TYPES OF RESEARCH

1. RESEARCH

2. UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION
Research :
Definition:
Research is a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem
- Burns, 1994
Research is the process of looking for a specific answer to a specific question
in an organized, objective reliable way
- Payton, 1979
Research is a scientific method which is all about finding or searching
systematically for solutions to problems.

3. CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH
1. Systematic and logical
Research involves carrying out various tasks to answer the
questions in a logical and systematic manner. It makes
research more meaningful in the context of decision
making.
2. Critical Scrutiny
The various procedures, methods and techniques used in
research are critically scrutinized before hand to prevent
untoward happenings during the process of research

4. 3. Answer Research Questions
Research is directed towards identifying various solutions to a problem or
answers to research questions.
4. Expands body of knowledge
The ultimate goal of research is to develop, refine and expand body of
knowledge. It predicts future occurrences which are useful in decision
making.

5. 5. Rigorous Analysis
Research activities are characterized by carefully designed procedures that
are relevant, appropriate and justified by applying rigorous analysis
6. Empirical evidence
Research is always based on observable experience or empirical evidence,
that is, the conclusions drawn are based upon evidence gathered from real
life experiences or observations.

6. 7. Require expertise
Researcher should be skilled to carry out the project, search the relevant
literature to understand what is already known about a phenomena in and
identify newer ways to understand and analyze information collected.
8. Valid and verifiable
Conclusions drawn from the research must be valid and testable. The
procedural design should be planned carefully to permit objectivity as far
possible so that it is verifiable by the researcher himself or by others later.
Thereby, it builds sound basis for decision.

7. TERMINOLOGY
1. Abstract: A clear, concise summary of a study that communicates the
essential information about the study.
2. Data: Units of information or any statistics, facts, figures, general material,
evidence or knowledge collected during the course of the study.
3. Variables: Characteristics that can have more than one value, such as
height, weight.
4. Concept: A word picture or mental idea of a phenomena.
5. Assumption: Basic principle that is accepted as being true on the basis of
logic or reason, without proof or verification
6. Hypothesis: A statement of the predicted relationship between two or
more variables in a research study

8. 7. Population: The entire set of individuals or objects having some common
characteristics selected for a research study.
8. Sample: A part or subset of population selected to participate in research study.
9. Sampling: The process of selecting sample from the target population to represent
the entire population.
10. Reliability: The degree of consistency or accuracy with which an instrument
measures the attribute it is designed to measure.
11. Validity: The degree to which an instrument measures what it is intended to
measure.
12. Pilot study: Study carried out at the end of the planning phase of research in order
to explore and test the research elements to make relevant modifications in research
tools and methodology.

9. 9. Confidentiality
There should be adequate measure to protect the integrity of information
gathered from the subjects. Confidentiality and honesty should be maintained
in the light of ethics. Research activities should be carefully documented and
repeated with scholarly caution and restraints.
10. Flexibility
Researchers use flexible approaches to get closer to truth or the essence of
the of the phenomena.

10. NURSING RESEARCH
Definition:
Nursing research is a scientific practices that validates
and refines existing knowledge and generates new
knowledge that directly influences nursing practice.
Nursing research is a systematic approach to examine
phenomena important to nursing and nurses.

11. NEED FOR NURSING RESEARCH
Nursing is a profession which is accountable for providing quality care to
client and families. Quality of nursing care can be improved by providing
care based on scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge for practice can
be generated through research. The need for nursing research includes
the following:

12. • Decision making
• Scientific basis for practice
• Improve quality of client care
• Professional development
• Fill the gap between knowledge and practice
• Fosters accountability, commitment and
professionalism
• Generates, refines or enlarges nursing knowledge
• Improves quality of nursing education

13. IMPORTANCE OF NURSING RESEARCH
Research must be an integral part of nursing. It provides the power to
nurses to be professional and develop, define and refine nursing
knowledge for providing effective patient care, nursing education and
administration.
Some of the facts that prove the importance of nursing research are as
follows:
1. The development and utilization of nursing knowledge is essential for
continued development in patient care; nurse can develop or refine this
knowledge by the help of nursing research.

