1. Sports
Psychology
Group Dynamics of
Performance

2. Leaning Objectives. . .
•Groups and teams – Their impact upon performance
and the pursuit of balanced, active and healthy
lifestyle.
•Leadership and the role of leader in physical
activity
•Social facilitation and inhibition – The effects of
an audience and other participants on performance.

3. GROUP DYNAMICS
The social processes operating within the group between individual
members
GROUP COHESION
The tendency of a group or team to stick together and remain
united in the pursuit of its goals or objectives.
INTERACTION
An action or reaction between two factors or people

4. From your own experience in sport – What
makes a ‘GOOD TEAM?’
Research the following ‘successful’ team and
identify what factors make them a
successful team.
Jenny – Manchester United Football Club
Becca – New Zealand Rugby Team
Emma – New Zealand Netball Team

5. All successful teams tend to work together
to achieve a goal. Therefore, the coach
must understand the social processes
operating within a group. This interaction
between team members is called
GROUP DYNAMICS

6. According to McGrath (1984)Interaction within the
group is a defining factor. In order for interaction
to take place, mutual awareness must exist between
group members.
McGrath states that
‘groups are those social aggregates that
involve mutual awareness and potential
interaction’

7. Properties
of groups
Structured
patterns of
communication
Group
Unity
Shared
Purpose
A
Commo
n Goal
Collectiv
e Identity
Carron & Davies also highlighted the existence of mutual
interdependence and they also suggested that the following
criteria must also apply before sports teams, exercise clubs
and classes of PE students can be considered ‘teams’ or
‘groups’.

8. Steiner presented a model to explain the
relationship between an interactive group and
it’s performance in sport.
Actual
Productivity
Potential
Productivity
Losses due
to Faulty
Processes

9. Actual Productivity
is the result of group achievement – eg. the
actual score of the game
Potential Productivity
is the group’s best possible performance given
the resources & task demands. Eg. A tall
basketball team should beat a smaller set of
players.
Faulty Processes
Faulty processes are things that go pear shaped!
It relates to the factors that can go wrong in
team performance, which will impede or even
prevent group cohesion and detract from the
collective potential of the team

11. The group’s performance usually falls
short of its potential because it is hard to
get a perfect performance.
The key to success is to minimise these
faulty processes, which include coordination
losses & motivational problems.
There are 2 faulty processes that bring
about losses in potential productivity.
1 - Co-ordination Losses (The Ringlemann Effect)
2 - Motivation Losses (Social Loafing)

12. Coordination losses
(The Ringlemann Effect)
Coordination losses involve bad timing or poor
strategies.
The synchronisation of teamwork breaks down
Activities that require interaction are more prone to
coordination problems.
More likely to occur as team numbers increase i.e. a
basketball team is more likely to operate together
successfully than a rugby union team
Excessive competition in sport can reduce the
enjoyment & lead to a lack of coordination.
Ringlemann studied rope pulling & found that a group of
8 did not pull their rope 8 times as hard as 1 person.
There is less effort exerted when working with others.

13. Motivational Losses (Social loafing)
•Social loafing is the tendency of individual’s to
drop their effort & hide within the group.
•It is an individual motivation loss due to lack of
performance identification.

14. Social loafing is caused by:
•A belief that you effort won’t change the result
•A perception that others are not trying, so why
should you?
•A belief that others will cover for your lack of
effort
•Individual effort not being recognised
•Lack of reinforcement from others
•Low confidence
•Perceived low ability – Links to avoidance behaviour
•Low arousal/motivation
•Poor leadership
•Negative attitudes
NOTE. . .
You need to be aware that social loafing is dysfunctional
behaviour because it prevents effective teamwork. Notice the
link between causes of social loafing, low self-confidence,
negative attribution and avoidance behaviour.

