amity global business (bangalore)

1. PERSONALITY
Personality also affects what is to be perceived
Ex: a person with positive self concept is likely
to notice positive attributes in another person.
The person who believes they can do something
is probably right....
And who believes they can’t do they can't.

2. EXPERIENCE
Successful experience enhance and boost the
perceptive abilities and lead to accuracy in
perception of a person where failure comes
in the way of self confidence.
It creates an expectancy which makes him see
What he wants to see

3. VALUES AND BELEIFS
 Information is remembered which is consistent with
our values and attitudes and rest is ignored which is
inconsistent with them.
 Ex: “In spite of all their mistakes, our employees are
doing the best they can”.

4. EXPECTATIONS
 Expectations can influence perceptions in what we
will see what we expect to see.
Ex: If we imagine that our boss is unhappy with our
performance, we feel threatened by termination
notice.

5. LEARNING
 Learning refers to any
relatively permanent
change in behavior that
occurs as a result of
experience.
 Learning plays a big
role in developing one’s
perception.
Turn Off The
The Engine

6. II.PERCEPTUAL ORGANISING
Perceptual organization is the process by
which people categorize according to their
frame of reference, based on their past
learning and experiences.
Following principles are kept in mind while
organising the information into a meaningful
one. These are:
 Figure ground
 Perceptual grouping

7. Figure-Ground Differentiation
The tendency to distinguish
and focus on a stimulus that
is classified as figure as
opposed to background.

8. Perceptual Constancy
• The perception of elements like size, shape,
color, brightness and location of an object
remains constant & does not change from
people to people.
• For instance, even though the picture of an apple
is printed in black and white, we still perceive
the color of the fruit as red.

9. Perceptual Context
Context provides meaning and value to
objects, events, situation and other
people.
Different contexts convey different
meanings to people.

10. PERCEPTUAL INTERPRETATION
• After selecting and organising the stimuli has to
be interpreted in order to make a sensible
meaning.
• Perceiver cant draw any meaning without
interpretation.
• Perceiver uses his assumption of people, things,
object and situation

11. PERCEPTUAL DISTORTIONS
Errors in Perceptual Judgement
Following are Barriers To Perceptual Accuracy:
Barriers to Perceptual Accuracy
• Stereotyping Halo effect
• Projection Expectancy Effect
• Primacy Effect:First impressions Recency Effect
• Perceptual Defense Attribution

12. Stereotyping
“Generalizing characteristics on Basis of
Category or Class to which Person Belongs”
Halo Effect
“Drawing a General Impression About an
Individual on the Basis of a Single
Characteristic”

13. Projection
“ Attribute One’s Own Characteristics to
Other People”
Expectancy Effect

14. Primacy Effects: First Impressions
• The common adage (short statement) that first
impressions count is technically known as the primacy
effect.
• Generally, the first impression lasts longer unless greatly
contradicted by information received later.
Recency Effect
A generally Accepted fact that if there is a
time lag between the first piece of
information and the last, then the last piece
of information carries more weight. This is
called Recency Effect.

15. Perceptual Defense
• “Against those stimuli which clash with their
beliefs, values or culture.”
• “People attempt to avoid registering those
stimulus that conflict, threaten or are
unacceptable to them”

16. ATTRIBUTION THEORY
16
• “ Assigning to a cause or source”
• The way in which people explain the cause for
their own or others behavior
Behaviour
Internally
Caused
Externally
Caused
OR

17. Factors for Determining Attribution
1. Distinctiveness: Shows different behaviors in
different situations
2. Consensus: Response is the same as others to
same situation
3. Consistency: Responds in the same way across
time

18. Role of Perception in Decision
Making Process
 The perception of a situation is central to the decision
making process.
 To make effective decisions a manager must not only
perceive but understand other people.

19. Perception in Decision-making is based on a
person’s internal understanding of reality rather
than reality itself.
CONCLUSION

22. PERSONALITY
• It refers to the set of traits & behaviors that characterize
an individual.
• An individual’s personality is both inherited as well as
shaped by the environment.
• Our personality is partly inherited genetically from our
parents.
• However, these genetic personality characteristics are
altered somewhat by life’s experiences.