14. 2. Nurses need to get involved in research because the cost of care is
increasing day by day. Therefore, they must find solution for cost-
effective care through research.
3. Research also helps nurses to eliminate nursing actions that do not
achieve desired care outcome for patients. Furthermore, nursing
research findings may help nurses to identify the practices that improve
health care outcome of patients and remain cost-effective.
4. Nursing research is essential for nurses to understand the varied
dimensions of their profession.
5. Another major reason for which nurses must get involved in research is
rapid advancement in medical science and technology; to keep pace
with this advancement, nurses must conduct research to learn about
efficacy of particular technology in reference to positive patient
outcome.

15. TYPES OF RESEARCH
Research is classified based on either an approach of
studying the variable or the purpose of conducting
the research.
These classification are as follows:
1. Quantitative Research and Qualitative Research
2. Basic Research and Applied Research

16. 1. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
It is an inquiry into an identified problem, based on testing a theory
composed of variables, measured with numbers and analysed using
statistical techniques. In this type of research, data is collected in numerical
form and analysed by using descriptive or inferential statistics. Quantitative
research involves analysis of numerical data.

17. 2. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research is a field of inquiry that crosscuts
disciplines and subject matter. It involves an in-depth
understanding of human behaviour and the reasons
that govern human behaviour. Here, data is collected in
descriptive form rather than numerical form and
analysed by descriptive coding, indexing and
narrations. Qualitative research involves analysis of data
such as words, pictures or objects.

18. 1. BASIC RESEARCH
It is performed without a specific purpose in mind. Rather, it is primarily concerned
with generation of new knowledge. It is used to generate and expand theories that
describe, explain or predict a phenomenon of interest to the discipline without
regard to its immediate use.
Basic research is usually carried out for some of the following aims:
1. Gather and generate information.
2. Expand the body of knowledge to improve understanding about a discipline.
3. Develop or refine theories and principles.

19. 2. APPLIED RESEARCH
The term applied research refers to those studies which have functional
purposes and practical use or application. They focus on finding am
immediate solution to an existing problem. In this, the researcher scientifically
collects data to be used in clinical, administrative or instructional area to find
solution to the problem and evaluate practices and identifies needs of the
patient. Applied research may be conducted to resolve a number of issues,
some of which are as follows:
• Solve problems
• Make decisions
• Evaluate something of interest
• Develop something new for immediate use.

21. UNIT – II
RESEARCH PROCESS
Definition: The various tasks, decisions and
actions carried out by the researcher to
find answers to the research question are
known as research process.

42. UNIT - III
RESEARCH PROBLEM
As human beings we are curious about the unknown. We ask
many questions and try to find out answers to them. Questions
are the heart of research. The formulation of research
questions is fundamental to the research. It helps the
researcher to clarify in his or her mind those questions which
need to be answered. The research problem serves as the
foundation of a research study.

43. DEFINITION
A research problem is an enigmatic, perplexing or
troubling condition. The primary purpose of research
is to solve the problem or to contribute to its solution
by accumulating relevant information.
A problem statement is a clear, concise description of
the issues that need to be addressed by the
researcher and should be presented or created by the
researcher, before he/she tries to solve the problem.
Research questions are the specific queries researcher
wants to answer in addressing the research problem.

44. SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
1. Experience
The nurses everyday experience provides a rich supply of problems for
investigations.
2. Nursing Literature
Ideas from studying books and articles related to the subject of interest may
trigger pertinent questions in our mind.
3. Social Issues
Global social issues of relevance to the health care community suggest the
problem area, e.g., domestic violence, gender inequity
4. Political Climate
The political climate which places emphasis on cost containment and
improving the standards of health has provided many avenues for
research.

45. 5. Theories
Verification of an untested nursing theory provides a relatively uncharted territory from
which research problems can be derived.
6. Ideas from external sources
Researchers, administrators, nurses, nursing faculties or field visits will help a
researcher to identify meaningful problems for research.
7. Intuition
Sometimes new ideas may strike to one’s mind like a flash. Reflective mind is a spring
of knowledge.
8. Research
Research on one problem may suggest problems for further research.

46. 9. Brainstorming
Intensified discussion with a group of interested persons may often been a means of
identifying pertinent questions and of developing new ideas about a problem.
10. Practical needs
Clinical practice provides a wealth of experience from which research problems can be
derived.

