1. STAGES OF TEST WRITINGS…
Writing Quality Test Items
Creating an assessment is a critical component of the overall instructional sequence. Assessments
serve the dual purpose of providing feedback to the instructor on the effectiveness of instructional
activities and monitoring student's mastery of course-specific learning objectives. Since a student's
final course grade in many courses rests primarily on their test grades, it is important to ensure that
these assessments are well-planned, valid measures of student understanding.
Stages in Test Preparation:
1. Plan Test Content and Format
 Determine the material to be covered by the test
 Review learning objectives to be assessed by the test
 Create a table of specifications
 Determine length and format of the test
2. Write Test Items
 Create test items using the preparations guidelines
 Arrange items in the exam by grouping according to item type
 Write directions for each group of items
3. Determine Grading Criteria and Scale
 Include brief description of grading policy or point distribution in the relevant test directions
4. Revisions and Corrections
 Examine outcome of the exam to identify problems with specific test items
 Revise, edit, or delete test items if necessary
General Guidelines for Writing Test Items:
Do Do Not
Determine the purpose of the assessment Ask questions that do not assess one of your learning
and the utilization of the outcome scores. objectives.
Utilize the table of specifications to guide the Focus on trivial issues that promote the shallow
type, number, and distribution of questions. memorization of facts or details.
Match the requirements of the test items to Intentionally target test questions toward a specific sub-
the designated learning objectives. set of students.
Write using simple, complete grammar and Make test items intentionally difficult or tricky.
wording.
Create items that are worded at the average Include more test items that can be answered by the

2. reading level of the target student average student in the designated amount of time.
population.
Ensure that each test item has one Utilize items provided by a publisherÂ's testbank without
undisputedly correct answer. reviewing each item for its relevance to course-specific
learning goals.
Write test items at a level of difficulty that
matches the learning objective and student
population.
Include a variety of test item formats.
Tips to improve the overall quality of test items and assessments:
 Prepare more test items that you need so that you can review and delete ineffective items
prior to the test.
 Write test items well in advance of the test date, then wait several days to review the items.
This type of fresh perspective may help you to identify potential problems or areas of
confusion.
 Review all test items once they are compiled for the test to ensure that the wording of one
item does not give away the answers to another item.
 Within each group of test items, order questions from the least to most difficult.
 Have a naive reader review test items to identify points of confusion or grammatical errors.
Determining the Number of Assessment Items:
The number of items you include in a given assessment depends upon the length of the class period
and the type of items utilized. The following guidelines will assist you in determining an assessment
appropriate for college-level students.
Item Type Average Time
True-false 30 seconds
Multiple-choice 1 minute
Multiple-choice of higher level learning objectives 1.5 minutes
Short Answer 2 minutes
Completion 1 minute
Matching 30 seconds per response
Short Essay 10-15 minutes
Extended Essay 30 minutes
Visual Image 30 seconds
Creating a Table of Specifications:
A table of specifications is simply a means of connecting learning objectives, instructional activities
and assessment. The following steps will guide you in the creation of a table of specifications:
 Develop learning objectives based on the taxonomy of educational objectives
 Identify instructional activities that target the learning objectives

3.  Implement instructional activities
 Reflect on instructional activities and identify relevant learning objectives that will be assessed
based on the instructional experience
 Determine the relative importance and weighting of each objective
 Generate test items based on the designated learning objectives
Review Checklist:
_____ Is this item an appropriate measure of my learning objective?
_____ Is the item format the most effective means of measuring the desired knowledge?
_____ Is the item clearly worded and easily understandable by the target student population?
_____ Are items of the same format grouped together?
_____ Are various item types included in the assessment?
_____ Do students have enough time to answer all test items?
_____ Are test instructions specific and clear?
_____ Does the number of questions targeting each objective match the importance weighting of that
objective?
_____ Are scoring guidelines clearly available to students?
Resource Links:
 Michigan State University's Writing Test Items
 Cornell University's Construction of Objective Tests
References:
 Aiken, L. R. (2000). Psychological Testing and Assessment (10thEdition). Boston, MA: Allyn
and Bacon
 Chatterji, M. (2003). Designing and Using Tools for Educational Assessment. Boston, MA: Allyn
and Bacon.
 Gronlund, N. E. (2003). Assessment of Student Achievement (7thEdition). Boston, MA: Allyn
and Bacon.
 Johnson, D. W. & Johnson, R. T. (2002). Meaningful Assessment: A Manageable and
Cooperative Process. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
 McKeachie, W. J. (1999). Teaching Tips: Strategies, Research, and Theory for College and
University Teachers (10thEdition). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.
 Popham, W. J. (2000). Modern Educational Measurement: Practical Guidelines for Educational
Leaders (3rdEdition). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
 Trice, A. D. (2000). A Handbook of Classroom Assessment. New York: Addison Wesley
Longman, Inc.
Summative Menu Links
 Summative Home