23. DETERMINANTS OF
PERSONALITY
• Heredity
• Environment
• Family
• Situational
• Social

24. Heredity
• The attributes of personality like physique, eye color, hair color,
height, temperament, energy level, intelligence etc. depend on the
parents of an individual.
• The heredity approach suggests that an individual’s personality
depends on the molecular structure of the genes, present in the
chromosomes.
Environment
• Environment includes culture which influences norms, attitudes, &
values that are passed along from one generation to the next.
• Most cultures expect different behaviours from males & females.
• These factors determine an individual’s views about life, both
positive and negative.

25. Family
• An individual’s personality is largely dependent
on his family.
• Family greatly affects an individual’s behavior
especially in the early stages of life.
• The type of influence depends on social and
economic status of the family, family size,
religion, parent’s education and geographic
location.

26. Situational
• Factors related to situation also play a very
important role in determining the personality of
an individual.
• Every person has different experiences in his/her
life.
• Some of these experiences play an important role
in determining an individual’s personality.
• For example – a deep shock faced by an
individual in childhood may change his/her
personality.

27. Social
• Groups & organisations exercise their due role in
personality development.
• This is commonly called the socialisation process.
• Socialisation starts with the initial contact between a
mother & her infant.
• After infacncy, other members of the immediate
family (father, brothers, sisters & close relatives)
followed by the social groups (school friends, &
members of the working group) play influential roles.

28. INTUITION, JUGEMENT, PERCEPTION
& SENSATION (MBTI)

29. INTRODUCTION
• During the 1920’s, the Swiss psychologist Carl
Jung proposed a personality theory that identifies
the way people prefer to perceive their
environment.
• Twenty years later, the mother & daughter team
of Katherine Briggs & Isable Briggs – Myers
developed the Myers – Briggs Type Indicator
(MBTI).
• Mainly used in the employee hiring process.
• Also used in team building

30. DIMENSIONS
• Extroversion/Introversion
• Sensing/Intuition
• Thinking/Feeling
• Judging/Perception

31. Extroversion/Introversion
• Extroversion means "outward-turning" and introversion
means "inward-turning".
• People who prefer extroversion tend to act, then
reflect, then act further.
• If they are inactive, their motivation tends to decline.
• To rebuild their energy, extroverts need breaks from
time ,spent in reflection.
• Those who prefer introversion prefer to reflect, then
act, then reflect again.
• To rebuild their energy, introverts need quiet time
alone, away from activity.

32. • Contrasting characteristics between extroverts and
introverts include the following:
• Extroverts are "action" oriented, while introverts
are "thought" oriented.
• Extroverts often prefer more "frequent"
interaction, while introverts prefer more
"substantial" interaction.
• Extroverts recharge and get their energy from
spending time with people, while introverts
recharge and get their energy from spending time
alone.

33. Sensing/Intuition
• Sensing types use an organised structure to
acquire factual &, preferably quantitative
details.
• In contrast, intuitive people, collect
information non- systematically.
• They rely more on their intuition, & even
inspiration.
• Sensors are capable of synthesising large
volumes of data & draw quick conclusions.

34. Thinking / feeling
• Thinking types rely on the cause – effect
logic to make decisions.
• They weigh the evidence unemotionally.
• Feeling types, instead consider how their
choices affect others.
• They weigh the options against their personal
values more than on rational logic.
• A good manager uses both mind (thinking) &
heart (feeling).

35. • The realities of organisational life often evoke
emotions that play a dominant role in a
manager’s behavior.
• Fear of failure, fear of the laws, excitement
about a product, anger at another person, are
examples of emotional forces that appear in
the day-to-day life of a firm.

36. Judging/ perceiving
• Some people prefer order & structure in their
relationship with their outer world.
• These judging types enjoy the control of decision
making & want to resolve problems quickly.
• In contrast, perceiving types are more flexible.
• They like to adapt spontaneously to events as
they unfold & want to keep their options open.