47. 11. Empirical interest
Sudden awareness or insight of something that has not been noticed or noticing things
in a different way is another source of research.
12. Popular conceptions.
While taking care of health, certain traditional practices have been practiced according
to their cultural belief or certain old practices of the new world. Numerous beliefs
guide nursing practice, and they need to be examined through research.

48. CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM
• The problem should be original, while selecting research problem novelty should be
maintained.
• The problem should be neither narrow nor vague.
• The problem should be significant, useful and socially relevant.
• The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related
research material or sources of research are within one’s reach.
• The problem should be suitable for a particular researcher to study.
• It should specify the nature of the population to be studied.

49. • The problem should be stated clearly and unambiguously either in a declarative or
interrogative form.
• The problem should express the relationship between two or more variables.
• Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
• The problem should be interesting for the researcher himself. His interest should be
purely intellectual and should not be only for a reward or material benefit.
• Every research activity needs the patronage of a guide and the approval and sanction
of competent authority. There should be possibility of guidance from experts.

50. STEPS IN THE FORMULATION OF A RESEARCH
PROBLEM
Selection of a research
topic
Reviewing the literature
and theories
Delimiting the research
topic
Evaluating the research
problem
Formulating final statement
of research problem

51. 1. SELECTION OFA RESEARCH AREA
It begins with selection of a broad research topic from
personal experience, literature, previous research and
theories in which researcher is interested and has
significance for nursing profession. For example, a
researcher gets an idea to conduct a study on the
female feticide. Therefore, he or she initially begins
with such broad research topic.

52. 2. REVIEWING LITERATURE AND
THEORIES
After getting a broad idea for research, he or she needs
to review the nursing literature and theories. Literature
is reviewed to know what has already been done in
this selected area of research. Therefore, a researcher
can plan a research topic to further expand the existing
body of knowledge area in respective area of research.

53. 3. DELIMITING THE RESEARCH TOPIC
In this step, researcher proceeds from a general research area of interest to more specific
topic of research to conduct a study. For example, initially a researcher decides to
conduct a study on female feticide, later in this stage researcher limits it to specific
research topic ‘ a study on perception of women about causes and prevention of female
feticide in selected rural communities of district Shimoga, Karnataka. In this stage, a
researcher clearly identifies variables, population, and setting of research study.
Furthermore, at this stage, a researcher is quite clear about the phenomenon to be
studied, where and on whom.

54. 4. EVALUATING THE RESEARCH
PROBLEM
Once researcher is clear about the specific research
problem, next the research problem must be carefully
evaluated for its significance, researchibility and
feasibility. Feasibility of the research problem should
be evaluated for time, cost, availability of subjects and
resources, administrative and peer support, ethical
consideration and researchers competence and interest.

55. 5. FORMULATING FINAL STATEMENT OF
RESEARCH PROBLEM
After establishing the significance, reserachibility and feasibility,
then researcher finally formulates a final statement of a research
problem.
A statement of research problem could be in declarative or
interrogative format.
1. DECLARATIVE FORMAT:
A descriptive study on prevalence of bedsores among unconscious
patients admitted in intensive care units of PGIMER,
Chandigarh.
An exploratory study on contributing factors of maternal
mortality in selected rural communities of district Ludhiana,
Punjab.

56. 2. INTERROGATIVE FORMAT:
What is the influence of the level of haemoglobin on
site infection among patients with external skeletal
fixators admitted in orthopaedic wards of AIIMS, New
Delhi?

57. FORMATS OF FORMATTING PROBLEM
It can be formatted in three ways as:
1. Declarative statement
2. Interrogative statement
3. Hypothetical statement

58. 1. DECLARATIVE STATEMENT
It includes information about what the researcher
intends to do (describe) the settings of the study and
the subject of the study, e.g., A study to describe the
effect of guided imagery on reducing pain for
postoperative clients in the hospital setting.

59. 2. INTERROGATIVE STATEMENT
It is written as a question. So the purpose of the study
is to answer the questions. E.g., What is the
relationship between the dependency level of CABG
clients and their rate of recovery?

60. 3. HYPOTHETICAL STATEMENT
It is stated in a testable form and that predicts a particular
relationship between 2 and more variables, e.g., Primi woman
who receive individualized instruction on breastfeeding will
have significantly more successful breastfeeding experience in
their home setting, than woman who receive structured group
instruction on breastfeeding.

61. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A literature review is an account of what has been already
established or published on a particular research topic by
accredited scholars and researchers.

62. IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW
Literature reviews provide a handy guide to a particular topic. For
professionals, they are useful reports that keep them up-to-date
with what is current in the field.
For scholars, the depth and breadth of the literature review
emphasizes the credibility of the writers in their respective fields.
Literature reviews also provide a solid background for a research
study.

63. REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE CAN HELP IN
FULFILMENT OF THE FOLLOWING OBJECTIVES:
• Identification of a research problem and development of research questions.
• Generation of useful research question or projects / activities for the discipline.
• Development of hypothesis to be tested in a research study.
• Helps in planning the methodology of the present research study.
• It also helps in development of research instruments.
• Identifications of suitable design and data collection methods for a research study.
• Identification of suitable design and data collection methods for a research study,
• Discovery of unanswered questions about subjects, concepts or problems.

64. PURPOSE OF LITERATURE REVIEW
The purpose of a literature review is to convey to the render previous
knowledge and facts established on a topic, and their strengths and
weaknesses. The literature review allows the reader to be updated with the
state of research in a field and any contraindications that may exist which
challenge findings of other research studies.
Besides enhancing researcher’s knowledge about the topic, writing a literature
review helps to:
•Describe the relationship of each study to other research studies under
considerations.

65. •Identify new ways to interpret and shed light on any gaps in previous research.
•Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
•Point a way forward for further research.
•See what has and has not been investigated.
• Identify potential relationships between concepts and to identify researchable
hypothesis.
• Learn how others have defined and measured key concepts.
• Identify data sources that other researchers have used.
• Develop how a research project is related to the work of others.

66. SOURCES OF LITERATURE REVIEW
PRIMARY SOURCES
Literature review mostly relies on primary sources i.e.,
research reports, which are description of studies written by
researchers who conducted them.
A primary source is written by a person who developed the
theory or conducted the research, or is the description of an
investigation written by the person who conducted it.
Most primary sources are found in published literature; for
example, a nursing research article.

67. SECONDARY SOURCES
Secondary source research documents are description of
studies prepared by someone other than the original
researcher. They are written by people other than the
individuals who developed the theory or conducted the
research. The secondary sources may be used when primary
sources are not available or if researchers want external
opinions on an issue or problem or even the results of their
own research.

68. THE MAIN SOURCES FROM WHERE LITERATURE CAN
BE SEARCHED ARE AS FOLLOWS:
Resources
of
literature
review
Magazines
and
newspaper
Electronic
database
Books
Journals
Conferenc
e papers
Theses
Encyclopaedia
and dictionary
Research
reports

69. OTHER SOURCES
1. Electronic sources
 CINAHL (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature)
 MEDLINE (Medical Literature Analysis and Retrived System Online)
 PubMed
 MedlinePlus
 Registry of Nursing Research
 Cochrane Database of System Reviews
 ERIC
 PsycINFO
 Dissertation abstracts online
 Online Journals
 http://www.nursefriendly.com/nursing/linksections/nursingjournal.html
 http://www.nsna.org
 http://www.healthweb.org
 http://www.ispub.com/ostia/index.php

70. • Cancer Lit
• EMBASE (Exerpta Medica Database)
• ETOH (Alcohol and alcohol problems science database)
• Health STAR (Health services technology administration and
research)
• Radix (Nursing and managed care database)
• CD-ROM (Compact disc-read only memory) with research
database

71. 2. PRINTED SOURCES
1. Journal
Names of national nursing journals
 Nursing and midwifery research journal
 Indian journal of nursing and midwifery
 The nursing journal of India
 Nightingale nursing times
 International journal of nursing education
 Indian journal of nursing studies

72. NAME OF INTERNATIONAL JOURNALS
• Nursing research
• Research in nursing and health
• Nursing sciences quarterly
• Western journal of nursing research
• Applied nursing research
• Biological research for nursing
• Advances in nursing sciences
• Clinical nursing research
• Worldviews on Evidence – Based Nursing
• Journal of Qualitative Research
• American Journal of Nursing
• International journal of nursing studies

73. STEPS OF LITERATURE REVIEW
Stage I – Annotated Bibliography
At this stage, researcher read articles, books and other types of
literature related to the topic of research and write a brief critical
synopsis of each review. After going through the reading list,
researcher will have an annotation of each source of related literature.
Later, annotation are likely to include more references of other work
since previous readings will be available to compare, but at this point
the important goal is to get accurate critical summarization of
individual works.