15. Highlighting individual performances
Monitoring individuals with feedback
Using positive reinforcement when possible
Promoting cohesion within the team
Setting individual goals
Giving specific roles
Support & encouragement of each other
Maintain team interest in common goals

16. Injury can disrupt team strategies and
break down co-ordination
Lack of incentive to produce teamwork
will prevent cohesion
Vague individual roles inhibit effective
teamwork
Low overall ability makes team play
difficult to achieve
Personality can influence team cohesion
– people with low trait confidence find it
difficult to promote group cohesion
Inadequate leadership inhibits
teamwork

17. What factors affect the cohesion of a group? (4marks)
What does social loafing mean? (4marks)
As a team coach how would you minimise the chances
of social loafing occurring? (4marks)
There may be co-ordination problems relating to
team performance, which contribute to the faulty
processes. What is the Ringlemann effect? Explain
the strategies that a coach could use to minimise
this effect. (6marks)

18. The term cohesiveness has long been associated with the amount of
‘togetherness’ displayed by a team both on and off the field. Team
cohesion is commonly defined as a dynamic process that is reflected in
the tendency of a group to remain united in the pursuit of its goals and
objectives (Carron 1982).

19. There are 2 types of cohesion that must be considered. . .
Task cohesion – the degree to which group
members are united in achieving the
common goal, such as winning the game
Social cohesion – the degree to which
group members like each other & get on,
with mutual trust

20. Task cohesion is most important in interactive
sports and activities such as hockey. . . Team
members working with each other to complete a
task successfully.
Social cohesion is most important in co-active
sports like track and field athletics or fitness
groups. Social cohesion involves the formation of
personal relationships within the group that
provide the individual with support and friendship
Within large groups or squads there is a possibility that sub-
groups emerge.
Sub-groups can be seen to impede the formation and
development of a cohesive group!

21. The 2 types are independent.
It is possible to be committed to achieving
the team goals but not get on with other
team members.
A team with major disputes can still do well &
a social team may not be successful.

22. Interactive Sports and Activities
Sports or activities such as hockey, netball and
rugby in which team members work together and
rely on each other.
Co-active Sports or Activities
Sports or activities such as athletics, equestrian
activities and aerobic exercise classes in which
individual performance is required.
Sub-groups
Small groups contained within the whole group.

23. Carron (1993) identified 4 factors that directly
affect team cohesion....
1 – Situational Factors
Elements of the specific situation and the environment
2 – Individual Factors
Characteristics of team members
3 – Leadership Factors
Style of leadership preferred by the group
4 – Team Factors
Collective team goals, communication, shared success...

24. The factors affecting cohesion are: Indicate whether these
factors are Situational, Individual, Leadership or Team Factors
Whether the individuals in the team share a
common goal
Team
How well the team members get on socially
Situational/
The amount of past success & the likelihood of
future success
Team
The influence of their leader
Leadership
The size of the group
Situational
The amount of communication between team
members
Team
The type of sport (interactive sports, such as team
games, need more cohesion than individual sports)
Situational

25. The factors affecting cohesion Cont. . .
Unequal pay or rewards for different players
Situational
The tactics & strategies of the coach & team
Teams
The reward on offer
Situational
Personalities of group members
Individual
Attitudes of group members
Individual
Similarity of group members in age, race or gender
Situational
External threats to the team
Team
The amount of time the group has been together
to establish relationships
Situational

26. You are a COACH....
How would you promote group cohesion in you team to encourage your
INDIVIDUAL PERFORMERS to participate fully and become a full
member of the ‘team’ ‘group’ and limit the effects of social loafing.
Discussion
Do you think being a member of a group can affect an individuals
choice of lifestyle and encourage an individual to adopt a balanced,
active and healthy lifestyle?
Read and make notes on the 2 sections on page 230. . .
•Factors affecting participation in a group or team and
•Group and team effects on behaviour

27. Definition:
‘The behavioural process of influencing another individual or group
towards achieving set goal or goals’

28. •Knowledge & Understanding of effective
leadership
•Characteristics of Leaders
•Knowledge & Understanding of Emergent
and Prescribed Leaders.

29. 1)Organisation
2)Goal directed
3)Relationship builder
4)Concern for others
5)Reliable
6)Communication base
7)Motivator
Why are leaders so
important?

