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2.2
Name: Perm #:
Final Exam Short Essay (2 paragraphs):
Instructions: Respond to the following four questions utilizing
what you have learned both in lecture and through the readings.
Write two fully formed paragraphs (5-7 complete sentences),
employing concrete and explicit examples to support your
answers. Please utilize examples that have been discussed either
in lecture, section, or the readings. As this is a take-home final
exam, you may use your notes from lecture, section or the
readings.
What are the different pressures on Korean beauty standards and
where do they come from? Describe some of the positive and
negative effects of Korean beauty culture?
How did the formation of BTS differ from other groups, and
how did BTS break precedent with the Korean music industry?
Was BTS revolutionary or evolutionary?
What is the origin flower boy concept in Korea? What are the

three main causes of the modern day flower boy phenomenon?
How are flower boys represented and utilized in media and K-
pop?
Describe the origin and purpose of the trainee system. What role
does creating a “whole package” in generating fandoms? How
does early fan culture compare with today’s?
BONUS (1pt):
Why was BTS more successful than Psy? How has BTS been
able to maintain their popularity, while Psy has been termed a
dispensable celebrity?
The World Capital of Plastic Surgery | The New Yorker
https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/03/23/about-
face[1/3/19, 5:06:28 PM]
Letter from Seoul March 23, 2015 Issue
About Face
Why is South Korea the world’s plastic-surgery capital?
By Patricia Marx
The New Yorker
Subscribe
https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/letter-from-seoul
https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/03/23
https://www.newyorker.com/contributors/patricia-marx

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face[1/3/19, 5:06:28 PM]
I f you want to feel bad about your looks, spend some time in
Seoul.An eerily high number of women there—and men, too—
look like
anime princesses. Subway riders primp in front of full-length
mirrors
installed throughout the stations for that purpose. Job applicants
are
typically required to attach photographs to their résumés.
Remarks
from relatives, such as “You would be a lot prettier if you just
had
your jaw tapered,” are considered no more insulting than
“You’d get a
lot more for your apartment if you redid the kitchen.”
South Koreans do not merely brood about their physiognomy.
They
put their money where their mouths—and eyes and noses—used
to be.
By some estimates, the country has the highest rate of plastic

surgery
per capita in the world. (Brazil, if you want the title you’re
going to
have to lift a few more rear ends.) The United States has sagged
to
No. 6, though we still have the greatest total number of
procedures. It
“We want to have surgeries while we are young so we can have
our new faces
for a long time,” one young woman said.
Photograph by Jean Chung
face[1/3/19, 5:06:28 PM]
has been estimated that between one-fifth and one-third of
women in
Seoul have gone under the knife, and one poll reported by the
BBC
puts the figure at fifty per cent or higher for women in their
twenties.
Men, by one account, make up fifteen per cent of the market,
including a former President of the country, who underwent
double-
eyelid surgery while in office. Statistics in this field are iffy
because
the industry is not regulated and there are no official records,
but
we’ll get to that in a grimmer paragraph.
In January, I spent a couple of weeks in Seoul’s so-called

Improvement Quarter. This area is in the high-end Gangnam
district,
the Beverly Hills of Seoul. I realized that getting stuck in traffic
would
give me more worry lines, so my translator and I took the
subway,
which is equipped with Wi-Fi, heated seats, and instructional
videos
about what to do in the event of a biological or chemical attack.
The
walls of the stations are plastered with giant ads for plastic-
surgery
clinics, many picturing twinkly cheerleader types, sometimes
wearing
jewelled tiaras and sleeveless party dresses, and often standing
next
to former versions of themselves (“before” pictures)—dour
wallflowers with droopy eyes, low-bridged noses, and jawlines
shaped
like C-clamps. “This is the reason celebrities are confident even
without their makeup,” one caption read. “Everyone but you has
done
it,” another said.
You know you are in the right neighborhood by the
preponderance of
slightly bruised and swollen-faced men and women in their
twenties
and thirties going about their business, despite the bandages.
Another
clue: there are between four and five hundred clinics and
hospitals
within a square mile. They are packed into boxy concrete
buildings
that look as if they were all built on the same day. (The area
consisted

largely of pear and cabbage farms and straw-roofed houses until
it
was treated to its own speedy face-lift in preparation for the
1988
Seoul Olympics.) Some clinics occupy as many as sixteen
floors, and
face[1/3/19, 5:06:28 PM]
“L
the largest encompass several high-rises. Most are more modest.
Tall
vertical signs in Korean jut from the buildings and overhang the
sidewalk like unwrapped rolls of surgical tape. They advertise
the
names of the clinics, several of which my Korean friends
translated
for me: Small Face, Magic Nose, Dr. 4 Nose, Her She, Before
and
After, Reborn, Top Class, Wannabe, 4 Ever, Cinderella, Center
for
Human Appearance, and April 31 Aesthetic Plastic Surgery.
There is
also a maternity clinic that specializes in beauty enhancement
for
brand-new mothers and mothers-to-be.
My translator, Kim Kibum, agreed to pose as a potential patient,
and I
tagged along with him as we went from one clinic to another,

conferring with doctors about possible ways to remodel
ourselves.
Kibum, a professor at Sotheby’s Institute of Art, visiting his
family in
Seoul, is thirty-one. He is not considered young for cosmetic
surgery,
which, like computer coding, competitive gymnastics, and Trix
cereal,
is for kids. A typical high-school graduation gift for a Korean
teen-
ager is either a nose job or a blepharoplasty, also called a
double-
eyelid surgery (the insertion of a crease in the eyelid to make
the eye
look bigger), which is by far the most common procedure
performed
in Korea.
“When you’re nineteen, all the girls get plastic surgery, so if
you don’t
do it, after a few years, your friends will all look better, but you
will
look like your unimproved you,” a college student who’d had a
double-eyelid procedure told me. “We want to have surgeries
while
we are young so we can have our new faces for a long time,”
another
young woman said. That is no longer a possibility for me, I’m
afraid.
et’s ask if they can make us look alike,” Kibum whispered, at
Small Face Plastic Surgery, a hospital that specializes in facial
contouring, before we met with a consultant to discuss surgical
options and to haggle over the price. (The cost of procedures
and

face[1/3/19, 5:06:28 PM]
services in South Korea varies tremendously, but it is not
uncommon
to pay a third of what it would cost in the United States. As
with
Bloomingdale’s towels and sheets, it’s impossible not to get a
discount.) Kibum has monolid eyes, a sculpted nose, a perfectly
M-
shaped upper-lip line, and chin stubble. I have none of those
things,
nor am I as handsome as Kibum. We were seated on a leather
sofa in
a purple-lit reception area that looked like the Starship
Enterprise,
redecorated by Virgin Atlantic. The women who work there—as
in all
the clinics that I visited—wear uniforms of short skirts, high
heels,
and tight tops. Their bodies and faces, aside from the occasional
nose
shaped too much like a ski jump, are advertisements for the
handiwork of the Korean medical profession. Everyone is
female,
except most of the doctors and the barista at the coffee bar
(complimentary cappuccino!) in the waiting room of I.D.
Hospital.
I asked Kibum to explain the name Small Face. “Koreans, and
Asians

in general, are self-conscious about having big heads,” he said.
“This
is why in group photos a girl will try to stand far in the back to
make
her face relatively smaller. This is also why jaw-slimming
surgery”—
sometimes called V-line surgery—“is so popular.” The
desirable,
narrow jawline can be achieved by shaving the mandible using
oscillating saws or by breaking and then realigning both jaws,
an
operation that originated as a treatment for severe congenital
deformities. (Last year, a clinic was fined for exhibiting on its
premises more than two thousand jaw fragments in two vitrines,
each
bone labelled with the name of the patient from whom it was
carved.)
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face[1/3/19, 5:06:28 PM]

Kibum and I paged through the “Look Book” of testimonials
and
photographs of former patients. (From a similar binder at Grand
Plastic Hospital: “Pain for a short moment! Living as a perfect,
beautiful woman for the rest of my life!” “I used to look like I
had
been starving for a while, with no hint of luxury. My eyes were
sunken, my forehead was flat. . . .” “Now I’m good-looking
even from
the back!”) “When I was growing up, in the eighties, the ideal
look
was Western—sculpted, well-defined faces with big eyes,”
Kibum told
me. “I would argue that that has changed as a result of the
plastic-
surgery culture. Everyone started looking alike, so ‘quirky’ and
‘different’ came to be prized.” Many dispute the notion that
Korean
plastic surgery today emulates a Western aesthetic, pointing
out, for
example, that big eyes are universally considered appealing and
that
pale skin connotes affluence. Still, just about everyone I talked
to in
Seoul confirmed the trend toward a baby-faced appearance. The
Bagel Girl look (short for “baby-faced and glamorous”), a
voluptuous
body with a schoolgirl face, was all the rage. Another popular
procedure is aegyo sal, meaning “eye smiles” or “cute skin.” It
entails
injecting fat under the eyes, which gives you the mug of an
adorable
toddler.
In the Small Face reception area, a TV was showing a program

called
“The Birth of a Beauty.” The episode was about a woman who
had
face[1/3/19, 5:06:28 PM]
always wanted to be an actress but, because of her looks, had
had to
settle for being an extra, until . . . you guessed it. Meanwhile,
Kibum
answered a new-patient questionnaire. Here are a few of the
questions:
Reason you want surgery?
[] Preparing for job
[] Wedding
[] Regaining self-confidence
[] Suggestions from people
What kind of a look do you want?
[] Natural
[] Very different
[] Completely different