74. STAGE II – THEMATIC ORGANIZATION
At this stage, researchers try to find common themes of
research topic and organize the literature under these themes,
subthemes or categories. Here, researchers try to organize
literature under themes, which relate to each other and are
arranged in a chronological manner. Furthermore, researchers
try to establish coherence between themes and literature
discussed under these themes.

75. STAGE III – MORE READING
Based on the knowledge gained through primary reading,
researchers have a better understanding about the research topic
and the literature related to it. At this stage, researchers try to
discover specific literature materials relevant to the field of study
or research methodologies which are more relevant for their
research. They look for more literature by those authors, on those
methodologies, etc. Also, the researchers may be able to set aside
some less relevant areas or articles which they pursued initially.
They integrate the new readings into their literature review draft,
reorganize themes and read more as appropriate

76. STAGE IV –WRITE INDIVIDUAL SECTIONS
At this stage, researchers start writing the literature under each thematic section by
using previously collected drafts of annotations. Here they organize the related articles
under each theme by ensuring that every article is related to each other. Furthermore,
related articles may be grouped together by ensuring the coherence between different
segments of the literature abstracts. For each thematic section, draft annotations are
used (it is a good idea to reread the articles and revise annotations, especially the ones
read initially) to write a section which discusses the articles relevant to that theme.
While writing reviews, the researchers focus on the theme of that section, showing how
the articles relate to each other.

77. STAGE V – INTEGRATE SECTION
In this section, researchers have a list of the thematic
sections and they tie them together with an
introduction, conclusion , and some additions and
revisions in the sections to show how they relate to
each other and to the overall theme.

78. POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR LITERATURE
REVIEW
• Be specific and be succinct
• Be selective
• Focus of current topics
• Ensure evidence for claims
• Focus on sources of evidences
• Account of contrary evidences
• Reference citation
• Organization of literature review
• Refering original source
• Avoid abbreviations

79. VARIABLES
DEFINITION :
A variable is a characteristics of a person, object or phenomenon which can take on
different values, e.g., age, weight, monthly income etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF VARAIBLES
A variable can be classified in a number of ways based on
• Form of presentation.
• Casual relationship.
• Design of the study.

80. I. BASED ON FORMS OF PRESENTATION
The variables can be classified as numerical and non-numerical variables
1. Numerical Variable
A simple example of a variable in the form of numbers is a person’s ‘weight’. It can
take on different values, since a person can have 65 kgs, 40kgs weight and so on.
Other examples are:
• Age in years
• Monthly income
• Number of children
Because the values of all these variables are expressed in number it is called as
numerical variables

81. Numerical variable can be continuous or discrete.
Continuous variables are the one which are represented in a
continuum and can assume decimal values between 2
points, e.g. Height in cm (2.5cm), temperature in degree
Celsius (37.2˚C) .
By contrast, a discrete variable is one which has a finite
number of values between any points, representing discrete
quantities, e.g., number of children (1,2,3 etc.) number of
visits to a clinic (1,2,3, etc).

82. NON – NUMERICAL VARIABLE
Some variables may be expressed in categories. For example, the variable sex has 2
distinct groups as male and female. Since these variables are expressed in categories, it
is called as categorical or non numerical variable.
It is further classified based on the:
1. Number of variables
• Constant
• Dichotomous
• Polytomous

83. 2. Order or ranking of variables
When a variable can have only one value or category, it is known as constant variable.
Example: taxi, tree, water. When the variable has two categories as yes/no, good/bad,
rich/poor; it is known as dichotomous variable. When a variable is divided into more
than two categories, it is called as polytomous variables. Example religion (Christian,
Islam, Sikh, Hindu).
In ordinal type, the variables are ordered or ranked in increasing or decreasing order.
Example: low income, middle income, high income. The variables, which do not have
an order or rank in them is called nominal variable. Example (sex-male or female).