37. • To be effective as a manager, one needs to
operate at times in perceiving mode & at times
in a judging mode.
• The tensions that develop between Perceivers
& Judges can be sources of conflict in
organisations.

38. OTHER PERSONALITY TRAITS
• Authoritarianism
• Locus of Control – Internal (individual’s belief that events are
within one’s control) & External (determined by forces beyond
one’s control, less satisfied with their jobs, have higher absenteeism
rates)
• Machiavellianism - Individual’s propensity to manipulate people,
prone to participate in organisational politics
• Introversion Extroversion
• Achievement orientation – Employees with a high need to achieve
continually strive to do things better.

39. • Self esteem
• Risk taking
• Self monitoring
• Type A & Type B personalities

41. BIG5 Factors
• The Big Five personality traits are five broad
domains or dimensions of personality that are
used to describe human personality.
• They are -
openness ,conscientiousness
, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

42. Extroversion
• Extroversion reflects a person’s comfort level with
relationships.
• Extroverts are sociable, talkative, assertive, & open
to establishing new relationships.
• Introverts are less sociable, less talkative, less
assertive, & more reluctant to begin relationships.

43. Agreeableness
• Agreeableness refers to a person’s ability to
get along with others.
• Highly agreeable people value harmony more
than they value their say or their way.
• They are cooperative.
• People who score low on agreeableness, focus
more on their own needs than the needs of
others.

44. Conscientiousness
• It refers to the number of goals that a person
focuses on.
• A highly conscientious person focuses on
relatively few goals at one time.
• He or she is likely to be organised, systematic,
careful, thorough, responsible, self –
disciplined & achievement oriented.

45. • A person with a low conscientious nature tends
to focus on a higher number of goals at one
time.
• Consequently, the individual is more
disorganised, careless & irresponsible, as well
as less thorough & self – disciplined.

46. Emotional stability
• It focuses on an individual’s ability to cope with
stress.
• The individual with positive emotional stability
tends to be calm, enthusiastic, & secure.
• A person with low emotional stability tends to be
nervous, depressed & insecure.

47. OPENNESS
• It addresses one’s range of interests.
• Extremely open people are fascinated by novelty
(something new) & innovation.
• They are willing to listen to new ideas & to
change their own ideas, beliefs & attitudes in
response to new information.
• On the other hand, people with low levels of
openness tend to be less receptive to new ideas &
less willing to change their minds.
• They also tend to have fewer & narrow interests
& be less curious & creative.

48. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
• Type
• Trait
• Psychoanalytic
• Social Learning
• Humanistic

49. TYPE
William Sheldon, 1940’s
• William Sheldon classified personality according to body type.
He called this a person’s somatotype.
49

50. Somatotypes
• In 1940s, Sheldon proposed a theory about how some body types are associated
with some personality characteristics.
• William Sheldon (1898-1977) was an American Psychologist who observed the
variety of human bodies and temperaments.
• According to him there are three somatotypes: endomorphy, mesomorphy, and
ectomorphy.
Endomorphy
• Focus on the digestive system, particularly the stomach (endoderm). Has the
tendency towards plumpness (fatness), corresponds to, love of comfort and luxury
50

51. Mesomorphy
• Focuses on musculature and circulatory system (mesoderm), has the
tendency towards muscularity, courageous, energetic, active, dynamic,
assertive, aggressive, risk later.
Ectomorphy
• Ectomorphy focused on the nervous system and the brain (ectoderm) – the
tendency towards slightness, artistic, sensitive, apprehensive, introvert.
51

52. a) Endomorphic Body Type:
• Soft body
• Round shaped
• Over-developed digestive system
Associated personality traits:
• Love of food
• Tolerant
• Love of comfort
• Sociable
• Good humored
• Relaxed
• Need for affection
52