Which entertainer do you most want to resemble? __________
Do you have other friends who are considering plastic surgery?
How
many?
[] 1
[] 2-3
[] 3-5
[] Many
If you get the result you want from plastic surgery, what’s the
thing
face[1/3/19, 5:06:28 PM]
[] Get a lover
[] Find a job
[] Enter a competition for face beauty
We visited three clinics that day, including one that featured a
plastic-surgery
museum (complete with, among other oddments, deformed
skulls,
postoperative shampoo, and a fun-house mirror) and a flashy
medical center

(white leather sofas and marble floors) that was investigated
last year after
photographs turned up on Instagram showing staff members
whooping it up in
an operating room—blowing out birthday candles, eating
hamburgers, posing
with a pair of breast implants—while the killjoy patient lay
unconscious on the
table. We met with three consultants and two doctors. The
protocol often
involves talking to a consultant, who then briefs a doctor, who
then looks you
over and draws lines on your face before you meet again with
the consultant,
who closes the deal. In most of the offices, there was a skull on
the table for
educational purposes.
When Kibum asked the practitioners what they thought he
should have done,
most asked, “Do you really need anything done?” When I asked
what
procedures I might need, I was told that, in addition to laser
therapy and a
forehead pull (“Asians don’t have wrinkles there, because
raising your eyebrows
is rude,” a doctor told me), I should get a face-lift or, at least, a
thread-lift—a
subcutaneous web of fibre implanted in the face to hoist my
skin upward, like a
Calatrava suspension bridge—except that, because I’m
Caucasian, my skin is
too thin for a thread-lift. I also heard so many tut-tuts about the
bags under my
eyes that I started to worry that Korean Air wouldn’t let me take
them aboard as

carry-ons on the flight home.
One doctor, as he talked to me, made a broad, swiping hand
gesture
you want most to do?
[] Upload a selfie without using Photoshop
face[1/3/19, 5:06:28 PM]
W
that suggested that a lot of erasing was in order. Kibum
translated:
“He thinks you should get Botox around your eyes and
forehead, and
reposition the fat under your eyes.”
Me: Does he think I should put filler in my cheeks?
Kibum: He doesn’t recommend filler, because it’s gone in eight
months and you’d need a shitload of it.
Kibum and I didn’t have the nerve to request that we be turned
into a
matching pair, but it wouldn’t have been much of a stretch.
Every
doctor I interviewed said that he had patients who’d brought in
photographs of celebrities, asking to be remade in their
likenesses; or,

for instance, with Kim Tae-hee’s nose and Lee Min-jung’s eyes.
One
doctor told me that he had a patient who showed him a cartoon
that
she wanted to resemble. (He said no.) Also, an increasing
number of
women are having procedures at the same time as their
daughters,
arranging for matching operations so that the daughters’ looks
are
attributed to nature rather than to suture.
“Surgery tourists” from abroad make up about a third of the
business
in South Korea, and, of those, most come from China. One
reason is
that, throughout Asia, the “Korean wave” of pop culture (called
hallyu) shapes not only what music you should listen to but
what you
should look like while listening to it. Cosmetic transformations
can be
so radical that some of the hospitals offer certificates of identity
to
foreign patients, who might need help convincing immigration
officers that they’re not in the Witness Protection Program.
e all want to look our best, but not since seventh grade had I
been in the company of people for whom appearance mattered
so much. In search of a clearer understanding of why South
Koreans
are such lookists, I stopped by the book-cluttered office of
Eunkook
Suh, a psychology professor at Yonsei University, in Seoul.
“One

face[1/3/19, 5:06:28 PM]
factor is that, in contrast to Western cultures, the external
aspects of
self (your social status, clothes, gestures, and appearance)
versus the
inner aspects (thoughts and feelings) matter more here,” he
explained. Suh described an experiment he did in which he gave
students, both at Yonsei University and at the University of
California
at Irvine (where he once taught) a photograph and a written
description of the same person. Which format, he asked the
students,
gives you a better understanding of this person? The Koreans
chose
the photograph, and the Americans chose the description. Suh,
like
others, partially attributes the Korean mind-set to
Confucianism,
which teaches that behavior toward others is all-important. He
elaborated, “In Korea, we don’t care what you think about
yourself.
Other people’s evaluations of you matter more.”
Suh went on to explain that the two
societies also have different ideas
about personal change: “In Asian
societies like Korea, a lot of people
hold an incremental theory versus
an entity theory about a person’s

potential.” If you subscribe to the latter, as Suh claims we do in
the
United States, you believe that a person’s essence is fixed and
that
there is only a limited potential for change. “If your American
ten-
year-old is a born musician and not a soccer player, you’re not
going
to force her to play soccer,” Suh said. “In Korea, they think that
if you
put in effort you’re going to improve, so you’d force your kid to
play
soccer.” So, in Korea, not only can you grow up to be David
Beckham;
you can—with a lot of work—grow up to look like David
Beckham,
too.
This is not a country that gives up. Surely one of the most
bullied
nations on earth, Korea, some historians believe, has been
invaded
more than four hundred times through the years, without once
being
“I’ve asked you not to use the siege
tower to meet women.”
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face[1/3/19, 5:06:28 PM]
the aggressor, if you don’t count the Vietnam War. After the
Korean
War, the country’s G.D.P. per capita ($64) was less than that of
Somalia, and its citizens lived under an oppressive regime.
Today,
South Korea has the fourteenth-highest G.D.P. in the world. Is
it
really surprising, then, that a country that had the resilience to
make
itself over so thoroughly is also the capital of cosmetic about-
faces?
The national fixation on plastic surgery began in the aftermath
of the
Korean War, triggered by the offer made by the American
occupational forces to provide free reconstructive surgery to
maimed
war victims. Particular credit or blame—you choose—goes to
David
Ralph Millard, the chief plastic surgeon for the U.S. Marine
Corps,
who, in response to requests from Korean citizens wishing to
change
their Asian eyes to Occidental ones, perfected the
blepharoplasty. As

Millard wrote in a 1955 monograph, the Asian eye’s “absence of
the
palpebral fold produces a passive expression which seems to
epitomize the stoical and unemotional manner of the Oriental.”
The
procedure was a hit, and caught on fast, especially with Korean
prostitutes, who wanted to attract American G.I.s. “It was
indeed a
plastic surgeon’s paradise,” Millard wrote.
There is a word you hear a lot in Korea: woori. It means “we”
or “us”
or “we-ness,” but, as explained by Kihyoung Choi in his book
“A
Pedagogy of Spiraling,” it blurs into a collective “I.” Choi
writes,
“When one refers to one’s spouse, one does not say ‘my
husband’ or
‘my wife’ but ‘our husband’ or ‘our wife.’ ” (The divorce rate
in Korea
has tripled in the last two decades. ) “It is very important to be
part
of the woori group, to be part of your coalition or clique,”
Eugene
Yun, a private-equity fund manager, told me. “This is the
antithesis of
individualism. If we go to a restaurant in a group, we’ll all
order the
same thing. If we go into a shop, we’ll often ask, ‘What is the
most
popular item?,’ and just purchase that. The feeling is, if you can
look
better, you should. Not to do so would be complacent and lazy
and
*

https://www.newyorker.com/#editorsnote
face[1/3/19, 5:06:28 PM]
F
reflect badly on your group.” He went on, “It’s not that you’re
trying
to stand out and look good. It’s that you’re trying not to look
bad.” He
continued, “This is a very competitive society. In the old days,
if your
neighbor bought a new TV or new car you would need to buy a
new
TV or car. Now we all have these basic things, so the
competition has
moved up to comparing one’s looks, health, and spiritual things
as
well.”
or the good of all, then, let’s get back to the hospitals. Options
offered at various establishments we visited included Barbie-
Nose Rhinoplasty (“Let it up to have doll-like sharp nose!”),
Forehead
Volumization (“Your beauty will increase!”), Hip-Up surgery
(to
achieve “a feminine and beautiful Latino-like body line”), arm-
lifts,
calf reductions, dimple creation, whitening injections (called
Beyoncé

injections by one clinic), eye-corner lowering (so you don’t
look
fierce), smile-lifts that curl the corners of your lips and chisel
an
indentation into the crooks so that your now permanently happy
mouth looks as if it were drawn by a six-year-old (this operation
is
popular with flight attendants), and “cat surgery,” to fix your
floppy
philtrum.
But most of the surgery performed in South Korea isn’t usually
too
drastic, and seems technically superb. The blepharoplasty can
take as
little as fifteen minutes (“Less serious than getting a tooth
pulled,”
one man I talked to said). Unlike in America, where the goal is
to have
the biggest you-know-whats, the desired aesthetic in Seoul is
understated—“A slight variation on what everyone else has” is
the way
Kibum put it. “Koreans are still very conservative,” Kyuhee
Baik, an
anthropology graduate student, told me. “It would be a disaster
for a
girl to show cleavage—it would make you look shallow,” a
nineteen-
year-old who’d had her eyes and jaw done told me. “You don’t
want to
stand out,” Baik went on. “That goes back to our Confucian
foundations. It’s a very conformist society.”