84. BASED ON CASUAL RELATIONSHIP
Based on the possible causes of problems and its association between variables, the
variables are classified as:
1. Independent variable : The variables that are used to describe or measure the
factors that are assumed to cause or at least to influence the problem are called the
independent variable.
2. Dependent variable: The variable that is used to describe or measure the problem
under the study is called dependent variable.

85. 3. Extraneous variable: The factors not measured in the study, may increase or
decrease the magnitude or strength of the relationship between independent
variable and dependent variable. Environmental variable is a type of extraneous
variable which comprise of the setting in which the study is conducted. Example:
climate, family, healthcare system and governmental organization. Measures should
be taken tom control these extraneous variable from affecting the study.
4. Intervening variable: It is also called as confounding variable which links the
independent variable and dependent variable. It may strengthens the relationship
between the problem and possible outcome

86. BASED ON DESIGN OF THE STUDY
Based on the design of the study, the variables can be classified as
active and attribute variables.
1. Active variables: Those variables that can be manipulated
changed or controlled. Example: experimental intervention,
different teaching method(planned teaching programme, self
instruction modules).
2. Attribute variables: Those variables that cannot be
manipulated, changed or controlled and that reflect the
characteristics of the study population.
Example: age, gender, religion.

87. HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is a formal statement of the expected
relationships between two or more variables in a a
specified population.
OR
It is the relationship between 2 or more variables that
can be accepted or rejected.

88. CHARACTERISTICS OF A HYPOTHESIS
1. State the relationship between variables
Hypothesis states the expected relationship between the independent variable and the
dependent variable within a population.
2. Clarity
Hypothesis should be precise, specific and conceptually clear. It should be operationally
defined.
3. Uni – dimensional
It should test only one relationship at a time.
4. Justifiable
It should be based on sound justifiable rationales. Mostly hypotheses are formulated from
previous research findings. When a relatively new area is being investigated, the
researcher may have to turn to logical reasoning or personal experience to justify the
predictions.

89. 5. Testable or verifiable
A hypothesis should be testable or verifiable. Methods and techniques must be available
for data collection and analysis. It should be testable with in a reasonable time.
6. Simple and brief
The hypothesis should be simple and brief, so that it is understandable by all concerned.
It would help in between understanding of the underlying concept and meaning.
7. Related to body of knowledge and theory
Hypothesis should emerge from the existing body of knowledge and theory and then it
should add to it.
8. It should be operationalizable
Hypothesis should be operationalizable. It should be expressed in measurable terms and
should have elucidating power. If it cannot be measured, it cannot be tested and
hence, no conclusions can be drawn .

90. FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHESIS
• It expresses the relationship between the variables in such a
way that it can be empirically tested.
• It gives direction to an investigation.
• It guides the thinking process and the process of discovery.
• It acts as a framework for drawing conclusions.

91. TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
It can be classified as:
• Based on origin: Inductive and deductive hypothesis
• Based on formulation: Research and deductive hypothesis
• Based on anticipated relationship: Directional and non-directional
hypothesis.
• Based on complexity: Simple and complex hypothesis.
• Based on cause and effect: Associative and casual hypothesis.
• Based on cause and effect relationship: Associative and casual
hypothesis.

92. BASED ON THE ORIGIN
1. Inductive Hypothesis
It begins with specific observation and move towards generalizations. Generalizations
are based on observed relationships. Researchers observe certain patterns, trends or
associations among phenomena and then use these observations as the basis for
predictions and formation of hypothesis.
2. Deductive hypothesis
It means deriving specific statements from general ideas, theories or principles. Specific
predictions derived from general principles can be subjected to testing through
collection of observed data. If the data matches with the hypothesized outcome then the
theory is strengthened.

93. BASED ON THE FORMULATION
1. Research hypothesis
These are the statements of expected relationship between the variables. It indicates
researcher’s actual expectations. It is also referred as substantive, declarative or
scientific hypothesis.
2. Null Hypothesis
It states that there is no relationship between the dependent and independent variable. It
is also known as statistical hypothesis.

