This presentation gives complete detail about the production, construction and applications with examples of different types of glass and polymers used in buildings

1. History of Glass
By Rajat Nainwal
GLASS AND POLYMER USED IN BUILDINGS

2. History of Glass Stuttgart- Hohenheim
Hohenheim ParkIron Conservatory
Built: 1789
Stuggart
Wilhelma and Conservatories
Architects: Ludwig Von Zanth
Built: 1842-1846
By Rajat Nainwal

3. Raw materials used in manufacturing glass
• Sodium as Na2Co3 (used in soft glass).
• Potassium as K2Co3 (used in Hard Glass).
• Calcium as lime stone, chalk and lime.
• Lead as litharge, red lead (flint glass).
• Silica arc quartz, white sand and ignited flint.
• Zinc is zinc oxide (Heat and shock proof glass).
• Borates are borax, Boric acid (Heat and shock proof glass).
• Cullets or pieces of broken glass to increase fusibility.
Manufacturing steps
• Melting
• Forming and Shaping
• Annealing
• Finishing
**Glass that is crushed and ready to be re-melted is called Cullet
By Rajat Nainwal

4. Melting process
Raw materials in proper proportions are mixed
with cullets. It is finely powdered and intimate
mixture called batch is fused in furnace at high
temperature of 1800°C this charge melts and fuses
into a viscous fluid.
CaCO3 + SiO2  CaSiO3 + CO2 
Na2CO3 + SiO2  Na2SiO3 + CO2
After removal of CO2 decolorizes like MnO2 are
added to remove traces of ferrous compounds and
Carbon. Heating is continued till clear molten
mass is free from bubbles is obtained and it is then
cooled to about 800°C.
Forming, shaping, and annealing
• Forming and Shaping
The viscous mass obtained from melting is
poured into moulds to get different types of
articles of desired shape by either blowing
or pressing between the rollers.
• Annealing
Glass articles are then allowed to cool
gradually at room temperature by passing
through different chambers with
descending temperatures. This reduces the
internal Strain in the glass.
Finishing
Finishing is the last step in glass manufacturing. It involves following steps.
 Cleaning
 Grinding
 Polishing
 Cutting
By Rajat Nainwal

5. Advanced Glazing Systems
• Glass is the most-used cladding material for tall buildings
due to its strength, light weight, durability, and wide range
of available optical and thermal properties.
• Glass has seemingly unlimited optical and aesthetic
possibilities.
• Glass is made from
– Sand (silicone dioxide)
– Soda ash (sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate)
– Lime (calcium)
– Alumina
– Potassium oxide
• Glass is supercooled liquid and in sheet form strength is impacted by
imperfections in glass
• Thicknesses range from approximately 3/32 inch (single strength) to
1/8 inch (double strength) to 1 inch.
• Heat treatments such as tempering impact glass strength and uses
Glass Ingredients and Thicknesses
• Annealed glass
ˉ Regular float glass which is cooled slowly to reduce in
built stress
• Tempered glass
ˉ Produced by cutting annealed glass to required size,
reheating and then cooling rapidly. Higher strength and
breaks into small shards
• Heat-strengthened glass
ˉ Between annealed and tempered with breakage behavior
like annealed
• Laminated glass
ˉ Sandwich of multiple layers of glass with PVB
interlayer. Suitable for security applications as glass
stays in place
• Fire-rated glass
Glass Types by Heat Treatment & Strength
By Rajat Nainwal

6. Glass types by Architectural treatments
• Patterned glass
ˉ Hot glass can be rolled into sheets with many different
surface textures and patterns to obscure vision for privacy
• Fritted glass
ˉ Pigmented glass particles called frits are used to imprint
glass. Glass is dried and fired in tempering furnace to
make it permanent
• Spandrel glass
ˉ Used to cover bands of floor/wall around the floor edges.
Usually tempered or heat strengthened with insulation
behind them
Glass For Controlling Solar Radiation
• Tinted Glass
– Made by adding small amounts of selected chemical
elements to the molten glass mixture
• Reflective Glass or Solar Control Glass
– Thin Durable films of metal or metal oxide are
deposited on the surface of either tinted glass or
clear glass to make the glass reflective. The film
turns away significant portion of solar radiation
By Rajat Nainwal

