1. Age and SecondAge and Second
Language AcquisitionLanguage Acquisition
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2. REMINDER
 Next week’s workshop topics are:
- Empathy
- Extroversion vs. Introversion
- Self –esteem
- Inhibition
- Risk-taking
- Anxiety
- attitudes
- egocentricity (self image)
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3. Some initial questions
The topic of age in SLA involves a number of
interrelated issues. The most basic questions we
need to consider are these:
 Is there an age effect in SLA? Are younger learners
better at learning second languages than older
learners?
 Assuming there is such an effect, how can we
explain it?
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4. What does “better” mean?
The commonly held view that younger learners
make better SLLs than older learners is an
oversimplification
We need to separate two things:
rate of learning
and
ultimate attainment
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5. The age effect in SLA
In terms of rate of learning older learners
may have an initial advantage
In terms of ultimate attainment younger
learners (early starters) are superior,
especially for accurate pronunciation
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6. How can we explain this?
Two broad explanations have been
proposed:
1. The age effect reflects the existence of a
critical/sensitive period for SLA
2. The age effect reflects the operation of
various psychological and/or social
factors
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7. What evidence is there for a CP in FLA?
 Some researchers see Genie’s very limited language
proficiency as evidence of a critical period
 Other non-human species seem to have their own
“critical periods” for various abilities. This might
suggest that humans too have their critical period for
acquiring language
 Children of Deaf Adults (CODAs) have an advantage
over later-learners of ASL in signing
 Aphasia:Aphasia:
– Less chance of recovery of linguistic function after age
5.
– Lateralization
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8. 6. Observe a critical periodObserve a critical period
What is a critical period?What is a critical period?
 For first language acquisition, there
seems to be a critical period of the first
five years, during which children must
be exposed to rich input. There is also
a period, from about 10-16 years, when
acquisition is possible, but not native-
like.
 For SLA, the issue is more complicate.
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9. More evidence for theMore evidence for the CriticalCritical
PeriodPeriod HypothesisHypothesis
 Second Language Acquisition:Second Language Acquisition:
– Younger learners native fluency.
– Older learners (>17) never quite make it.
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10. The Critical Period Hypothesis and SLA?
 Do you think it is related to success in
second language acquisition??
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11. Look at second language learning.
Why? Children who learn a second language when they are
young often become indistinguishable from their native-
born peers.
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12. Is there a CP in SLA?
Many researchers have claimed that the best
explanation for young learners superior ultimate
attainment is the existence of a CP
Most of the support for this comes from studies
of pronunciation
(Remember: Young learners invariably end up
with more accurate L2 pronunciation than late
starters)
Some studies have focused on areas other than
pronunciation, e.g. Patkowski (1980), Johnson
& Newport (1989), Spadaro (1996), DeKeyser
(2000)
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13. Some people are not convinced that
there is a CP in SLA
“It is undoubtedly the case that the
descriptive statement regarding the
general success of younger learners in
acquiring a second language is true.
However, the evidence does not
provide convincing support for the
claim that this advantage is the
reflection of a sensitive period in
learning” Bialystok 1997, 13305/07/13 13

14. What counter-evidence is there?
Argument 1
Some researchers claim to have found late-
starting SLLs who display very high (almost
native-like) pronunciation of the TL (e.g.
Bongaerts 1999, Bongaerts et al. 1995)
The fact that older SLLs can (apparently) attain
very high levels of proficiency in
pronunciation suggests to some
researchers that the CPH is invalid i.e.
there is no CP in SLA05/07/13 14

15. What counter-evidence is there?
Such near-native late-starters are “a fairly
exceptional phenomenon” (Bongaerts
1999, 154), reflecting “high motivation,
continued access to massive L2 input, and
intensive training in the production of L2
speech sounds” (155)
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16. What counter-evidence is there?
Argument 2
Social factors make it easier for young
children to acquire L2.
E.g.
 a nurturing environment
 simplified input
 more educational opportunities
 cooperative peers
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17. What counter-evidence is there?
Argument 3
Psychological factors make it easier for
young children to acquire L2
E.g.
Younger learners may be more
motivated to acquire L2 and have
better attitudes towards target group
than older SLLs
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18. Reminder
Older SLLs have an initial advantage in
terms of rate of learning. This may be due to
their superior cognitive skills and ability to
consciously study the TL
However, the above-mentioned social and/or
psychological advantages enjoyed by
younger SLLs enable them to catch up and
overtake older learners, eventually achieving
higher levels of L2 proficiency
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19. A recent alternative approach (1)
Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson (2005) argue that
even very young SLLs display subtle, but still
measurable, non-native tendencies in their L2
production and comprehension
These slight differences are unnoticeable in
real-world language use, but they exist.