face[1/3/19, 5:06:28 PM]
R
“I never thought about doing plastic surgery,” said Stella Ahn,
whom I
met at a coffee bar with her friends Jen Park and Sun Lee, all
college
sophomores. “But then my father told me, ‘You have my eyes,
so I
spoke to a plastic surgeon who’ll make you more beautiful.’
Afterward, I regretted it a lot. I felt: I’m not me, I lost my true
self. My
eyes were bruised at first, so they seemed smaller.” When the
swelling
went down, Ahn came to like her eyes. Lee also had her eyes
done at
her father’s urging. “He told me that beauty could be a big
advantage
for girls. For instance, when you go on a job interview if the
interviewer saw two women who had similar abilities, of course
he’d
go with the better-looking one.” It bears mentioning that, among
the
twenty-seven countries in the Organization for Economic
Coöperation and Development, Korea, where the pressure to get
married is significant, ranks last where gender equality is
concerned.
Ahn continued, “Before I got double eyelids, the boys didn’t
appreciate me so much.” Lee concurred. I asked if they were
ever
tempted to lie and say that they hadn’t had surgery. “These
days, the

trend is to be open,” Park said. “The reason girls don’t lie is
that we
don’t feel guilty,” Lee explained. “We are congratulated for
having
plastic surgery.”
emember “Queen for a Day,” the TV show in which a jewelled
crown and prizes, such as a washer-dryer, were awarded to the
woeful housewife contestant who could convince the studio
audience
that she was the most woeful of all the other housewife
contestants? A
version of that show, “Let Me In,” is among the most widely
viewed
programs in South Korea. Each contestant on the show—given a
nickname like Girl Who Looks Like Frankenstein, Woman Who
Cannot Laugh, Flat-Chested Mother, Monkey—makes a case to
a
panel of beauty experts that his or her physical features have
made it
so impossible to live a normal life that a total surgical
revamping is
face[1/3/19, 5:06:28 PM]
called for. The contestants’ parents are brought onstage, too, to
apologize to their offspring not only for endowing them with
crummy
genes but also for being too poor to afford plastic surgery. At
the end

of every show, the surgically reborn contestant is revealed to
the
audience, which oohs and aahs and claps and cries.
There are a number of plastic-surgery reality shows in Korea
along
these lines, but one, “Back to My Face,” has taken a different
approach. I met with Siwon Paek, the producer of the show’s
pilot. In
the pilot, contestants who had had at least ten surgeries compete
to
win a final operation that promises to undo all the previous
reconstructions. Paek emphasized that the aim is to help plastic-
surgery addicts come to terms psychologically with their
appearance.
Those with lower incomes, she said, tend to be the most
compulsive
about plastic surgery. “They feel they have no other way to
prove
themselves to people and lift themselves socially and
economically,”
she said. Although the “Back to My Face” pilot was popular,
Paek said
that she will produce no more episodes. “I didn’t have the
strength to
continue,” she told me. The responsibility of changing people’s
lives
weighed too heavily on her, she said, and finding contestants
was
hard. “For one month, I stood outside a dance club,” she told
me. “I
solicited two hundred people. Most didn’t want to go back to
the way
they looked before.”
In recent years, a new Korean word, sung-gui, began to surface

online. It means “plastic-surgery monster.” A college student I
spoke
to defined the term for me as a person who has had so much
cosmetic
alteration that he or she “looks unnatural and arouses
repulsion.” Not
long ago, the Korea Consumer Agency reported that a third of
all
plastic-surgery patients were dissatisfied with the results, and
seventeen per cent claimed to have suffered at least one
negative side
effect. The agency keeps no official records of accidents or
botched
surgeries, but every few months there is a story in the
newspaper
face[1/3/19, 5:06:28 PM]
W
about someone not waking up from the anesthetic after a
procedure.
Amazingly, this does not seem to hurt business. Hyon-Ho Shin,
who
heads the malpractice branch of the Korean lawyers’
association, told
me, over tea in his office, “These days, there are so many
accidents,
and nearly every hospital has had a serious incident, so it
doesn’t

matter so much. People who are having plastic surgery accept
that it’s
a risk they take.” Just before I arrived in Korea, a college
student who
had gone in for eyelid surgery died. Before the anesthetic was
administered, the doctor offered to give her a bonus jaw
operation
free of charge if she allowed the hospital to use her before-and-
after
photographs. It was later reported that the doctor was actually a
dentist. Shin estimates that as many as eighty per cent of
doctors
doing plastic surgery are not certified in the field; these are
known as
“ghost doctors.” A 2005 BBC report mentioned radiologists
performing double-eyelid surgeries and psychiatrists operating
the
liposuction machine. Shin believes that nurses and untrained
assistants are wielding the scalpel, too. Sometimes a hotshot
doctor
with a recognizable name will be there to greet the patient, but
after
the anesthetic kicks in it’s hello, Doogie Howser!
Another surgeon, Dr. Ha, told me, “The larger hospitals have
become
factories. One hospital even sets timers in the operating room so
that,
for instance, each doctor has to finish an eyelid surgery in under
thirty minutes, or a nose job in under an hour and a half. If they
go
over, there are financial consequences and verbal reprimands.”
These
lapses have become an issue of national concern. Last year, a
Korean
lawmaker complained to parliament that seventy-seven per cent

of
plastic-surgery clinics were not equipped with mandatory
defibrillators or ventilators.
hen the mother of South Korea’s former President Chun Doo
Hwan was trying to conceive a child, in the nineteen-twenties,
face[1/3/19, 5:06:28 PM]
she met a wandering monk who told her that she had the face of
someone who would be the mother of a great man—unless her
buckteeth got in the way of destiny. With dispatch, she knocked
out
her front teeth using a log. (Some accounts say that she used a
rock.)
Her son ruled Korea from 1980 to 1988 as a brutal and
repressive
dictator.
If it worked for the President’s mother , it could work for you.
It is
not uncommon for a Korean who is considering face alteration
to seek
the opinion of a professional face reader—i.e., someone who
offers
advice on which nips and tucks will do the most good. The
occupation
grew in prominence after the financial crisis of 1997-98, when
competition for jobs became fierce.
On my last day in Seoul, I decided to pay fifty dollars to consult

a face
reader. “Should I smile?” I asked my translator, who
communicated
the question to a squat old man in a quilted Chinese-style
jacket, who
was, like so many others I met that week, gazing critically at
my
countenance. “Just be natural” came the answer. We were in the
face
reader’s dark, tiny office, which was crammed with oil
paintings, an
old TV, drawings of the body segmented as if they were cuts of
beef,
and lots of tchotchkes (a Manchester United paperweight, a
small
Buddha, a piggy bank).
After asking me when my birthday was, the face reader offered
some
general truths. “He says if there is a scar between your eyes it
makes
you desolate from all your wishes and hopes. Then totally, yes.
One
should have plastic surgery,” my translator said. “He says if
there’s a
nose bridge that isn’t straight enough, it disconnects you from
your
family.”
But, I asked, what about me?
“He says your eyebrows look like you have a lot of friends,” the
**
https://www.newyorker.com/#editorsnote1

face[1/3/19, 5:06:28 PM]
translator said. “And your nose indicates that you are going to
be
wealthy.”
Should I change anything?
“He doesn’t have a bad thing to say about you. But your teeth
might
be a little weak. And you should eat a lot more beef.” __♦
newyorker.comThe World Capital of Plastic Surgery | The New
Yorker
8yMDE1LzAzLzIzL2Fib3V0LWZhY2UA: button0:
K-Beauty: The Exhausting Skin-Care Regimen That May Be
Worth the Effort - WSJ
https://www.wsj.com/articles/k-beauty-the-exhausting-skin-
care-regimen-that-may-be-worth-the-effort-1459970031[1/3/19,
5:02:03 PM]
Sign In
IF SNAIL CREAM and sheet masks are already part of your
beauty routine,
congratulations: You’re officially on the cutting edge of beauty.
Now please
step aside while the other 99% of us catch up to the K-Beauty