7. Toughened Glass
• It is made by dipping articles still hot
in an oil bath, so that chilling takes
place. This results in outer layer of
articles shrink and acquire a state of
compression while inner layer are in
state of tension. Such glass is more
elastic to mechanical and thermal
shock. It breaks into a fine powder.
• Uses:
For making window shields of fast
moving vehicles, windows of furnace
and automatic opening doors.
• It is made by fusing two to three flat
sheets of glass and in between them
alternate thin layer of vinyl plastic is
introduced. It is heated where both
the layers merge together and glass is
toughened.
• Uses:
It is used as wind shield in
automobiles and airplanes. On
breaking it pieces does not fly apart
because of the presence of the plastic
layer in between the glass layers.
• Wired glass does not fall apart into
splinters when it breaks and is fire
resistant. It is made by fusing wire in
between the two glass layers.
Uses:
For making fire resistant doors, roofs,
skylights and windows
Safety Glass ( Above )
Glass wool ( Left )
Wired Glass ( Below )
• Glass wool consists of tiny fibers
formed by action of steam jets on
dripping molten glass down from
very fine hole.
• Uses:
Heat Insulation, for filtration of
Corrosive chemicals, sound
insulation etc
Wired Glass
Safety Glass
Glass Wool
Toughened Glass
By Rajat Nainwal

8. Photo-chromic Glass
• The three dimensional silicate
network contains large no. of
microscopic particles of silver halide
which on exposure to light produce
color.
• Uses:
In making tinted car glasses and
goggles.
• These glasses are highly resistant to
chemical attacks and they are specialized
soda lime glass where alkali has been
replaced by alumina, boron oxide and
zinc oxide.
• Uses:
Making Syringes, Injection Ampoules
and vials etc.
• The sheets of glass fiber or glass wool
are soaked in a solution of
thermosetting plastic like phenol
formaldehyde resin and placed one
above the other and then cured under
heat or pressure. It is strong as steel.
Non flammable and insulating. In bullet
resistant glass vinyl resins are added in
alternate layers.
• Uses:
Shatter, shock and Bullet proof Glass
• Two or more plates of glass are
filled with dehydrated air and the
edges are sealed air-tightly.
• Uses:
Provides thermal insulating and
so houses remain cool in summer
and warm in winter.
Photo-Chromic Glass
Insulating Glass
Laminated Glass
Neutral Glass
Insulating Glass
Neutral Glass
By Rajat Nainwal

9. Impact of Glass Type on Control of Visible Light and Solar Radiation
• Transmitted Radiation
• Reflected Radiation
• Absorbed Radiation
• Re-radiation
The Material Glass
Effect of Three
Different Glazing
Assemblies on
Incoming Sunlight –
Outside is on Left
By Rajat Nainwal

10. Glazing Large Lights
• Setting blocks are of
synthetic rubber and
support weight of glass.
• Bite or depth of grip on
the edge of glass of certain
amount is required to
resist wind load.
• Glazing components used
between frame and glass
are either wet or dry such
as
– Preformed solid
tape sealant made
of polybutene
– Wedge or roll in
gasket
– Lock strip gasket
• In good design reliance for
waterproofing relies on
wet and dry seals in
conjunction with pressure
equalization and drainage.
Alternative Methods of Single Glazing
Large Lights – Outdoor Side on Left
By Rajat Nainwal

11. Glazing Large Lights
• Lockstrip gasket is a dry glazing method
• It is faster, easier and less dependent on workmanship
then wet glazing method
• Wet glazing with good workmanship is more effective
Lockstrip Gasket Installation in Progress & Completed
Advanced Glazing Systems
• Butt-joint glazing system
– Head and sill of the glass sheets are supported
conventionally in metal frames, but vertical
mullions are eliminated
– The vertical joints between sheets of glass are
made by injection of colorless silicone sealant
– There is a strong effect of unbroken horizontal
band of glass around the building
By Rajat Nainwal

12. • Structural silicone flush
glazing
– The metal mullions lie entirely
inside the glass with glass
adhered to the mullion by
silicone sealant
– Outside skin is completely
flush
– Systems with critical silicone
work done in factory are also
possible
• Suspended Glazing Systems and
Glass Mullion System
– Used primarily for high walls of glass
around building lobbies
– Tempered glass sheets are suspended
from above and stabilized by tempered
glass perpendicular stiffeners
– Metal fittings are used to join multiple
sheets of glass
– Stainless steel cables and fittings are used
in roof applications
GLASS SUSPENDED FROM ABOVE
WITH VERTICAL GLASS STIFFENERS
Assembly of a mullion for
a four-side structural
silicone exterior flush
glazing system
• Structural Spacer
Glazing is a proprietary
system
• The glass is fastened to
the mullion with an
aluminum pressure
plate.
• The face is then sealed
• Desiccant is integrated
into the system
GLASS MOUNTED WITH FOUR-SIDE
STRUCTURAL SILICONE GLAZING
By Rajat Nainwal