94. BASED ON THE ANTICIPATED RELATIONSHIP
1. Directional hypothesis
It specifies the expected relationship between the variables. While stating the
hypothesis in directional form, state whether the expected association is ‘positive’ or
‘negative’
- Positive (direct): The two variables move together and down in synch
- For example, Obesity increases the risk of heart disease.
- Negative (inverse): The two variables travel in opposite direction.
- For example. The risk of heart disease decreases with increase in exercise and diet
control.

95. 2. NON – DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS
It does not indicate the existence or direction of
relationship between the variables.
For example, male students differ from female
students with respect to their academic performance
in a school.

96. BASED ON THE COMPLEXITY
1. Simple hypothesis
It expresses the expected relationship between one dependent and
one independent variable.
2. Complex Hypothesis
It is a prediction between two or more independent variables and
two or more dependent variables.
Eg: obesity, lack of excercise, increased dietary fat increases the
risk of heart disease and diabetes.

97. BASED ON THE CAUSE AND EFFECT
RELATIONSHIP
1. Associative Hypothesis
It proposes the relationship among variables that occur or exist together in the real
world and when one variable changes, the other change. It identifies relationship
among variables in a study, but don’t indicate the cause and effect relation between
variables.
2. Causal Hypothesis
It indicates the cause and effect relationship between the dependent and independent
variable.

98. STEPS IN THE FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
• Deriving a hypothesis
• Identifying the dependent and independent variables in the
hypothesis
• Stating the hypothesis

99. ADVANTAGE OF HYPOTHESIS
• It gives direction to the inquiry.
• It enriches (makes better)e the theory.
• It builds confidence in the researcher’s result.
Limitation of Hypothesis
• It may bias the investigator towards a particular position and
cause him to lose objectivity.

100. RESERACH DESIGN
Design : It is a set of instructions to the researcher to gather
and analyze data in certain ways that will control who and
what to be studied.
Research design: It is a blueprint for conducting a study that
maximizes control over factors that could interfere with the
validity of the findings.

101. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH
DESIGN
• It should be appropriate to the nature and objective of the problem to be studied.
• It should be flexible.
• The measuring instrument should yield (provide) objective, reliable and valid data.
• It ensures appropriate statistical analysis for processing data.
• It should minimize the bias (opposing) and maximize the reliability of the data
collected and analyzed.

102. Purposes of research design
• It is a blueprint prepared in advance based on the objectives of the study, to enhance
orderliness in data collection and analysis.
• It helps the researcher to organize his ideas and evaluate the projected study.
Factors Influencing The Choice Of Research Design
• Researcher’s knowledge
• Researcher’s experience
• Availability of time
• Availability of resources
• Availability of subjects
• Degree of control
• Precision required (accurate estimate)
• Nature of the phenomenon (incident) being studied

104. CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH DESIGN
RESEARCH DESIGN
Quantitative Research
Design
Qualitative Research
Design
Experimental Non – Experimental
True
Quasi
Pre – experimental
Descriptive
Co-relational
Comparative
Others

105. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
Quantitative research designs tend to be more structures. Quantitative researchers
specify the nature of the investigation, comparisons to be made, methods to control
extraneous variables, timing of data collection, the study setting, and prior
information to be given to the participants all before a single piece of data is gathered.
During the process of data collection, modifications cannot be made.
Based on the nature of investigation the quantitative research design can be classified as
• Experimental research design
• Non – experimental design

106. 1. Experimental Research Design
Experiment:
It is a scientific investigation in which observations are made and data are collected
according to a set of well defined criteria.
Experimental Design
It is an objective, systematic, controlled investigation to examine probability (it is the
measure of the likelihood that an event will occur) and causality among selected
variables for the purpose of predicting and controlling phenomena.
Characteristics
• Manipulation
• Control
• Randomization
• Replication

107. MANIPULATION
It means doing something to atleast some subject, which is termed
as the experimental treatment or intervention. The researcher
consciously manipulates the independent variable by the
administration of intervention to subjects and observes the effect on
the dependent variable.
Eg: Music as an effective pain relief measure for cancer patients.
Independent variable (music) is given to some cancer patients and
it is withheld for others.

108. CONTROL
It is obtained by manipulation, by randomization, by
protocols, and by control group. Control group is the
group of subjects who do not receive any treatment or
intervention and their performance is used to evaluate
the performance of experimental group.