trend.
K-Beauty—the umbrella term for all South Korean imports in
the skin care,
makeup and bath-and-body categories—has been attracting fans
in the U.S.
Over the last 18 months, it’s cultivated a certain gentle, nature-
meets-
technology ethos. Boosting its appeal is packaging that comes
with poppy
STYLE & FASHION FASHION
K-Beauty: The Exhausting Skin-Care Regimen
That May Be Worth the Effort
Willing to commit to a celebrated, if wearying 10-step beauty
regimen? From South Korea come peculiar
peel-off masks and creams with weird ingredients that promise a
spectacularly dewy complexion
|
Beauty fans from around the world are flocking to Korean
cosmetics, which tout intensive
multi-step regimens and exotic ingredients like snail excretions.
Illustration: Lauren Rowling.
Why Korean Beauty Is Setting New
Standards
April 6, 2016 3:13 p.m. ET
15 COMMENTSBy Dana Wood
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colors, nonsensical names like Tonymoly and bottles
whimsically shaped like
pandas and cracked hard-boiled eggs.
Even more hyped than the products themselves, however, is the
ultra-elaborate
K-Beauty skin-care regimen espoused by popular websites like
Soko Glam and
Peach & Lily, both of which are run by Korean Americans.
Incorporating up to
10 (and sometimes more) steps, the typical regimen kicks off
with a “dual
cleansing” ritual (via oil- and water-based products), winds its
way through a
series of sheet masks, essences, serums and rich moisturizers,
and wraps up
with SPF 35 sunscreen. At night, you swap out the sunscreen for
a thick,
gloppy “sleep cream.”
Many of these beautifiers are laced with outré ingredients such
as snail mucin,
culled from the gooey substance snails leave in their wake and
said to boost
cell regeneration; bee venom (an anti-inflammatory “faux-tox”
alleged to relax
facial muscles); moisturizing starfish extract; and firming-and-
tightening pig
collagen. “For years, Korean women have focused on skin care
products rather
than makeup,” said Sarah Jindal, senior innovation and insights
analyst for
market research firm Mintel. “The ultimate goal is to achieve a
complexion
that has a dewy, glowing finish, one that doesn’t need
concealers and

foundations to hide it.”
Each complexion, the reasoning goes, needs a customized
routine that
addresses factors such as hormonal fluctuations and lifestyle
choices. The
repetitive cleansings, masks and layers of moisturizers minister
to skin that’s
suffered a litany of assaults, which may range from hormonal
shifts to wrinkle-
inducing UV rays to the dehydrating effects of alcohol.
K-Beauty Products to Try
From snail cream to rubber mask, here are some products to
help you start
your K-beauty regimen.
Missha Cell Renew Snail Cream, $45, sokoglam.com F.
MARTIN RAMIN/THE WALL STREET
JOURNAL, STYLING BY ANNE CARDENAS
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lower-11546506071?mod=trending_now_5

5:02:03 PM]
Unsurprisingly, some dermatologists applaud this skin
obsession: There’s a
decided upside to both expanding a regimen beyond the basics
(cleansing,
moisturizing) and addressing specific issues like fine lines,
enlarged pores and
uneven skin tone, said New York dermatologist Dennis Gross,
who
nonetheless doesn’t prescribe 10-step protocols for his patients.
A customized
skin-care routine “makes good sense from a skin-biology
standpoint,” he said.
“But the Koreans don’t own the highway on this; most of my
patients are up to
at least four steps, including a daily peel and a serum.”
Freelance business consultant Soojin Min—a longtime fan of
Estée Lauder ,
Chantecaille and Kiehl’s skin care—recently added products
from Korean
imports Sulwhasoo, AmorePacific and Hera to her daily routine
and isn’t put
off by the extra labor they demand. “I feel they have fewer
chemicals,” said
Ms. Min (a statement for which there’s no supporting research).
The Seoul
native, who splits her time between homes in Hong Kong and
Bronxville,
N.Y., “was happily surprised to see a K-Beauty section at
Sephora when I was
in Manhattan.”
For the K-curious eager to go for the glow, the best approach is
to incorporate

one additional step at a time. Sheet masks are perhaps K-
Beauty’s most
effective contribution to the world of skin care because they
deliver a saturated
dose of hydration to dry skin. They’re an easy add-on and come
in a single-
dose package (as low as $2) or 5-packs (around $20).
1 of 6
Another smart, albeit pricier, approach is to follow one of Peach
& Lily’s well-
thought-out “Korean Skincare Routine Kits.” Customized
according to skin
type (oily, normal, dry, etc.), these include 10 or more products,
at a total cost
ranging from $225 to $250. If that’s too much of a financial
commitment, start
small by sampling a nightly snail-mucin cream. Don’t be
squeamish: The
delicately scented, rich formula feels smooth, not oily, when
applied to your
skin. Bonus: You’re less likely to scare other people after
rubbing it on than if
you pop up wearing one of the peel-away Freddy Krueger-esque
masks.
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K-Beauty—What Is Korean Beauty - mindbodygreen
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B E A U T Y
K-Beauty: Everything You Wanted To Know About
Korean Beauty, Explained
By Alicia Yoon
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By now, you probably have already heard about Korean beauty,
known as "K-beauty" for short, and might even
be a fan of Korean beauty products and/or the infamous
multistep Korean skin care regimen. No matter how
much experience you've had with Korean beauty, there's a solid
chance you still have questions about it,
whether you're curious about what sets K-beauty apart from
other products or are interested in simply getting
the facts straight (e.g., do I really need to do all 10 steps?).
Based on my experience as an esthetician who trained in Korea
(also licensed in the United States), founder of
and curator of Peach & Lily, and a K-beauty expert, I’ll share
everything I know about the background,
beginnings, and story behind Korean beauty below.
What is Korean beauty, or K-beauty?
At a fundamental and basic level, Korean beauty products are

ones that originate and are made in Korea. The
products are typically created with the Korean beauty
philosophy in mind. Here's what that entails.
Korean beauty products and regimens are designed to work
long-term.
Sure, there are products that might claim peel your skin
overnight or quickly neutralize redness. However, when
skin care is approached with overnight results in mind, there’s
an understanding that at best, results may not
last, and at worst, the products can actually damage the skin—
which is worse than not having any effect, in my
book!
Instead, there’s an emphasis on gently nurturing the skin toward
your desired results, whatever they may be,
with consistency and a highly personalized skin care routine. I
often liken to it working out. A crash diet might
"work," but the results typically are hard to keep, or worse, this
kind of dieting could have harmful effects on the
body. Instead, a consistently healthy diet and a consistent
workout plan give you results that are yours to keep
and are safe ways to access well-being. What’s also interesting
is that this long-term, gentle approach is what
really helps skin get that lit-from-within glow that truly beams
with the signature K-beauty healthy, hydrated,
bouncy look. What does this mean as far as products go? There
are products like essences, serums,
ampoules, and all kinds of masks to choose from so that
hydration and nourishment can be absorbed one
gentle, thin layer at a time.
Article continues below
Korean beauty is all about customization.

Everyone’s skin is unique, and truly understanding your own
skin is a big focus of the Korean beauty
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philosophy. It doesn't have to be complicated! Take stock of
what you’re using, and if you ever have an allergic
or negative reaction to a product, see what ingredients were in
the products. Then take a product that works
well for you and see what ingredients are in that product. Over
time, paying attention to ingredients helps you
identify patterns—ingredients your skin dislikes and those it
loves.
Some products are designed to be flexible and buildable,
because not everyone will need or want the same
amount of hydration. Essences are a great example, which are
meant to be used after cleansing and toning. If
your skin needs only one sip of refreshing hydration, apply one
layer of the essence onto clean skin. Just got off
a flight or you’re fighting off a cold and your skin is needing
extra love? Layer on as many layers of essence as
you need—even a dozen layers is good. Staying on top of your
skin care game means understanding what
works for you and understanding what your skin is craving each
day. It can go such a long way toward helping
your skin be at its best.

Korean beauty ingredients are innovative and inspired by
nature.
Whether it’s Mizon’s famed All-in-One Snail Cream
incorporating ingredients like snail mucin to ampoules that
include microneedles made of marine solids, Korean beauty
innovates with unique ingredients you often won't
find in other skin care.
How did Korean beauty become a modern skin care trend?
I spoke with historians and visited museums in Korea, where
I'm from, to understand the rich beauty legacy and
traditions passed down through the generations, shaping it into
what it is today. Thousands of years ago, Korea
was largely an agricultural society. Most everyone was outside
under the harsh rays of the sun. Searching for
ways to heal sun damage has since been embraced by Korean
beauty.
During these times, natural ingredients like camellia, mung
bean, and rice were popular for the rich antioxidant
benefits and hydrating properties, and they would be kept in
small celadon tubs in tiny amounts as
preservatives weren’t used as much back then. It's amazing that
this history of time-tested natural ingredients
has been passed down and is still incorporated into today’s
beauty formulas.

Then, in the 1940s and onward as Korea’s economy began to
grow exponentially, the beauty companies that
started the modern K-beauty movement (many are still around
today) set up shop. Saengreen was established
in 1987 and was one of the first natural-ingredients-focused
beauty companies. Amore Pacific, founded earlier
in 1945, has seen slow and steady growth into the company it is
today. Shangpree, famous for its well-loved
eyepad masks, was started in the 1990s. Each of these
companies is still thriving today. As Korean beauty
reach and development continued to progress, there were so
many new formulas, ingredients, and types of
products that became a reality (skin lotions, essences, serums,
and more).
I remember as a toddler living in Korea, my mother would teach
me how to brush my teeth...and how to pat on
moisturizer! Just like brushing my teeth is a way of taking care
of my health, I always grew up thinking that skin
care was a form of self-care, too.
When did the Korean 10-step skin care routine become popular?
Contrary to what the media might have you believe, the Korean
routine isn’t necessarily 10 steps long. It can be
five steps long or even 15 steps long. The 10-step routine really
indicates the multilayered nature of the routine
going back to the gentle and long-term focus. Here's how this
multilayered routine typically goes:
Double cleanse, part one, oil cleanser: Use an oil-based cleanser
to remove all oil-based impurities.1
Double cleanse, part two, water cleanser: Follow your oil
cleanse with a gentle, non-stripping water-
based cleanser.