13. Glazing
A suspended glazing
system with "saddle"
(anticlastic) curvature
keeps the entire wall
system in tension.
Advanced Glazing Systems
• Four point spider
fitting
• Adjustable vertical
stainless steel rod
carries the load to
the structure above
The spider fittings and cable system
must resist wind, seismic, and dead
loads without inducing bending forces
in the glass or creating stress
concentrations around the points of
attachment.
By Rajat Nainwal

14. Glazing
• Vertical rods take the load from the fins
• Vertical rods transfer load to cables which in turn
transfers it to the steel trusses
• Upward arching cables provide wind uplift resistance
• The glass wall obtains additional stiffness where the
cable system is tied to adjacent columns.
• Insulating laminated glass units serve as
roof
• Laminated glass fins serve as beams
• Vertical rods take the load from the fins
• Vertical rods transfer load to cables which
in turn transfers it to steel trusses
Advanced Glazing Systems
By Rajat Nainwal

15. Glass as a structural component and material
• The use of glas had been limited to decorations and its extensive use can be seen in the cathedrals such as
• Notre Dame, Paris
• Crystal Palace, United Kingdom
• Monolithic annealed float glass
• Tempered float glass
• PVB laminated tempered float glass
• Sentry glass laminated tempered float glass
• Cast resin laminated tempered glass
• Polycarbonate laminated glass
• Carbon fibre reinforced glass
• Stainless steel reinforced glass
By Rajat Nainwal

16. Futuristic approach
- Self cleansing glass and Transparent Photo voltaic
• Most of the glass used on the exterior
surface of buildings to control light and heat
in order to control the building environment
and contribute to sustainability.
• Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is used as
nanoparticle form to coat glazing since it has sterilizing and anti-fouling properties.
Glass incorporating this self cleaning technology is available on
the market today.
• Fire-protective glass is another application of nanotechnology.
This is achieved by using a layer sandwiched between glass panels
(an interlayer) formed of fumed silica (SiO2) nanoparticles which
turns into a rigid and opaque fire shield when heated.
By Rajat Nainwal

17. Coloured Glass
Addition of transition metal compounds to glass gives color to the glass. They are outlined below.
Yellow: Ferric Salts Green: Ferrous and Chromium
salts
Red: Nickel and cuprous salts
Cu2O
Lemon Yellow: Cadmium sulphide Fluorescent greenish yellow:
Uranium oxide
Blue: Cobalt Salts, CuO Greenish Blue Color:
Copper Sulphate
Brown: Iron
Opaque milky white: Cryolite of
Calcium phosphate
Ruby : Auric Chloride
Purple: Magnese dioxide salt
By Rajat Nainwal

18. By Rajat Nainwal

19. Glass walls
By Rajat Nainwal

20. Glass walls
By Rajat Nainwal

21. 30 ST' MARY AXE (THE GHERKIN), LONDON
30 St. Mary Axe is a 40 story building in the St. Mary Axe area of London. It is recognised as one of the more
distinctive skyscrapers in the financial district of London and it stands on the former site of the Baltic Exchange
building. Its form is so unique, that it has been given the nickname "the Gherkin."
The Gherkin
ARCHITECT
The building was designed by famed architect Norman Foster of the Foster and Partners architectural firm. They are
known for their innovative approach to design that stands out particularly well against the more conservative nature of
London's buildings.
By Rajat Nainwal

22. LOCATION: FACTS AND FIGURES DIMENSIONS:
- Height to top of dome: 179.8 m
- Height to highest occupied floor level: 167.1 m
- Number of floors above ground: 40
- Number of basement levels: single basement across whole site
- Largest floor external diameter (level 17): 56.15 m
-Site area: 0.57 hectares (1.4 acres)
- Net accommodations areas:
- Office 46,450 m2
- Retail 1,400 m2
- Office floor-floor: 4.15 m
- Gross superstructure floor area (incl. light wells): 74,300 m2
- Tower Structural Steelwork
-Total weight of steel: 8,358 tonnes of which:
- 29% is in the diagrid
- 24% core columns
- 47% beams
- Total number of primary steel pieces: 8 348
- Total length: 54.56 km
- Hoop design tension at level 2: 7 116 kN
- Perimeter column maximum design load: 15,460 kN
- Core column maximum design load: 33,266 kN
- Number of piles: 333
- Total length of piles: 9 km
- Total design capacity: 117,000 Tonnes
OTHER BUILDINGS IN THE SURROUNDING
- Lloyd’s Building - St. Helen’s - Tower 42
-Bevis Marks Synagogue - Bishops Gate - Mitre Square
By Rajat Nainwal

