests which form of research design is likely to be most appropriate
- It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions that result
Variables/Propositions/Hypotheses (cont.)
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Types of Research
The types of research can be categorized as:
• Description (fact finding)
• Exploration (looking for patterns)
• Analysis (explaining why or how)
• Prediction (forecasting the likelihood of particular events)
• Problem Solving (improvement of current practice)
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Descriptive Research
• Seeks to accurately describe current or past phenomena
- to answer such questions as:
§ What is the absentee rate for particular lectures?
§ What is the pass rate for particular courses?
§ What is the dropout rate on particular degree programs?
§ What effect does a particularly quality audit process have on
teacher morale?
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Analytical Research
• Seeking to explain the reasons behind a particular
occurrence by discovering causal relationships. Once
causal relationships have been discovered, the search then
shifts to factors that can be changed (variables) in order to
influence the chain of causality. Typical questions are:
§ Why is there a preponderance of female students on 1st level
teacher training programs?
§ What factors might account for the high drop-out rate on a
particular degree programs?
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Predictive Research
• Seeks to forecast the likelihood of particular phenomena
occurring in given circumstances. It seeks to answer such
questions as:
§ Will changing the start time achieve a higher attendance rate at
our lectures?
§ Will increasing the weighting for course work encourage students
to adopt deep learning strategies?
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Problem Solving Research / Action Research
• Action-research is a form of problem solving based on increasing
knowledge through observation and reflection, then following this
with a deliberate intervention intended to improve practice.
§ Educational action-research describes a family of activities in
curriculum development, professional development, school
improvement programs, and systems planning and policy
development.
§ Participants in the action being considered are intricately involved
with all of these activities.
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Typical Methods
Descriptive
Research
Statistical Surveys
Sampling
Interviews
Analytical Research Case Studies Attitude Surveys
Observations Statistical Surveys
Historical Analysis
Predictive
Research
Identifying and / or defining measurable
(quantifiable) variables and manipulating them to
cause measurable.
Problem
Solving/Active
Research
Action-research spiral:
observe à reflect à plan à act à
observe à reflect à plan à act ………
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Types of Paper
1. Papers that are descriptive (surveys, observational studies)
2. Papers that report trials (e.g. diet, H Prom, drug), other intervention
studies
3. Papers that go beyond numbers (qualitative research)
4. Papers that summarize other papers (systematic reviews and meta-
analyses)
5. Papers that tell you what things cost (economic analyses)
6. Papers that report diagnostic or screening tests
7. Case studies
8. Others
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Review Questions
1. The results of scientific research:
• should be made available for critique and replication
• should not be used to support existing theories
• must be obtained in controlled laboratory situations
• must conform to public expectations about the outcome.
2. The scientific method is a set of rules specifying how:
• scientific knowledge should be acquired, stated and tested
• scientists should conduct their life
• how society should conduct its affairs
• all of the above a, b, and c.
3. A scientific theory is a set of statements:
• conforming to the rules of logic
• explaining the relationships which pertain among apparently diverse phenomena
• which lead to empirically testable hypotheses
• all of the above a, b, and c.
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References
Cooper DR, Schindler PS. Business research methods. 9
th
Edition, 2006
Dane, FC. Research methods. Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1990
Leedy PD, Practical research. Macmillan, 1985
Polgar S, Thomas SA. Introduction to research in the health sciences.
Churchill Livingston, 1991