2
Exfoliator: This is an extra and doesn't have to be every day—
it's based on whatever your skin
needs.
3
http://www.spacec.co.kr/en/index
http://koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/culture/2013/01/135_129776.
html
http://www.saenggreen.com/
http://www.apgroup.com/int/en/about-us/amorepacific/our-
history.html
http://eng.shangpree.com/english/
This multilayered approach to skin care has been popular in
Korea since around the 1960s. It’s actually
changing a bit now as beauty brands are another leap forward
with multitasking products that are just as
effective as two separate steps, like combining a serum and
moisturizer in one.
What are some key steps that are special to the Korean beauty
routine?
K-beauty essences.

A couple of key steps come to mind. First, essences! I’m a huge
believer in essences. While toners have the
main job in helping to balance pH, essences are really for
delivering hydration to skin with humectant-rich
(water-binding) ingredients that are formulated to deeply
hydrate. Other watery products like micellar waters and
hydrosols are different from essences—the former is a cleansing
water, and the latter is a water produced as a
by-product of distilling botanicals and is a "flower water" of
sorts. K-beauty essences come in a wide range of
watery to more viscous textures. They’re used directly after
cleansing and toning, and the primary job of an
essence is to truly drench skin with hydration, which helps keep
it healthy.
Hydrating toner: Use a hydrating toner to balance pH and kick-
start hydration.4
Essence: Essence is primarily geared toward amping up
hydration.5
Face oils, serums, ampoules: These are the most personalized
steps of your routine, which is all
about targeting the specific issues you want to address.
6
Masks: This could be sheet masks or other hydrating masks but
doesn't have to be every day.7
Eye cream: Eye cream comes next.8
Moisturizer: Then seal it all in with a moisturizer.9
In the mornings, always finish up with SPF.10

K-beauty sheet masks and rubber masks.
The second unique step is sheet masks and rubber masks! After
cleansing and toning, apply a sheet mask,
then pat in remaining essence and seal it all in with a
moisturizer. This is like an easy mini-facial at home and
can really help create that dewy, glowy skin relatively quickly.
It’s also an easy way to see if you like new
ingredients, as sheet masks are usually affordable and give you
a way to sample different formulas/ingredients.
Sheet mask in the mornings, on flights, in cars, when jet-lagged:
I find sheet masks to be like multivitamin-
boosters that give your skin this extra "oomph" whenever you
need it. It works every time, it’s easy, and it’s
soothing. A fun tip? If you want a glow fast, try sheet masking
daily for just five days straight. You might be
surprised what just five days of intense hydration can do for
your skin! And now sheet masks come in all kinds
of natural and organic varieties.
What are some common K-beauty misconceptions?

You need to do all 10 steps to achieve radiant, glowy skin.
You really don’t need to do all 10 steps. You can do five, or
you can do more. It’s all about what your skin
needs and what’s right for you. The most important thing in K-
beauty is consistency. Again, it’s like working out.
Some people really only want to work out for half an hour a few
times a week to maintain their desired level of
fitness while others really want to put more work in. So get to
know your skin and see what’s right for you.
I personally have more than 10 steps in my routine, but I've got
it down pat, so it takes only a few minutes each
morning and evening. So a multilayered routine doesn’t have to
take a long time and/or be disruptive to your
day! It’s my "me time" and a soothing moment for me to
bookend each day. Other than keeping my skin
healthy, it’s a part of my day I love and look forward to.
Korean beauty products are only for Asian skin.
This is totally false! Skin is skin. Like any other skin care
product, look for products for your skin type (dry,
sensitive, acne-prone, oily, etc.), and you’ll be all set when it
comes to Korean skin care products. Koreans
deal with all the same issues as people from all backgrounds
when it comes to skin—acne, oily skin,
dehydrated skin, redness, wrinkles, etc.—so the skin care
products are formulated to help keep skin healthy
and address these universal skin care concerns.
Using "anti-aging" products too early in life will make you age
faster.

This isn’t true, at all. It’s true that using ingredients that are too
harsh can be more damaging than helpful to skin,
but this truth isn’t relegated to just anti-aging products. This
could be true of acne products made for teens, for
example. As long as you’re not using products that are too harsh
for your skin type, starting a skin care routine
early that is about preventing premature aging and UV damage
goes far in keeping skin at its best. It’s so much
easier to keep skin healthy than to reverse damage.
Men and women have to use different Korean skin care
products.
Good news—Korean skin care products are for everybody, no
matter your gender! Skin type is more of a
factor than anything. My husband has dry skin like mine, and
we definitely have products that overlap, and we
both love and see amazing results from those same products.
SPF is needed only on sunny days.
SPF is healthy for your skin everyday! I often hear people say
that it’s cloudy out or they’ll be at work all day, so
they’ll skip their SPF. Unfortunately, the sun’s rays penetrate
through clouds, and if you’re sitting by a window,
you’re getting sun exposure. Sun damage is a real thing, and not
protecting ourselves from the sun can be
potentially the single most destructive thing we can do to our

skin. So rain or shine, a habit of applying daily SPF
before heading out the door will make a world of difference
come five, 10, 20 years later.
Back home in Korea, our family has a family facialist we have
been going to for as long as I can remember.
She’s now in her 60s (though she looks like she is maybe in her
late 30s—seriously), and she has clients she’s
been seeing now for decades. As a fellow esthetician, she tells
me the real-life differences of her clients who
have instilled this one healthy habit in their skin care routine
and those who haven’t. When we’re in our 20s and
30s, it’s hard to think about the damage that accumulates, but it
does. So let’s do ourselves the favor and find
that one SPF that we won’t mind using and stick to it. Here’s to
healthy skin and keeping it that way!
Korean skin care is really seen as a form of self-care, protecting
the skin, an organ, from damage and keeping
it healthy. At its core, Korean beauty is less about looking
pretty and more about taking care of your skin as a
way of taking care of yourself, overall.
Learn more about how K-beauty0-inspired ingredients like
niacinimide are actives in many clean, green
products!
And are you ready to learn more about how to unlock the power
of food to heal your body, prevent disease &
achieve optimal health? Register now for our FREE Functional
Nutrition Webinar with Kelly LeVeque.
# S K I N C A R E
Alicia Yoon

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Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing
ISSN: 1054-8408 (Print) 1540-7306 (Online) Journal homepage:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wttm20
Does a Food-themed TV Drama Affect Perceptions
of National Image and Intention to Visit a Country?
An Empirical Study of Korea TV Drama
Seongseop Kim , Miju Kim , Jerome Agrusa & Aejoo Lee
To cite this article: Seongseop Kim , Miju Kim , Jerome Agrusa
& Aejoo Lee (2012) Does a
Food-themed TV Drama Affect Perceptions of National Image
and Intention to Visit a Country? An
Empirical Study of Korea TV Drama, Journal of Travel &
Tourism Marketing, 29:4, 313-326, DOI:

10.1080/10548408.2012.674869
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Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1054-8408 print / 1540-7306 online
DOI: 10.1080/10548408.2012.674869
DOES A FOOD-THEMED TV DRAMA AFFECT
PERCEPTIONS OF NATIONAL IMAGE

AND INTENTION TO VISIT A COUNTRY? AN
EMPIRICAL STUDY OF KOREA TV DRAMA
Seongseop Kim
Miju Kim
Jerome Agrusa
Aejoo Lee
ABSTRACT. A Korean TV drama series (Daejanggeum), with a
story line focusing on Korean food,
was exported to over 50 countries resulting in a surprisingly
popular mega-hit. The popularity of this
TV drama, transcended across countries and cultural
boundaries, has brought an enhancement to the
national image of Korea or national brand, and led to a surge in
sales of Korean industrial products, as
well as an increased interest in Korean tourism resources. This
study attempted to empirically investi-
gate the effects of the TV drama series on the national image
and intention to visit Korea as perceived
by Chinese diners. Interestingly, the “peculiarity of Korean
culture” was a main reason for preferring
Korean cuisine, which positively affected the perception of the
national image and the intention to visit
Korea to partake in food tourism. Further, this study suggests
that future studies are needed to compare
the results of this research according to national, ethnic,
regional, or religious boundaries. The compar-
ison of other ethnic groups will be helpful for establishing
different marketing strategies according to
the different cohorts with different consumption patterns.
KEYWORDS. TV drama, food, image, destination, intention