23. SECTIONAL ELEVATION: THE ARCHITECTURAL FORM:
• The shape of the tower is influenced by the physical environment of the
city.
• The smooth flow of wind around the building was one of the main
considerations.
• A net office floor area within the building of around 500,000 ft2 (46,450
m2).
• The enhancement of the public environment at street level, opening up new
views across the site to the frontages of the adjacent buildings and allowing
good access to and around the new development.
• Minimum impact on the local wind environment.
• Maximum use of public transport for the occupants of the building.
• Flexibly serviced, high specification ‘user-friendly’ column free office
spaces with maximum primary space adjacent to natural light.
• Good physical and visual interconnectivity between floors.
SUSTAINABLE BUILDING
•The tower is aerodynamically designed to reduce wind
load on the structure, whilst the lower part tapers so that
wind wraps around the tower.
•The six fingers of accommodation on each floor,
configured with light wells in between, maximize daylight
penetration.
•The façade design with advance glazing technologies,
ventilated cavities and blinds , provides up to 85% solar
protection.
•Gas is the main fuel used hence it will only generate half
the carbon emission.
•Overall energy serving is up to 50%.
By Rajat Nainwal

24. FLOOR PLANS
Ground Floor Plan Sixth Floor Plan
Twenty-First Floor Plan Fortieth Floor Plan
1. Entry 2. Lobby
3. Retail 4. Core
5. Office Modules 6. Light Well
7. Private Dining 8. Elevator / Stair
- 30 St Mary Axe has a radical approach - technically,
architecturally, socially and spatially.
- Idea of having a city within a city.
- An instantly recognizable addition to the city’s
Skyline.
By Rajat Nainwal

25. SOME BASIC FACTS:
- Single basement across whole site.
- 17th floor is having largest floor diameter of 56m.
- Each floor is rotated by 5 degree.
- 38th to 40th floor are having restaurants .
- At a time 4000 workers can be accommodated.
BUILDING IN RELATION TO ITS
SURROUNDING:
- The building look like as if it is planted on the Street .
- The mass of the Swiss Re tower is not too imposing at ground level.
- Swiss Re sits nicely in narrow pedestrians street.
- At the pavement, it emerges from the diamond-pattern glass to create an
arcade of shops at street level.
PARKING:
Sectional Elevation of Parking (Single
Basement Parking)
- Provided Parking
space for bicycle is
three times more
than needed . No
provision for
private car parking.
- Radical approach towards public
transportation.
By Rajat Nainwal

26. STRUCTURAL SYSTEM:
- The ‘diagrid’ responds to the building's curved shape and provides vertical support to the
floors thus allowing large internal column free office space.
- The central core is required only to act under vertical load and is free from diagonal
bracing.
- In addition to being highly efficient in resisting wind forces, the ‘diagrid’ frames the
communal light wells which spiral up the building enabling occupants to enjoy natural light
over a larger area of floor.
- The internal structure of the building comprises conventional steel beams and columns
with composite profiled decking floors.
- The total weight of steel used is approximately 11,000 tones.
- Arup’ engineers addressed the building’s radical form by creating the efficient external
‘diagrid’ system (diagonally braced structure) of intersecting steel sections around the
tower's perimeter.
-The produced node is prefabricated in the factory.
- Openable glass screen.
- The heart consists of a solid block of steel of 240 by 140 mm.
- Perforated aluminium louvers (internal sun-screen).
- A column casing of aluminium.
- Facade frame of extruded aluminium.
By Rajat Nainwal