30. Highly
developed
perceptual
and decision
making skills
Vision
Ambition
Motivation
CharismaExperience
Understanding
of others
Empathy with
the team
Communication
skills

32. Quality Authoritarian Democratic Laissez-faire
Decision
maker
Orientation
(social/task)
Speed of
decision
Can performer
be left alone
Sport type for
success

33. Leader centred
Task orientated
Personal authority of leader stressed
More effective in sports with greater number of performers
Effective for instant decisions
Essential in potentially dangerous situations
Performer centred
Co-operative approach allows performer input into decision making
Leader set in context of whole group effort
More successful in individual sports
Good when instant decisions are not needed

34. Makes no decisions, the group will make its own decisions.
This style can happen as a consequence of poor leadership.
Group determines the work to be done and the pace of it
Acts as a consultant

35. Quality Authoritarian Democratic Laissez-faire
Decision
maker
Makes all the decisions Shares decision making Allows group to make its
own decisions
Orientation
(social/task)
Task
Focuses on group
performance and
achieving goals
Social
Interested in developing
meaningful, inter-
personal relationships
within the team
neither
Speed of
decision
Effective instant decisions Not instant Very slow
Can
performer be
left alone
No Yes Yes
Sport type
for success
•Large groups of people
•Interactive games
•Outdoor pursuits –
dangerous situations
•Individual sports
•Co-active game when
time constraints are not
as exacting and personal
support may be required
•Small team games

36. What style of leadership would be most effective in the
following situations and why?
Personal Trainer
Gymnastics Coach
Aerobics
Instructor
Outdoor Ed
Instructor
Rugby Coach
PE Teacher

37. The correct style of leadership to adopt
depends on the ‘favourableness’ of the
situation
A highly favourable
situation
•Leader’s position is
strong
•Task is simple with
clear structure
•Warm group and
leader relations
A highly
unfavourable
situation
•Leader’s position is
weak
•Task is complex with
vague structure
•Hostile group and
leader relations

38. •Autocratic task-orientated leaders are
more effective in BOTH the most
favourable and least favourable situations
•Democratic social-orientated leaders are
more effective in moderately favourable
situations
Exam Tip
You need to understand that situation favourableness is a major
factor in determining leadership style. You need to also be aware
of other factors that influence the leader’s approach. . .

39. Autocratic leadership is
preferable:
Democratic leadership is
preferable:
When groups are hostile and discipline
is needed
When groups are friendly and
relationships are warm
If groups are large If groups are small
For team players who prefer an
instructional approach
In activities that require
interpersonal communication
In the early or cognitive stage of
learning
When the autonomous stage of
learning has been achieved and the
performer s expert
In dangerous situations In situations where there is no threat
or danger
When there are time constraints When there are no constraints on
time.
If the leaders personality is inclined
to be authoritarian
If the leaders personality is inclined
to be democratic
When the leader is male. . Men prefer
an autocratic approach
When the leader is female. . Women
prefer a democratic approach

40. How does a person become a LEADER?
Prescribed Leader
Appointed from outside the group
(external appointment), by managerial
agents, appointed because skills are
valued
Emergent Leader
Comes from within a group, either
informal or formal nomination from within
the group, arise as their skills are valued

41. Identify an example of an emergent and
prescribed leader from a sporting context.
Give 3 advantages and 3 disadvantages of the
emergent and the prescribed leader’s
position when charge of the group is first
taken.

42. Emergent Leaders
(captain of a team)
Advantages
•All ready familiar with
the team members
•Understand the team
dynamics
•Trusted/valued
member therefore will
be respected and listen
to
Disadvantages
•Maybe too ‘familiar’
with team – not taken
seriously
•Hard to make big
decisions when team
mates are friends

43. Prescribed Leaders
(manager of a team)
Advantages
•Brings new
ideas/fresh blood to
the team
•Can make decisions
without using
other/prior knowledge
•Has a bit of distance
from players/aloofness
Disadvantages
•Doesn’t
understand
dynamics of team
•Makes decisions
based on
knowledge not on
what might be best
for that team

44. By Next Lesson. .
Read and make notes on Critical Evaluation of
leadership theories on page 234.

45. A Critical Evaluation of Leadership
Theories

46. TRAIT APPROACH
• Trait theorists believe leaders are born with the capacity to take charge
• Leadership traits are considered to be stable personality dispositions.
Traits such as intelligence, assertiveness, self-confidence.
If this was true, a leader should be able to take control of any situation; but
in practice. . . This is highly unlikely.
Trait theory in general is not a good predictor of behaviour. It is unlikely
that specific dominant traits alone can facilitate successful leadership.
A significant trait theory is the
‘great man theory of leadership’
Which suggests that the necessary qualities of leadership are inherited by
sons (NOT daughters) whose fathers have been successful.
Not a popular theory
Like early trait personality research, trait research relating to
leadership has been inconclusive!

47. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
• Social learning theorists propose that ALL behaviour is LEARNED.
• Learning coming about through contact with environmental forces.
Example
Someone who is aspiring to be a Captain, sees a situation handled well by
an experienced leader. This method will be remembered and copied if a
similar situation arises in future.
This process of imitating the successful behaviour of role models is called
Vicarious reinforcement.
Leadership skills therefore acquired by imitation and developed through
experience.
The weakness of the social learning theory – Does not take in to account
the trait perspective at all.
Can learning alone facilitate effective
leadership????

48. INTERACTIONIST THEORY
• Leadership skills emerge because of a combination of inherited abilities
AND learned skills.
Leadership skills are likely to emerge and be acquired when a
situation triggers the traits that are of importance to leadership.
Gill (200)
Indicates that in the context of sport and physical activity,
interactionist theories give a more realistic explanation of behaviour.

49. Questions . . .
1. Give a definition of the term ‘Leadership’
2. List the qualities of a good leader.
3. What are the 3 different types of leadership?
4. What are the two orientations of leaders?
5. What is an emergent and what is a prescribed leader?
6. List 4 characteristics of a democratic leader
7. What are the two opposing theories concerning leadership qualities?
Extended question. . .
8. "Trait theory suggests that leaders are born with their
Leadership characteristics. To what extent do you think 'social learning'
plays
apart?“

50. Multidimensional model of sports
leadership
Chellanduria (1978) identified 3
influences that interact to
produce effective leadership.
These initial factors are termed
ANTECEDENTS, which are
preceding circumstances

51. Chelladurai’s multidimensional theory
of leadership
Required
Behaviour
Actual
Behaviour
Preferred
Behaviour
GROUP
PERFORMANCE
GROUP
SATISFACTION
Situational
Characteristics
Leader
Characteristics
Member
Characteristics

52. 3 Antecedents (influences) which
determine the leaders behaviour are;
•Situational characteristics
•Leader Characteristics
•Group member characteristics
TASK
Make a table with the heading and
three titles.
What do you think the characteristics
mean?

53. SITUATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
•Environmental conditions – interactive
or co-active sports
•The numbers in the team
•Time constraints of the play or overall
match
•Considerations about the strength of
the opposition

54. LEADER CHARACTERISTICS
•Skill of the leader
•Personality of the leader
•Experience of the leader
•Inclination towards social or task
orientated style

55. GROUP MEMBER CHARACTERISTICS
•Age
•Gender
•Motivation
•Competence
•Experience

56. 3 types of leader behaviour which
would be guided by the
antecedents (Influences);
•REQUIRED BEHAVIOUR - This involves
what ought to be done by the leader in
certain situations
•ACTUAL BEHAVIOUR – Is what the leader
chooses to do as the best course of action in
the given situation. Greatly influenced by the
competence of the leader
•PREFERRED BEHAVIOUR – Concerns what
the group or athlete wants the leader to do.
Usually determined by the member
characteristics

57. Chelladurai’s
multidimensional theory of leadership
WHY IS IT SO IMPORTANT?
•The more the elements match the more
effective the leadership is likely to be
•If leadership qualities are what the
group like or expect, then they are more
likely to follow
•If leadership styles match the situation
then leadership is effective

58. The important element of the theory is
that if all 3 of the leaders behaviours are
CONGRUENT (go well together) (for
example antecedents, types and
consequences coincide exactly),
then member satisfaction and
high group performance will
result.

59. Make two copied of the multidimensional model of
sports leadership and consider the following
examples:
1. The captain of a senior international team
2. The coach introducing youngsters to gymnastics
For each example, fill in the boxes relating to the
characteristics affecting leader behaviour and the
type of leader behaviour. Discuss how both leaders
would attain high performance while ensuring group
member satisfaction
TASK / HOMEWORK

60. Required
Behaviour
Actual
Behaviour
Preferred
Behaviour
GROUP
PERFORMANCE
GROUP
SATISFACTION
Situational
Characteristics
Leader
Characteristics
Member
Characteristics