INTRODUCTION
Most middle-aged or senior population cher-
ish the reminiscence of the movies or films that
they watched in their local theater. However,
with the development of technology in media,
international news changing every hour, as well
Seongseop Kim, PhD (E-mail: [email protected]) and Aejoo
Lee, PhD, are in the Department of
Hospitality & Tourism Management at Sejong University,
Gunja-dong, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul, 143-747 South
Korea.
Miju Kim, PhD, is in the Department of Convention
Management, Konyang Cyber University, Daejeon,
South Korea (E-mail: [email protected]).
Jerome Agrusa, PhD, is Professor of Travel Industry
Management in the College of Business
Administration at Hawaii Pacific University in Honolulu, HI,
USA (E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected]
aol.com).
Address correspondence to: Seongseop Kim, PhD, at the above
address.
as the numerous contents of different genres
being released through TV—are all signs of the
changing times. The effect of a popular TV
drama series or movie can become substantial
in the routine of an individual viewer’s every-
day life as well as in the society where the TV
drama series is featured.
313

314 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING
This study examines the effects of a food-
themed TV drama entitled Daejanggeum (Jewel
in the Palace), which consisted of 70 episodes,
encompassing the time period of the Chosun
dynasty (1392–1910) in Korea. The story line
consists of a cooking maid’s experience amid
political conspiracies and faction fighting in
a king’s palace. After the TV drama series
was first aired in Korea in September 2003,
it was also released in May of 2004 in
Taiwan, October 2004 in Japan, January 2005 in
Hong Kong, September 2005 in Mainland
China, and October 2005 in Thailand. Since
then, this Korean TV drama has reached
over 50 other countries including Singapore,
Malaysia, Vietnam, Iran, Kazakhstan, Pakistan,
Uzbekistan, UAE, Turkey, the Philippines, sev-
eral European nations, as well as African
countries such as Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Egypt,
Nigeria, and Ghana (Park, 2009).
It is very interesting that this TV drama series
was popular in so many different nations with
such diverse religions, histories, ethnicities,
and cultural backgrounds. Specifically, this TV
drama was sweepingly popular in Muslim coun-
tries such as Iran, Malaysia, Egypt, Kazakhstan,
Uzbekistan, UAE, Turkey, and Pakistan. In Iran,
for example, which is a very strong Muslim
society, this TV drama series was aired in
prime time on Saturday and then rerun on

Sunday starting from October 2006 by The
IRIB Iranian public TV network. It was very
unusual for a foreign TV drama to be broad-
cast in prime time and on a public TV network,
especially in Iran. In response to why they pre-
ferred this TV drama, Iranian viewers stated
that they were interested in the characteristics
of old Korean society (palace, traditional cos-
tumes, cuisines, society, culture), the beautiful
scenic background, as well as the story content
(loyalty, role of active females, happy-ending,
pure love, self-achievement; “Daejanggeum’s
Record-High Audience,” 2007). According
to the network’s audience rating survey,
over 86% of the Iranian respondents indi-
cated Daejanggeum as the highest rated for-
eign TV drama (“Daejanggeum’s Record-High
Audience,” 2007).
The popularity of this TV drama was tran-
scended over national and cultural boundaries,
which has brought an enhancement to the
national image of Korea, an increase in Korean
brand awareness and a surge in sales of Korean
products, as well as an increased interest in
Korean tourism resources (Huang, 2011). For
example, the success of this TV drama in Iran
has led to an increase in sales of Korean elec-
tronic products by 75% and automobile sales by
65% (“Iran,” 2010).
This TV drama was aired in China on Wuhan
Satellite TV network from September through
October 2005. During the one and a half month
airing of the TV drama, the viewing rate was an

average of 14% in 30 cities of China and accord-
ing to a Chinese survey, there were 16 mil-
lion Chinese residents watching the TV drama
during the Autumn full moon festival holiday
period in 2005 (Kim, Y., 2005). In Hong Kong,
this food-themed drama was aired in 2003 to
2004. The influence of the drama on Hong Kong
society was massive. The viewing rate was
50.2% and the contents of this TV drama were
so profound that there were cartoon books pro-
duced showing the characters and story lines
for Hong Kong children to enjoy (Song, 2007).
Further, Janggeum, the main character of the TV
drama Daejangeum, was listed in a Hong Kong
Primary School’s textbook in an aim of teaching
educational aspects such as etiquette, manners,
wisdom, respect to seniors, loyalty, and pure
love (Song, 2007).
The main goal of this study was to explore
how potential tourists in mainland China per-
ceive Korea after being exposed to the Korean
national food, story lined TV drama series,
Daejangeum. This study consisted of three spe-
cific objectives. The first was to investigate
reasons for preferring Korean food. The second
objective was to identify whether the reasons for
the preference of Korean food have an effect on
the national image of Korea. Third, it was to
analyze whether the reasons for the preference
of Korean food have an effect on the intention
to visit Korea for a food-related tour.
IMPACTS OF TV DRAMAS OR MOVIES
Numerous studies have investigated the

effects of visual media on film-featured
Kim et al. 315
communities in the economic, social, and
cultural contexts. These impacts on the
film-featured community are mostly posi-
tive including the positive economic effects,
enhancement of image, or awareness of the
destination. The economic or financial returns
to the sites that were featured on film have been
introduced by most film tourism studies. These
studies focused on an increase in the number
of tourists, sales of products in shops, new
restaurants, as well as the increase in sales of
products shown on film.
In the 1990s, Japanese popular culture was
swept in to East Asia. Major TV networks
released Japanese TV programs that centered
on miniseries or music and generated Japanese
mania. For example, in Taiwan, it is called Hari,
derived from the word Ha meaning “craving”
and the word Ri which indicates Japan (Huang,
2011). A Hari syndrome expanded to a love
for eating Japanese food, watching Japanese TV
dramas, movies, animation, reading Japanese
books, listening to Japanese songs, and buying
Japanese products (Liou, 2010). The Japanese
movies or TV dramas attracted Taiwanese
tourists to visit Japan in the mid-1990s. For
example, the Japanese romantic movie Love
Letter, which aired in 1995, showed Hokkaido
Island as a major scenic backdrop resulting in

the island becoming a well-known tourism des-
tination (Huang, 2011). Japan has witnessed
the popularity of numerous Japanese animations
such as Conan, Dragon Ball, Galaxy Railway
999, Pocketmon, Doraiemong, and Little Car
Bung Bung. Children who were exposed to these
mega-hits are likely to naturally long to visit
Japan and ultimately travel there.
Some studies (Han & Lee, 2008; Kim,
Agrusa, Lee, & Chon, 2007; Kim, 2010) intro-
duced the effects of Winter Sonata, a Korean
romantic TV drama series, which was a smash
sensation in Asian society, especially, Japan.
The TV drama series provided a momentum
to accommodate 1,435,000 foreign tourists to
Korea from Asian nations. Interestingly, even
though the film backdrops were in Korea, the
economic impact of Winter Sonata was esti-
mated to be US$2 billion in Japan (Hyundai
Economic Research Institute, 2004). The eco-
nomic impact in Japan from this Korean TV
drama by far exceeded US$1 billion that was
reached in Korea (Hyundai Economic Research
Institute, 2004).
As another example of the economic impact
from films comes from the United States with
the State of Georgia which has invited film-
making and TV production to the state over a
number of years resulting in over 450 major
films and TV shows being filmed, which include
such internationally hit movies or TV dramas
as Driving Miss Daisy, Forrest Gump, In the
Heat of the Night, and The Dukes of Hazard.

As a result, more than US$3 billion has been
newly created for the state’s economic contribu-
tion (Poole, 2001). The Frodo Economy, coined
from the success of the Lord of the Rings film,
is worth US$2 billion yearly to New Zealand
tourism industry and is now greater than the
dairy industry, which was one of the coun-
try’s main industries (Beeton, 2010; Buchmann,
2010; Croy, 2010).
Liou’s (2010) study, which replicated
Kim et al.’s (2007) study, examined whether
Japanese TV-dramas had influenced Taiwanese
people. Taiwanese tourists who were visiting
Odaiba Island and Tokyo Tower (Japanese TV
drama-featured locations) were surveyed and
the results found that younger respondents
expressed a more active intention to visit
featured TV drama locations, join fan meeting
events, or purchase TV drama-related products.
Likewise, those in their 20s responded with
more interest in support for fan clubs, Japanese
subtitle services, experiential tourism package
rather than a one-time visit. Additionally, the
results of this study found that those who
like Japanese pop culture more were younger,
female, have more financial means, have star
memberships, and feel happier when viewing
Japanese TV dramas while also reporting a
favorable image change of Japan after watching
the TV dramas.
Huang (2011) compared Japanese mania
(Hari in Chinese) and the Korean wave
(Hallyu in Korean and Hanliu in Chinese) in
Taiwan, which were triggered or augmented

by Taiwanese consumption of Japanese and
Korean media. She commented that the popu-
larity of the TV programs has been connected
to the enhancement of the national brand and
fashionable consumption in Taiwan. The con-
sumption activities expanded to purchasing of
consumer electrical products, tourism, learning
the language, mimicking of lifestyle beyond
purchasing of cultural products such as CDs,
DVDs, comic books, fashion, and food. As a
result, examples of the two nations’ success in
media links cultural globalization go beyond
the geo-cultural barrier, and affected industrial
sectors.
Other destinations from around the world
have used their natural beauty to attract movie
and film studies to use their locations as back-
drops for filming. One country that has benefited
greatly from movie tourism is Austria. Over
40 years after the release of the movie Sound
of Music, which won five Academy Awards, the
most popular tour in Salzburg, Austria is the
Original Sound of Music Tour (Im & Chon,
2008). Another country capitalizing on the pop-
ularity of big screen movie hits such as Brave
Heart with Mel Gibson is Scotland, which also
focused on TV film series. A similar study
by Riley, Baker, and Van Doren (1998) esti-
mated a 43% increase in visitation to 12 U.S.
film locations 5 years after the movie release