109. RANDOMIZATION
It is also known as random assignment. It means
providing equal chance for every unit of target
population to be included as a study sample, at the
same time to be either as an experimental or control
group.

110. REPLICATION
It means the experiment should be repeated more than
once. It helps to increase the accuracy of the
experiment, with which the main effects and
interaction can be estimated.

111. STEPS INVOLVED IN EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
• Identify the target population
• Select the sample randomly from population
• Group or pair subjects as experimental and control group by randomly assigning the
subjects.
• Do pre-test and record all characteristics of the groups.
• Identify and control all intervening variables.
• Manipulate the independent variable for experimenting group and withhold it for
control group.
• Do post-test for both the groups and record the difference.
• Compare the change in experimental group with those of control groups.
• Compare the values with statistically computed values to judge the significance of the
differences.

112. CLASSIFICATION OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Experimental designs
True Quasi Pre-experimental
Pre test , Post-test
Group Design
Solomon four
group design
Post test only control
group design
Non – equivalent
group post test
only
Non – equivalent
group pretest,
posttest design
Time series design
One shot
case study
One group
study
The static
group
comparison

113. TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
True experimental studies are also known as random
assignment study. It involves random assignment of
participants to more than one purposively created
group, and then comparison of outcomes for the
created groups.

114. TYPES
1. Pretest – Posttest control group design
In this, the subjects are assigned randomly to experimental and
control groups. Pretest and posttest are carried out before and
after the manipulation of independent variable in experimental
group and the effect of the treatment is observed.

115. Random
Assignment
Experimental
group
Control group
Pre
test
Pre
test
Post test
Post test
Intervention

116. 2. SOLOMON FOUR GROUP DESIGN
It is an extension of the previous design and probably the most
powerful approach. In this, subjects are randomly assigned for
2 experimental and 2 control groups. Pre and posttest are
carried out for one experimental and one control before and
after the manipulation of independent variables in the
experiment group.
Where as only posttest is carried out for one
experimental and one control group after the manipulation of
independent variable in experimental group. Results obtained
are compared with all the 4 groups.

117. Random
Assignment
Experimental
group
Control group
Experimental
group
Control group
Pretest
Pretest
Intervention
Intervention
Post test
Post test
Post test
Post test

118. 3. POSTTEST ONLY CONTROL GROUP
DESIGN
It is also known as after only control group design. In
this, subjects are assigned randomly to both the
groups. Only posttest is carried out after the
introduction of manipulation for experimental group.

119. Random
Assignment
Experimental
Group
Control Group
Intervention Posttest
Posttest

120. II. QUASI – EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
The word quasi means as if or almost. A quasi – experimental study is almost like a true
experiment and for better than pre-experimental design, as it employs a means to
compare groups. A quasi-experiment design is one in which full experiment control,
randomization is not possible. It involves selecting groups, upon which a variable is
tested without any random pre selective process. The groups are chosen and assigned
out of convenience rather than through randomization. It is otherwise known as semi-
experimental design.

121. TYPES
1. Non-equivalent group, post test only.
In this control and experimental group are not equivalent. It
involves finding out the effectiveness of an intervention, by
comparing both the groups, after intervention to the
experimental group. The drawback of this design is that, the
two groups might not be same before intervention and may
differ in several ways that influence the intervention.

122. Non equivalent
Experimental
group
Control group
Intervention Posttest
Posttest

123. 2. NON – EQUIVALENT GROUP, PRETEST – POSTTEST
DESIGN
It is also known as four celled design without use of
randomization. In this the experimental and control
groups are not equivalent. Comparing pretest results
of both the groups will indicate degree of equivalency
between experimental and control group.

124. Non
Equivalent
Experimental
Group
Control Group
Pre-test
Pre-test
Intervention Post Test
Post Test

125. 3. TIME SERIES DESIGN
Several assessment are obtained from a group or groups,
before and after the experimental intervention. Measures
at several points of time prior and subsequent to the
program provides a more reliable picture if achievement
by the experimental group after intervention. When it
involves observation of single group it is called single
group time series design.

126. Pre-test Intervention Post-test

127. • When several assessments are made on experimental and control group, it is
called multiple group time series design.

128. Non
Equivalent
Experimental
Group
Control Group
Pre test
Pretest
Intervention Post test
Post test