4.  Writing Test Questions
 True/False
 Multiple Choice
 Matching
 Short Answer
 Essays
 Creative Alternatives
 Authentic Assessment
 Portfolios
-------------------
Questions concerning the Park University Faculty Development: Quick Tips website should be directed
to cetl@park.edu.
Reference citation:
Mandernach, B. J. (2003). insert appropriate page title. Retrieved insert date, from Park University
Faculty Development Quick Tips.
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Types of validity
Explanations > Social Research > Design > Types of validity
Construct | Content | Internal | Conclusion | External | Criterion | Face | Threats | See also

5. In a research project there are several types of validity that may be sought. In summary:
Construct: Constructs accurately represent reality.
o Convergent: Simultaneous measures of same construct correlate.
o Discriminant: Doesn't measure what it shouldn't.
Internal: Causal relationships can be determined.
Conclusion: Any relationship can be found.
External: Conclusions can be generalized.
Criterion: Correlation with standards.
o Predictive: Predicts future values of criterion.
o Concurrent: Correlates with other tests.
Face: Looks like it'll work.
Construct validity
Construct validity occurs when the theoretical constructs of cause and effect accurately represent
the real-world situations they are intended to model. This is related to how well the experiment is
operationalized. A good experiment turns the theory (constructs) into actual things you can
measure. Sometimes just finding out more about the construct (which itself must be valid) can be
helpful.
Construct validity is thus an assessment of the quality of an instrument or experimental design. It
says 'Does it measure the construct it is supposed to measure'. If you do not have construct
validity, you will likely draw incorrect conclusions from the experiment (garbage in, garbage
out).
Convergent validity
Convergent validity occurs where measures of constructs that are expected to correlate do so.
This is similar to concurrent validity (which looks for correlation with other tests).
Discriminant validity
Discriminant validity occurs where constructs that are expected not to relate do not, such that it
is possible to discriminate between these constructs.
Convergence and discrimination are often demonstrated by correlation of the measures used
within constructs.
Convergent validity and Discriminant validity together demonstrate construct validity.
Nomological network

6. Defined by Cronbach and Meehl, this is the set of relationships between constructs and between
consequent measures. The relationships between constructs should be reflected in the
relationships between measures or observations.
Multitrait-Multimethod Matrix (MTMM)
Defined by Campbell and Fiske, this demonstrates construct validity by using multiple methods
(eg. survey, observation, test) to measure the same set of 'traits' and showing correlations in a
matrix, where blocks and diagonals have special meaning.
Content validity
Content validity occurs when the experiment provides adequate coverage of the subject being
studied. This includes measuring the right things as well as having an adequate sample. Samples
should be both large enough and be taken for appropriate target groups.
The perfect question gives a complete measure of all aspects of what is being investigated.
However in practice this is seldom likely, for example a simple addition does not test the whole
of mathematical ability.
Content validity is related very closely to good experimental design. A high content validity
question covers more of what is sought. A trick with all questions is to ensure that all of the
target content is covered (preferably uniformly).
Internal validity
Internal validity occurs when it can be concluded that there is a causal relationship between the
variables being studied. A danger is that changes might be caused by other factors.
It is related to the design of the experiment, such as in the use of random assignment of
treatments.
Conclusion validity
Conclusion validity occurs when you can conclude that there is a relationship of some kind
between the two variables being examined.
This may be positive or negative correlation.
External validity
External validity occurs when the causal relationship discovered can be generalized to other
people, times and contexts.