of the destination compared to pre-release
history.
Understanding the benefits of showing the
natural beauty of a destination in movies and
film can act as a brand-building vehicle for a
tourist destination, such as Hawaii. As of 2011,
the State of Hawaii, through Act 88, provides a
tax credit to entice movie and TV production to
the state by providing a 15% tax credit on the
island of Oahu, home of Honolulu and a 20%
tax credit on all other Hawaiian islands used
for film production. A number of movies have
recently been filmed in Hawaii such as 50 First
Dates, Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger
Tides, as well as Adam Sandler’s 2011 hit
comedy Just Go With It, starring Jennifer
Aniston.
While a major motion picture filmed at a des-
tination can bring in millions of dollars in direct
production costs and actors’ fees, the benefits
to the location can come for years afterwards.
A TV series, unlike a big screen movie, can pro-
vide weekly reinforcements of a destination’s
appeal on a weekly basis and keep a desti-
nation at the top-of-mind of a viewer which
can do wonders for tourism to that destination
(Beeton, 2010; Croy, 2010; Croy & Heitmann,
2011; Heitmann, 2010). For example, the first
television series to bring images of Hawaii to
the world was Hawaii Five-O in 1968. In 2010,
the remake of the Hawaii Five-O TV series was
launched to raving reviews and was the number
one action drama in the nighttime TV ratings.

Another hit TV series Lost, which was also
filmed on the island of Oahu, had an estimated
$400 million impact on Hawaii’s economy dur-
ing the six seasons of filming according to state
figures (Magin, 2010).
In addition to the economic gains, popu-
lar TV dramas or films generate extra benefits
such as an increase in awareness or image of a
film-exposed destination (Beeton, 2001, 2005,
2008; Buchmann, 2010; Connell, 2005; Croy,
2010; Han & Lee, 2008; Huang, 2011; Im &
Chon, 2008; Kim, 2010; Kim et al., 2007; Kim
et al., 2008; Liou, 2010; Mercille, 2005; Riley &
Van Doren, 1998). There are also some studies
that reported that films and TV programs have
contributed to reconciling antagonistic relations
between two countries and reducing cultural dis-
parity (Han & Lee, 2008; Kim et al., 2007; Kim,
2010).
In sum, previous studies commonly con-
cluded that the role of film and TV is enormous
in numerous aspects. Films or TV dramas con-
tributed to economic gains, reconstruction of the
image of a film destination, as well as propelling
cultural understanding and reducing animosity
between unfriendly nations. As a result, food-
themed featured movies or TV dramas can be an
effective vehicle to mushroom one nation’s cul-
tural or philosophical meaning (Boyne, Hall, &
Williams, 2003; du Rand, Heath, & Alberts,
2003).
CONCEPTUALIZATION

For example, the TV drama Daejanggeum
suggests that Korean cuisine featured in this
Korean TV drama is an important medium to
stimulate the interest in the national culture,
Kim et al. 317
tradition, and history of Korea. This film con-
tributed to the heightening of a national image
and an increase in tourism to the nation
where tourists can taste the cuisine, purchase
souvenirs, participate in agricultural cuisine
tourism activities through visiting farms, dairy
manufacturing, breweries, wineries, and food-
themed tours (Boyne et al., 2003; du Rand
et al., 2003; Hall & Mitchell, 2000; Hjalager &
Corigliano, 2000).
It is easily noticed that advertisements of
foods shown in film can represent and expose a
tourism destination. As a result, food is used as
a promotional tool to attract tourists and stim-
ulate visitation to a destination (du Rand &
Heath, 2006; du Rand et al., 2003; Hjalager &
Corigliano, 2000; Tikkanen, 2007). Specially, as
mentioned above, the effects of the food-themed
TV drama were enormous. It is very plausible
that the media is effective in heightening inter-
est in food and formatting a national image,
resulting in an increase in food-motivated
tourism (Boyne et al., 2003; du Rand et al.,
2003).
Figure 1 illustrates conceptualization of this

study which exhibits relationships between
reasons for preferring Korean foods, national
image of Korea, and as a result, intention to
visit Korea. The cause-effect flow in Figure 1
starts from mainland Chinese residents’ dra-
matic increase in interest in Korean cuisines and
culture deriving from the introduction of the
Daejanggeum drama series. As a next step in
this relationship, reasons for preferring Korean
cuisine are likely to lead to an enhancement
of the Korean national image and intention
to visit Korea for food tourism. On the basis
of the aforementioned reasoning, the following
hypotheses were established:
Hypothesis 1: Factors for preferring Korean
food are likely to positively affect the
national image of Korea.
Hypothesis 1-1: The “healthy menu” factor
is likely to positively affect the national
image of Korea.
Hypothesis 1-2: “Peculiarity of Korean cul-
ture” factor is likely to positively affect the
Hypothesis 1-3: “Variety and harmony” fac-
tors are likely to positively affect the
FIGURE 1. Proposed Structural Model
Reasons for
preferring Korean

food
Peculiarity of
Korean food
culture (ξ2)
Healthy
menu (ξ1)
Variety and
harmony
(ξ3)
Intention to visit
Korea for food
tourism (η2)
Perception of
national image
(η1)
Hypothesis 1-1 (γ11)
Hypothesis 3 (β21)

Hypothesis 2: Factors for preferring Korean
food are likely to positively affect the inten-
tion to visit Korea for food tourism.
Hypothesis 2-1: “Healthy menu” factor is
likely to positively affect the intention to
visit Korea for food tourism.
Hypothesis 2-2: “Peculiarity of Korean cul-
ture” factor is likely to positively affect the
intention to visit Korea for food tourism.
Hypothesis 2-3: “Variety and harmony” fac-
tors are likely to positively affect the inten-
tion to visit Korea for food tourism.
Hypothesis 3: The national image of Korea
is likely to positively affect the intention to
visit Korea for food tourism.
METHODS
Measurement
A pivotal measurement of the question-
naire was to identify the reasons for preferring
Korean cuisine by mainland Chinese residents.
Thus, this study focused on the development
of questionnaire items indicating reasons for
preferring Korean cuisine. At first, to guaran-
tee face validity, a review of previous stud-

ies on Korean food characteristics were com-
pleted (Kim & Kim, 2004; Kim, J., 2005; Ju &
Kennon, 2002; Min, 2003). In addition, articles
or commentaries describing the popularity of
Korean food released in the mass media were
also reviewed (Korea Economy, 2005; “Korea
Town,” 2005, “‘Daejanggeum’ Fever,” 2006;
“‘Daejanggeum’: The Power,” 2006). Questions
asking the national image of Korea and the
intention to visit Korea for food tourism were
an area of focus.
For this study, all questions were written in
Chinese; however, the original survey instru-
ment was written in Korean. In designing the
questionnaires, the double translation method
(back translation) was utilized prior to distribu-
tion. (McGorry, 2000). Even though occasions
exist where the literal translation process may
have missing information, the double translation
method is one of the most adequate translation
processes (Lau & McKercher, 2004).
The Korean version of the questionnaire was
first translated into Chinese by a Chinese grad-
uate student studying in Korea and reviewed
by three Korean researchers who majored in
Chinese to check for any mistranslations. Then,
to guarantee the accuracy of the translated ver-
sions of the questionnaires, a reverse translation
(where the Chinese version was translated into
a Korean version) was processed by the four
independent bilingual individuals who partici-
pated in translation and reviewing. Finally, the
Korean version is translated back into Chinese
addressing any inconsistencies.