Even the very youngest SLLs can only achieve
“near-native” proficiency rather than genuinely
native levels of proficiency
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20. A recent alternative approach (2)
“A formulation along these lines might be
considered a less spectacular view of maturational
constraints, according to which it is true that biology
contrains language acquisition, but not necessarily
in terms of a critical period”
Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson, 2005, 570
The process of SLA is still essentially biologically-
determined, and the age at which exposure to the
L2 begins continues to be a highly significant factor
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21. A recent alternative approach (3)
“Given the fact that there are no published accounts of a
single adult starter who has reached nativelike overall
L2 proficiency, and given the frequent observation of non-
native features even in the very early starters, we would
suggest the possibility that absolute nativelike command
of an L2 may in fact never be possible for any learner.
According to such a view, the language learning
mechanism would be designed in such a way that it
requires immediate triggering from the environment in
order for it to develop and work appropriately; that is, the
learning mechanism inevitably and quickly deteriorates from
birth if not continuously stimulated”
Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson, 2005, 575
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22. Other factors affecting SLA
 How might neurological development affect
second language success?
 Does the maturation of the brain at some stage
spell the doom of language acquisition ability?
 To examine these issues, we will look at:
 Neurological considerations
 Phonological considerations
 Cognitive considerations
 Affective considerations
 Linguistic considerations
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23. Hemispheric Lateralization
 Left hemisphere seems to control intellectual, logical,
and analytic functions including language functions,
while right hemisphere controls functions related to
emotional and social needs.
 Then when does this lateralization take place, and how
does that lateralization process affect language
acquisition?
 Some scholars contended the lateralization is
completed about at the age of puberty, and some said
it’s about five.
 Thomas Scovel applied this lateralization concept to
the second language acquisition.
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24. Biological Timetables
 Thomas Scovel cited evidence for a sociobiological
critical period in various species of mammals and birds.
 He concluded that human beings’ native accents may
be a genetic left-over just like animals’.
 Walsh and Diller concluded that different aspects of a
second language are learned optimally at different ages:
Lower-order processes are dependent on early
maturing, while higher-order language functions are
more dependent on late mature circuits.
 However, those were mainly about the acquisition of an
authentic “accent.”
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25. Right-Hemispheric Participation
Another branch of neurolinguistic research focused on the role
of the right hemisphere in the acquisition of a second language.
 Olber noted that in second language learning, there is
significant right hemisphere participation especially at early
stages.
 Genesee concluded that there may be greater right hemisphere
involvement in language processing in bilinguals who acquire
their second language late relative to their first language and in
bilinguals
 Second language learners, particularly adult learners, might
benefit from more encouragement of right brain activity in the
classroom context.
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26. Anthropological Evidence
 Jane Hill cited anthropological research on non-
Western societies that yielded evidence that adults
can acquire second languages perfectly.
 Sorenson studied the Tukano culture of South
America and reported that during adolescence,
individuals actively and almost suddenly began to
speak two or three other languages to which they
had been exposed at some point.
 Hill suggested that we have to explore the
influence of social and cultural roles.
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27. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ACCENT
 Although there are some exceptions, most of the
evidence indicates that persons beyond the age of
puberty do not acquire authentic pronunciation of the
second language.
 There had been some studies to contradict Scovel’s
strong CPH such as Gerald Newfeld’s, Moyer and
Bongaerts, Planket, and Schils.
 However, these studies at the end have left the strong
CPH unchallenged.
 We are left with powerful evidence of a critical
period for accent, but for accent only! Great accent
only doesn’t mean that the learner is a successful
second language learner.
 Even though poor at accent, one can have fluent
control of a second language.05/07/13 27

28. COGNITIVE CONSIDERATIONS
Jean Piaget outlined the course of intellectual
development in a child through various stages:
• Sensorimotor stage (birth to two)
• Preoperational stage (ages two to seven)
• Operational stage (ages seven to sixteen)
• Concrete operational stage (ages seven to eleven)
• Formal operational stage (ages eleven to sixteen)
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29. Caracteristics of the
Sensorimotor Stage:
 The first stage of Piaget’s theory lasts from birth to
approximately age two and is centered on the infant
trying to make sense of the world.
 During the sensorimotor stage, an infant’s knowledge
of the world is limited to their sensory perceptions and
motor activities (object permanence).
 Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses caused
by sensory stimuli.
 Children utilize skills and abilities they were born with,
such as looking, sucking, grasping, and listening, to
learn more about the environment.
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30. Characteristics of the
Preoperational Stage:
 The preoperational stage occurs between ages
two and six.
 Language development is one of the
hallmarks of this period
 Piaget noted that children in this stage do not
yet understand concrete logic, cannot
mentally manipulate information, and are
unable to take the point of view of other
people.
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31. Animism and Egocentrism
 Animism" refers to young children's
tendency to consider everything, including
inanimate objects, to be alive.
 children's language also reflects their
"egocentrism," whereby they attribute
phenomena with the same feelings and
intentions as their own.
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32. Characteristics of Concrete
Operations:
 The concrete operational stage begins around
age seven and continues until approximately
age eleven.