53. b) Mesomorphic Body Type
• Hard, muscular body
• Overly mature appearance
• Rectangular shaped
• Thick skin
• Upright posture
Associated personality traits
• Adventurous
• Desire for power and dominance
• Courageous
• Bold
• Zest for physical activity
• Competitive
• Love of risk and chance
53

54. c) Ectomorphic Body Type
• Thin
• Delicate build
• Young appearance
• Tall
• Lightly muscled
• Stoop-shouldered
Associated personality traits
• Self-conscious
• Preference for privacy
• Introverted
• Inhibited(Shy)
• Socially anxious
• Artistic
• Mentally intense
• Reserved
54

55. TRAIT THEORY
• A personality trait is understood as being an
enduring attribute of a person that appears
consistently in a variety of situations.
• A trait of an individual is abstracted from his
behavior, & serves an useful ‘unit of analysis’
to understand personality.

56. • It is important to remember that traits are
reactions, not something a person ‘possesses’.
• One doesnot possess shyness, he feels & acts
shy under certain circumstances.
• Actually, he may behave quite forwardly in
some other circumstances or at some other
time.
• What is important is what he does typically.

57. • Psychologists working in the area of trait
theory are concerned with:
a) Determining the basic traits that provide a
meaningful description of personality.
b) Finding some way to measure them.

58. • There are two ways of assessing personality
traits:
a) The person describes himself by answering
questions about his attitudes, feelings &
behaviours.
b) Someone else evaluates the person’s traits
either from what he knows about the
individual or from direct observations of
behaviour.

59. • With the first method, a personality inventory
is most often used, whereas the second
usually involves using a rating scale.
• A personality inventory is essentially a
questionnaire in which the person reports
reactions or feelings in certain situations.

60. • A personality inventory asks the same
questions of each person, & the answers are
usually given in a form that can be easily
rated.
• A personality inventory may be designed to
measure a single dimension of personality
(such as introversion, extroversion) or it may
measure several personality traits
simultaneously.

61. • A rating scale is a device for recording
judgement about a trait.
• The rating scale is filled up by someone else
by what he or she knows about the individual
or by studying his or her behaviour in certain
situations.

62. PROBLEMS WITH TRAIT THEORY
• Contradictions
• Very descriptive

63. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

64. Sigmund Freud, M.D.,a Viennese physician who thought his
patients’ problems were more emotional than physical.
More than 100 years later, his work is still influential
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

65. Sigmund Freud

66. • Freud linked the mind to an iceberg – only a
small segment of which protruded above the
surface of the water.
• This small portion of the mind represents
conscious experience, while the much larger
mass below water level represents the
unconscious - a storehouse of impulses,
passions & instincts that affect our thoughts &
behaviour.

67. • It was this unconscious portion of the mind that
Freud sought to explore, & he did so by the
method of free association.
• The method requires that the person talks about
everything that comes into the conscious mind,
no matter how ridiculous or trivial (of little value
or importance) it might seem.
• By analysing free association, Freud sought to
identify the basic determinants of personality.

68. Id: Innate (natural) biological instincts and urges.
• Works on Pleasure Principle: Wishes to have its desires
(pleasurable) satisfied NOW, without waiting and regardless
of the consequences
The Id, Ego, and Superego
Ego: Executive; directs id energies
• Works on Reality Principle: Delays action until it is practical
and/or appropriate

69. Superego: Representation of the values & morals of
society as taught to the child by parents & others.
•Two parts
- Conscience: Reflects actions for which a person has
been punished (e.g., what we shouldn’t do or be)
- Ego Ideal: Second part of the superego; reflects
behavior one’s parents approved of or rewarded (e.g.,
what we should do or be)
The Id, Ego, and Superego, continued

70. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
• Social learning theorists believe that since an
individual can make use of complex symbolic
processes to code & store his observations in
memory, he can learn by observing the actions
of others & by noting the consequences of
those actions.