As a final step, to avoid any ambiguity in the
questions, and to ensure that all of the ques-
tions written on the survey instrument were
clearly understood, the questionnaire was pre-
tested by 25 mainland Chinese graduate students
who studied in Hong Kong prior to the data
collection.
Questions, which indicate “reasons of prefer-
ence for Korean food,” consisted of 12 items.
Respondents were requested to answer on a
5-point Likert-type scale where 1 = strongly
disagree, 2 = somewhat disagree, 3 = neutral,
4 = somewhat agree, and 5 = strongly agree.
To assess if there was a change in the image of
Korea after experiencing Korean food, a ques-
tion labeled “after experiencing Korean food,
how has your image of Korea changed?” was
operationalized. A response of the image change
question was answered on a 5-point Likert-type
scale where 1 = became very unfavorable, 2 =
became somewhat unfavorable, 3 = unchanged,
4 = became somewhat favorable, and 5 =
became very favorable. A question to measure
the respondents’ intention to visit Korea for
food tourism was worded as “after experiencing
Korean food, has your intention to visit Korea
for food tourism increased?” Respondents were
requested to check on a 5-point Likert-type scale
where 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = somewhat dis-
agree, 3 = neutral, 4 = somewhat agree, 5 =
strongly agree.
Data Collection

The data collection was carried out at five
Korean restaurants in the major Chinese cities of
Shanghai and Beijing. To conduct the surveys,
Kim et al. 319
endorsement from the restaurant owners was
requested and granted. The owners of the
Korean restaurants were persuaded to cooperate
with the data collection through an explana-
tion that the research being conducted is to
try to understand Chinese diner preferences
for Korean food and their characteristics. The
researchers also promised to share the results of
the research to the restaurant owners.
Surveys were collected by post-graduate stu-
dents in Shanghai and Beijing as well as
employees working in the Korean restaurants.
A total of 630 questionnaires were distributed,
with a total of 600 questionnaires being gar-
nered. However, of those collected, 23 ques-
tionnaires with multiple missing values were
eliminated, resulting in 577 questionnaires that
were used for data analyses.
Data Analysis
A frequency analysis was initially attempted
to explore general profiles of the respondents.
Since the instrument requested the reasons for
their preference of “Korean food” consists of
14 items, an exploratory factor analysis was
conducted to identify the underlying dimensions

of scale. In this stage, reliability coefficients
were also checked to measure the internal con-
sistency among the items. Then a confirmatory
factor analysis was undertaken to identify vari-
ous validities. Finally, structural equation mod-
eling (SEM) was applied to assess if the hypoth-
esized theoretical model was consistent with the
collected data. Results of all data analyses were
gained using SPSS 13.0 and AMOS 5.0 (SPSS,
Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).
RESULTS
Demographic Profile of Respondents
Table 1 shows the demographic profile of
the respondents. Approximately 53% of respon-
dents were females, whereas about 58% of them
were single. Those in their 20s and 30s age cat-
egories indicated 57.8 and 26.5%, respectively.
Approximately 85% of the respondents reported
that this was their first visit to a Korean restau-
rant. Regarding information sources of Korea
and Korean food, TV/radio was 63%, while
newspaper/magazine was 17.6%. With regard
to a question asking about annual expenditure
in buying products or participating in activi-
ties such as Korean CDs or magazines, Korean
food, Korean singers’ concert tickets, study-
ing Korean language—over 501 RMB (20.8%),
101–500 RMB (26.9%), 51–100 RMB (22.3%),
11–40 RMB (14.9%), and 10 RMB or less
(15.1%). The highest percentages of a monthly
household income fell on 2,500–4,999 RMB
category (30.7%) and 5,000–9,999 RMB cate-

gory (24.2%). As for education, almost 90% of
the respondents reported they are college stu-
dents or are graduates of college. Respondents’
occupation consisted of students (26.6%), pro-
fessionals (13.2%), sales/service (10.2%), and
civil servants (8.9%).
Factor Analysis and Reliability Test
Table 2 presents results of factor analysis
and reliability tests designed to acquire the
reason for preferring Korean food. Results of
the factor analysis reported three underlying
domains where eigenvalues were greater than
1.0. A principal component method to gener-
ate the underlying factors was employed. The
rotation method used for the factor analysis was
“varimax” which attempts to maximize vari-
ances of the factor loadings in a certain predeter-
mined fashion. Based on the result of the scree
plot test, the eigenvalues for the three factors
were greater than 1.0. The three-factor structure
accounted for 61.00% of the variance.
Results of testing reliability within the three
domains reported .86, .82, and .83, which met
the criterion recommended by Nunnally (1978),
which indicated .70, they were considered to
have the internal consistency of items on each
domain. In addition, factor loadings, which
measure the correlation between the observed
measurements and the factors, were greater than
.58 on the three domains. Values of the factor
loadings were satisfactory with the criterion of
Comrey and Lee (1992), which suggested that
factor loadings greater than .45 can be classified

as fair or above in interpreting the derived fac-
tors. The mean values for the 14 items ranged
from 3.43 to 3.84, respectively.
TABLE 1. Demographic Profile (N = 577)
Variable Category % Variable Category %
Sex Male 46.8 Annual expenditure in buying
Korean cultural products
10 RMB or less 15.1
Female 53.2 11–40 RMB 14.9
Marital status Single 41.6 51–100 RMB 22.3
Married 58.4 101–500 RMB 26.9
501 RMB or above 20.8
Age 10s 3.5 Monthly household income 400 RMB or less 3.2
20s 57.8 400–1,499 RMB 11.2
30s 26.5 1,500–2,499 RMB 17.9
40s 9.8 2,500–4,999 RMB 30.7
50s or above 2.4 5,000–9,999 RMB 24.2
10,000–19,999 RMB 8.9
20,000 RMB or above 3.9
Frequency of visit to a
Korean restaurant
1st 84.9 Education Elementary school .3

2nd 9.2 Middle school 2.6
3rd 3.4 High school 7.7
4th 9.2 College student 34.1
5th or above 1.3 College graduate 55.3
Information sources of
Korea and Korean food
TV/radio 62.6 Occupation Company employee 6.6
Newspaper/magazine 17.6 Business 2.6
Internet 12.3 Civil servant 8.9
Theater 5.2 Agriculture/fishery 1.6
Restaurant 1.6 Professional 13.2
Others .7 Housewife 5.2
Technician 5.9
Student 26.6
Sales/service 10.2
Teacher 4.5
Transportation 2.1
Others 12.6
TABLE 2. Results of Factor Analysis Regarding the Reasons for
Preferring Korean Food (N = 577)
Items Factor
loading
Mean Variance
(%)
Factor 1: Healthy menu (reliability alpha = .86)
Because of low calories (Item 7) .75 3.73
Because of balanced nutrients of carbohydrate, protein, and fat
(Item 6) .71 3.78
Because of few food materials in Korean food (Item 5) .69 3.76

22.76
Because of the good diet due to a range of vegetables (Item 4)
.66 3.80
Because of taking in other side dishes with rice (Item 8) .62
3.84
Because of healthy food (Item 3) .58 3.79
Factor 2: Peculiarity of Korean food culture (reliability alpha =
.82)
Because of feeling high class with a lot of efforts unlike instant
food (Item 15) .79 3.49
Because of appropriate price (Item 14) .75 3.44
Because of providing beautiful combination due to diverse food
(Item 16) .69 3.72 22.33
Because of the Korean TV drama series, Daejanggeum (Item 11)
.59 3.76
Because of feeling a familiarity with Asian food compared to
Western food (Item 13) .56 3.68
Because of experiencing traditional culture through Korean food
(Item 12) .56 3.74
Factor 3: Variety & harmony (reliability alpha = .83)
Because of diverse food ingredients (Item 1) .85 3.43 15.91
Because of offering various presentations (Item 2) .83 3.72
Note. Items were measured on 5-point Likert scales (strongly
disagree = 1, neutral = 3, strongly agree = 5).
Kim et al. 321
Results of Confirmatory Factor Analyses
and Measurement Invariance Tests
After exploratory factor analysis, a

confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was con-
ducted to guarantee the proposed measurement
model, which specifies the posited relations of
the observed variables to the latent constructs.
In CFA, the maximum likelihood method of
estimation was used to test the model.
In Table 3, results of conducting the CFA
analysis reported that goodness-of-fit indices
(GIF) were satisfactory, indicating GFI = .92,
adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI) = .89,
comparative fit index (CFI) = .93, root
mean residual (RMR) = .08, and root mean
square error of approximation (RMSEA) =
.07. However, the chi-square value—χ2(97) =
386.31, p = .000—was not met with the indices.
As most researchers suggest that since the chi-
square is sensitive to the sample size, other fit
indices are substantially helpful in evaluating
the model.
According to Hair, Anderson, Tatham, and
Black (1998), discriminant validity indicates the
extent to which a given construct is different
from other constructs. The average variance
extracted (AVE) for each construct to assess
the discriminant validity is compared to the
squared correlations between the construct and
all other constructs. When the AVE for each
construct is greater than the squared correlations
between the construct and all other constructs,
there exists the discriminant validity (Fornell &
Larcker, 1981). As Table 4 suggests, the low-
est AVE value was shown as .47, whereas the
highest squared correlation between each pair of

constructs was .46. Since the lowest AVE value
was greater than the highest squared correlation,
this measurement model evidenced discriminant
validity.
Structural Equation Model
A structural equation model (SEM) with the
maximum likelihood method of estimation was
empirically tested to analyze if the hypoth-
esized theoretical model was consistent with
the collected data. The covariance matrix was
input to further test the hypothesized struc-
tural model. Table 5 indicates the GFI for the
hypothesized structural model. With the excep-
tion of the chi-square value—χ2(96) = 264.15,
p = .000—the GFI were satisfactory, indicating
TABLE 3. Results of Confirmatory Factor Analyses
Construct Items Factor loading t value SMC AVEb CCRc
Healthy menu 7 .63 13.94 .39 .54 .88
6 .74 16.07 .45
5 .73 15.92 .52
4 .74 16.11 .53
8 .62 13.69 .44
3 .71 –a
Peculiarity of Korean food culture 15 .74 14.50 .31 .47 .84
14 .71 14.06 .30
16 .72 14.20 .26
11 .58 12.02 .43
13 .59 12.22 .30
12 .65 -a

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