 During this time, children gain a better
understanding of mental operations. (e.g.
conservation)
 Children begin thinking logically about
concrete events, but have difficulty
understanding abstract or hypothetical
concepts.
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33. Characteristics of the Formal
Operational Stage:
 The formal operational stage begins at
approximately age twelve and lasts into
adulthood.
 During this time, people develop the
ability to think about abstract concepts.
 Skills such as logical thought, deductive
reasoning, and systematic planning also
emerge during this stage.
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34. AFFECTIVE CONSIDERATIONS
The affective domain includes many factors.
 A case in point is the role of egocentricity. Very young children highly
egocentric. In preadolescence children develop an acute consciousness of
themselves as separate and identifiable entities but ones which need
protecting. They therefore develop inhibitions about this self-identity.
 For any monolingual person, the language ego involves the interaction of the
native language and ego development.
 Guiora suggested that the language ego may account for the difficulties that
adults have in learning a SL. A new language does not pose a threat or
inhibition to the ego of a child.
 Younger children are less frightened because they are less aware of language
forms, and the possibility of making mistakes in those forms does not
concern them greatly. But mature adults manifest a number of inhibitions.
 Among other affective factors is ego identification. The role of attitudes is
another important factor. Younger children are more likely to succeed in
learning other languages because they don’t have negative attitudes toward
races or cultures yet.
 Finally, children are under high peer pressure. They want to be like the rest
of the kids. It can lead them to learn the second language.
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35. Affective considerations
 Empathy, self-esteem, extroversion, inhibition,
imitation, anxiety, attitudes, egocentricity.
A. language ego
 The child’s ego is dynamic and growing and
flexible through the age of puberty.
 Mature adults manifest a number of inhibitions.
B. Attitudes
 Very young children are not developed enough
cognitively enough to possess attitudes.
C. Peer pressure
 Adults tend to tolerate linguistic differences
more than children.
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36. LINGUISTIC
CONSIDERATIONS
Bilingualism
 Children learning two languages
simultaneously acquire them by the use of
similar strategies.
 They are learning two first languages.
 Researches show a considerable cognitive
benefit of early childhood bilingualism,
supporting that bilingual children are more
facile at concept formation and have a greater
mental flexibility.
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37. LINGUISTIC
CONSIDERATIONS
Interference Between First and Second
Languages
 The linguistic and cognitive processes of
second language learning in young children
are in general similar to first language
processes.
 Similar strategies and linguistic features are
present in both first and second language
learning in children.
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38. Interference Between First and
Second Languages
Interference in Adults
 Adults appear to operate from the solid foundation
of the first language and thus manifest more
interference.
 But adults, too, manifest errors not unlike some of
the errors children make.
 The first language, however, may be more readily
used to bridge gaps that the adult learner cannot fill
by generalization within the SL.
 In this case the first language can be a facilitating
factor, and not just an interfering factor.
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39. LINGUISTIC
CONSIDERATIONS
Order of Acquisition
 Researchers claimed that transfer of L1 syntactic patterns rarely
occurs in child second language acquisition.
 Children learning a SL use a creative construction process, just as
they do in their first language.
 Data about the acquisition order of eleven English morphemes in
children learning English as a SL supported this claim.
 “The younger, the better” is a myth that has been fueled by media
hype and, sometimes, “junk science.”
 There appear to be some potential advantages to an early age
for SLA, but there is absolutely no evidence that an adult cannot
overcome all of those disadvantages save one, accent, and the latter
is hardly the quintessential criterion for effective interpersonal
communication.
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40. Linguistic considerations
 Bilingualism
 Strategies and processes in child L1 and
L2 acqusition similar
- similar mistakes in acquisition
- acquisition order (Dulay and Burt, 1974)
- transfer is rare, creative langauge acquisition
- adults rely more on system of L1
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41. So, What is the best age to start
teaching a language?
 “Younger is better”
 Maturity in language acquisition.
 Accent : So What?!
 ample time vs. age of acquisition
 Is it important to be native-like speaker?
 L2 early instruction and first language.
 Early age and amount of instruction.
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42. References
Bongaerts, T. (1999). Ultimate Attainment in L2 Pronunciation:
The Case of Very Advanced Late L2 Learners. In D.
Birdsong (ed.) Second Language Acquisition and the
Critical Period Hypothesis Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Bongaerts, T., B. Planken, & E. Schills, (1995.) Can Late
Learners Attain a Native Accent in a Foreign Language? A
Test of the Critical Period Hypothesis. In Singleton, D. & Z.
Lengyel, (eds.) The Age Factor in Second Language
Acquisition Clevedon: Multilingual Matters
Ellis, R. (1997). Second language acquisition Oxford: Oxford
University Press
Hyltenstam, K. & N. Abrahamsson (2005). Maturational
Constraints in SLA. In C. Doughty & M. H. Long (eds.) The
Handbook of Second Language Acquisition Blackwell,
Oxford05/07/13 42