27. LIFTS:
- There are 18 passenger lifts in the building.
- 378 people can be vertically transported through the building
at speeds up to 6m. per second at any time.
- In addition, there are goods and fire fighter elevators, as well
as a car park elevator to the reception from the basement.
- Two special shuttle elevators serve the top floors of the
building.
- KONE Alta fulfilled the architects’ requirements for
customized elevator cars and signalization.
-3 different levels:
- Low rise go from lobby to level 12.
- Medium rise lifts go from lobby to 22 stopping
from level 11.
- High rise lifts go from lobby to 34 stopping from
level 22.
- Shuttle lift goes from level 34 to level 39.
FIRE FIGHTING METHODS:
- Every sixth floor , the atria feature gardens which
control and purify air movements as well as dividing
the building into fire compartments.
- In this case all six floors linked by a set of light
wells are evacuated in the case of a fire on any one
of them.
- Where only two floors are linked then those two
constitute the first phase. So the light wells are
designed following the guidance for simultaneous
evacuation, which allows them to be open to the
accommodation.
- A system of smoke curtains form smoke reservoirs
in the light wells, and others delay the transport of
smoke from accommodation into the light wells.
- The Tower has two fire fighting shafts with
dedicated lifts.
- The use of dedicated smoke detectors in each lobby
which cause the vent to open in that lobby, as well as
at the top of the smoke shaft and the top of the stair.
- During a fire temperatures can be such that the
window glazing may break and thus allow cool air to
enter and hot gas to escape.
- Alternatively, temperatures may be such that the
fire has not engulfed a large area and is not severe
enough to actually break the glass.
SERVICE CORE AREA:
Core area at centre
By Rajat Nainwal

28. INTERESTING FACTS:
- Swiss Re reserves the terraces in its light wells—and their dramatic views for functions that trigger idea sharing.
- Making other floors visible also breaks down physical barriers to collaboration.
- Ample daylight for offices comes both from the curve of the exterior and the wedge-shaped light wells.
There are 24,000 sq m of
external glass-equivalent
to five football pitches.
The white - painted
diagonals and dark-painted
horizontals both enclose
structural members.
Top space of the building
offers a spectacular 360-degree
panorama across the capital.
Despite its curved shape, there
is actually only one piece of
curved glass – the lens at the
top of the building which is
2.4m in diameter and weighs
250kg.
By Rajat Nainwal

29. POLYMERS
Polymers are long chain giant organic molecules are assembled from many smaller molecules called monomers. Polymers consist of many
repeating monomer units in long chains. A polymer is analogous to a necklace made from many small beads (monomers).
Polymerization : The process of linking the repeating units (monomers) is termed as polymerization.
Types of Polymers
• Polythene
• Free Electrons
• Poly(propene)
• Amide Linkages
• Nylon
• Polyurethane
• Polyesters
Classification of Polymers
Homopolymers - consist of chains with identical bonding linkages to each monomer unit. This usually
implies that the polymer is made from all identical monomer molecules. These may be represented as :
-[A-A-A-A-A-A]-
Copolymers - consist of chains with two or more linkages usually implying two or more different types of
monomer units. These may be represented as : -[A-B-A-B-A-B]-
Polymers are further classified by the reaction
mode of polymerization, these include:
• Addition Polymers - the monomer molecules bond to each
other without the loss of any other atoms. Alkene monomers
are the biggest groups of polymers in this class.
• Condensation Polymers - usually two different monomer
combine with the loss of a small molecule, usually water.
Polyesters and polyamides (nylon) are in this class of
polymers. Polyurethane Foam in graphic.
Classification based upon the physical property
related to heating:
• Thermoplastics - plastics that soften when heated and become
firm again when cooled. This is the more popular type of plastic
because the heating and cooling may be repeated.
• Thermosets - plastics that soften when heated and can be
molded, but harden permanently. They will decompose when
reheated. An example is Bakelite, which is used in toasters,
handles for pots and pans, dishes, electrical outlets and billiard
balls.
By Rajat Nainwal