7. Correct sampling will allow generalization and hence give external validity.
Criterion-related validity
This examines the ability of the measure to predict a variable that is designated as a criterion. A
criterion may well be an externally-defined 'gold standard'. Achieving this level of validity thus
makes results more credible.
Criterion-related validity is related to external validity.
Predictive validity
This measures the extent to which a future level of a variable can be predicted from a current
measurement. This includes correlation with measurements made with different instruments.
For example, a political poll intends to measure future voting intent.
College entry tests should have a high predictive validity with regard to final exam results.
Concurrent validity
This measures the relationship between measures made with existing tests. The existing tests is
thus the criterion.
For example a measure of creativity should correlate with existing measures of creativity.
Face validity
Face validity occurs where something appears to be valid. This of course depends very much on
the judgment of the observer. In any case, it is never sufficient and requires more solid validity to
enable acceptable conclusions to be drawn.
Measures often start out with face validity as the researcher selects those which seem likely
prove the point.
Threats
Validity as concluded is not always accepted by others and perhaps rightly so. Typical reasons
why it may not be accepted include:
Inappropriate selection of constructs or measures.
Insufficient data collected to make valid conclusions.
Measurement done in too few contexts.
Measurement done with too few measurement variables.
Too great a variation in data (can't see the wood for the trees).

8. Inadequate selection of target subjects.
Complex interaction across constructs.
Subjects giving biased answers or trying to guess what they should say.
Experimental method not valid.
Operation of experiment not rigorous.
See also
Validity, Three izings of research
The Purpose of Tests
By Melissa Kelly, About.com Guide
See More About:
assessments
high stakes testing
What is the reason why teachers give students tests? Why do school districts and states create high
stakes tests for their students? On one level, the answer to this seems fairly obvious: the reason why we
give tests is to see what students have learned. However, this only tells part of the story. Tests have
many purposes in our schools. One thing that should be stressed is that in the end, tests should be for
the benefit of the student and not the teacher, school, district, or state. Unfortunately, this is not always
the case. Following is a look at some of the major reasons why students are given assessments in and
out of the classroom.
1. To Identify What Students Have Learned
The obvious point of classroom tests is to see what the students have learned after the completion of a
lesson or unit. When the classroom tests are tied to effectively written lesson objectives, the teacher
can analyze the results to see where the majority of the students are having problems with in their class.
These tests are also important when discussing student progress at parent-teacher conferences.
2. To Identify Student Strengths and Weaknesses
Another use of tests is to determine student strengths and weaknesses. One effective example of this is
when teachers use pretests at the beginning of units in order to find out what students already know

9. and where the teacher's focus needs to be. Further, learning style and multiple intelligences tests help
teachers learn how to best meet the needs of their students through instructional techniques.
3. To Provide a Method for Awards and Recognition
Tests can be used as a way to determine who will receive awards and recognition. For example, the
PSAT is often given in the 10th grade to students across the nation. If a student is a National Merit
Scholar due to the results on this test, they are offered scholarships and other forms of recognition.
4. To Gain College Credit
Advanced Placement exams provide students with the opportunity to earn college credit after
successfully completing a course and passing the exam with high marks. While every university has its
own rules on what scores to accept, most do give credit for these exams. In many cases, students are
able to begin college with a semester or even a year's worth of credits under their belts.
5. To Provide a Way to Measure a Teacher and/or School's Effectiveness
More and mores states are tying funding to schools to the way that students perform on standardized
tests. Further some states are attempting to use these results when they evaluation and give merit
raises to the teachers themselves. This use of high stakes testing is often contentious with educators
since many factors can influence a student's grade on an exam. Additionally, controversy can sometimes
erupt over the number of hours schools use to specifically 'teach to the test' as they prepare students to
take these exams.
6. To Provide a Basis for Entry into an Internship, Program, or College
Tests have traditionally been used as a way to judge a student based on merit. The SAT and ACT are two
common tests that form part of a student's entrance application to colleges. Additionally, students
might be required to take additional exams to get into special programs or be placed properly in classes.
For example, a student who has taken a few years of high school French might be required to pass an
exam in order to be placed in the correct year of French.
Related Articles
What Is High-Stakes Testing? - New Teacher
What's at Stake - New Teacher
The Impact on You - New Teacher
Arguments Against High-Stakes Testing - New Teacher
Testing with Criterion Referenced Tests

10. Melissa Kelly
Secondary Education Guide
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