71. • A person’s action in a given situation depends
upon the specific characteristics of a situation,
the individual’s understanding of the situation
& past behaviour in similar situations (or
observations of others in similar situations)

72. • Some of the personal variables that
determine what an individual will do in a
particular situation include the following:
a) Competencies: Intelligence ability, social
skills, & other abilities.
b) Cognitive Strategies: Habitual ways of
selectively attending to information &
organising it into meaningful units.

73. • Outcome expectations: Expectations about the
consequences of different behaviours & the
meaning of certain stimuli.
• Subjective value outcome: Even if individuals
have similar expectancies, they may choose to
behave differently because of differences in the
subjective values of the outcomes they expect.
Two students may expect that a certain behaviour
will please the professor, but for one this
outcome is important, while for the other it is
not.

74. • Self regulatory systems & plans: Individual
differences in self imposed goals, rules guiding
behaviour, self imposed rewards for success or
punishment for failure, & ability to plan &
execute steps leading to a goal will lead to
differences in behaviour.

75. THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH
• Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow are credited
with the humanistic theory of personality.

76. Maslow’s Theory
• Abraham Maslow is considered father of the
humanistic movement.
• Hierarchy of needs: the motivational
component of Maslow’s theory, in which our
innate needs, which motivate our actions, are
hierarchically arranged.
• Self-actualization: the fullest realization of a
person’s potential

77. Abraham Maslow

78. Graphic: Hierarchy of Needs

79. • Efficient perceptions of reality
• Comfortable acceptance of self, others, and nature
• Spontaneity
•Profound interpersonal relationships
• Comfort with solitude (the state or situation of
being alone)
• Peak experiences
Characteristics of
Self-Actualized People

80. Carl Rogers: American psychologist; believed that personality
formed as a result of our strivings to reach our full human
potential.
Fully Functioning Person: Lives in harmony with his/her deepest
feelings and impulses
Self-Image: Total subjective perception of your body and
personality
Conditions of Worth: behaviors and attitudes for which other
people, starting with our parents, will give us positive regard.
Positive Self-Regard: Thinking of oneself as a good, lovable,
worthwhile person
Carl Roger’s Self Theory

81. SHAPING OF PERSONALITY

82. According to Freud, personality develops in stages; everyone
goes through same stages in same order. Majority of
personality is formed before age 6
Erogenous Zone: Area on body capable of producing
pleasure
Fixation: Unresolved conflict or emotional hang-up caused by
overindulgence or frustration
Personality Development

83. Oral Stage: Ages 0-1. Most of infant’s pleasure comes from stimulation
of the mouth. If a child is overfed or frustrated, oral traits will develop.
• Oral Dependent Personality: Gullible (easily persuaded to believe
something) and need lots of attention.
• Erogenous zone: mouth (oral)
Anal Stage: Ages 1-3. Attention turns to process of elimination. Child
can gain approval or express aggression by letting go or holding on.
Harsh or lenient toilet training can make a child either:
• Anal Retentive
• Anal Aggressive
Stages of
Personality Development

84. Phallic Stage: Ages 3-6. Child now notices and is physically attracted
to opposite sex parent. Can lead to:
• Oedipus Complex: This is a reflection of Freud’s belief that a child
both loves & hates his parents, with these feelings being strongest
towards the parent of the same sex as the child.
• If the oedipus complex is not successfully resolved, severe anxiety &
guilt feelings may affect normal personality development.
Stages of Personality Development,
continued

85. Latency: Ages 6 or seven (the elementary school age) is very
important for the social development of the child for acquiring the
knowledge & skills needed to get along in today’s world. Child loses
interest in sexual matters.
Genital Stage: Puberty-on. Realization of full adult sexuality occurs
here; sexual urges re-awaken.
Stages of Personality Development,
continued

86. Erikson’s Stages
• Infancy
• Early Childhood
• Play Age
• School Age
• Puberty & Adolescence
• Young Adulthood
• Middle Adulthood
• Late Adulthood

87. John Piaget Stages
• Sensorimotor
• Preoperational
• Concrete Operational
• Formal Operational

88. Chris Argyris
• Immaturity to maturity