30. Characteristics of Polymers
• Low Density.
• Low coefficient of friction.
• Good corrosion resistance.
• Good mould ability.
• Excellent surface finish can be obtained.
• Can be produced with close dimensional tolerances.
• Economical.
• Poor tensile strength.
• Low mechanical properties.
• Poor temperature resistance.
• Can be produced transparent or in different colours.
Properties of Polymers
The physical properties of a polymer, such as its strength
and flexibility depend on:
• Chain length - in general, the longer the chains the stronger the
polymer;
• Side groups - polar side groups give stronger attraction between
polymer chains, making the polymer stronger;
• Branching - straight, un branched chains can pack together more
closely than highly branched chains, giving polymers that are more
crystalline and therefore stronger;
• Cross-linking - if polymer chains are linked together extensively by
covalent bonds, the polymer is harder and more difficult to melt.
Strength of Polymers
In general, the longer the polymer chain, the stronger the polymer.
There are two reasons for this:
• longer chains are more tangled
• there are more intermolecular forces between the chains
because there are more points of contact. These forces,
however, are quite weak for polyethene.
• Areas in a polymer where the chains are closely packed in a
regular way are said to be crystalline. The percentage of
crystallinity in a polymer is very important in determining its
properties. The more crystalline the polymer, the stronger and
less flexible it becomes.
• When a polymer is stretched (cold-drawn), a neck forms. In
the neck the polymer chains line up producing a more
crystalline region. Cold-drawing leads to an increase in
strength.
Applications of Polymers
• Polymeric materials are used in and on soil to improve aeration,
provide mulch, and promote plant growth and health.
• Medicine - Many biomaterials, especially heart valve
replacements and blood vessels, are made of polymers like
Dacron, Teflon and polyurethane.
• Consumer Science - Plastic containers of all shapes and sizes are
light weight and economically less expensive than the more
traditional containers. Clothing, floor coverings, garbage disposal
bags, and packaging are other polymer applications.
• Industry - Automobile parts, windshields for fighter planes,
pipes, tanks, packing materials, insulation, wood substitutes,
adhesives, matrix for composites, and elastomers are all polymer
applications used in the industrial market.
• Sports - Playground equipment, various balls, golf clubs,
swimming pools, and protective helmets are often produced from
polymers.
By Rajat Nainwal

31. APPLICATIONS OF POLYMERS
Polymers have successfully found their way into a range of applications including pipes and fittings, foundations,
roofing, flooring, panelling, roads, insulation, cable sheathing and ducting as illustrated in table.
They have brought many benefits to builders, designers and building owners.
First and foremost is their resistance to environmental elements – they neither
rot nor rust, require very little maintenance, and remove the need for painting.
Timber-clad houses painted white are appealing, but maintaining the finish by
renovating and painting can become almost a full time job. Today, there is a
whole range of polymeric building components, including window frames,
fascia boards, garage doors and even roofs, which can be coloured during
manufacture and require no painting or maintenance, as illustrated in figures.
ESTIMATED POLYMER CONSUMPTION IN THE BUILDING AND
CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY IN EUROPE 2000-01 ( IN KT)
APPLICATION LDPE HDPE PVC EPS PUR ABS / PS OTHER TOTAL
Pipe and conduit 166 617 1447 25 30 2285
Wire and cable 46 22 175 10 253
Profile 950 950
Insulation 505 300 210 1015
Flooring 305 280 585
Films / sheet 300 100 400
Other 140 50 115 180 485
Total 512 639 3117 505 350 140 710 5973
By Rajat Nainwal

32. POLYMER FOAMS
Polymer foams, also known as cellular polymers,
cellular plastics or expanded polymers, are multiphase
material systems that consist of a polymer matrix and a
fluid phase, usually a gas. Most polymers can be
expanded into cellular products, but only a small number
have been exploited commercially with polystyrene,
PVC, phenol formaldehyde and polyurethane being the
most widely used in Europe for insulation purposes.
Engineering structural foams have also been developed
for load bearing applications – the polymers used
include polyolefins, polycarbonate and ABS. In some
cases an additional solid phase such as fibres or spheres
(syntactic foams consist of hollow glass, ceramic or
plastic microspheres dispersed throughout a polymer
matrix) may be added to the foam. Figures illustrate the
construction uses of polymer foams.
PU foam sprayed onto windows
PU foam insulation on tank
Syntactic foam
insulation on pipe work
By Rajat Nainwal

33. POLYSTYRENE
- Polystyrene (PS) foams are the most used foams of the thermoplastic
polymers.
- Extruded foam has a simple, more regular structure than moulded bead
foam, and better strength properties and higher water resistance.
- PS foams have poor outdoor weathering.
- They resist moisture well but deteriorate when exposed to direct
sunlight for long periods of time.
- These are used in construction as insulation.
- Masonry buildings can be easily insulated by placing foam board
between exterior and interior walls or by bonding the foam directly to
the wall.
PVC
- The greatest use of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) foam is where low
flammability is a key requirement.
- It has completely closed cell structure and therefore low water
absorption.
- Rigid PVC foam is generally used in sandwich panel structures,
whereas flexible PVC foam is used widely as the foam layer in
coated fabric flooring.
Some of the most important properties of PVC foam are:
• High tensile, shear and compressive strength
• Does not crumble under impact or vibration
• Low thermal conductivity
• Low water vapour permeability
• Resistance to termites and bacterial growth
• Good chemical resistance.
Polystyrene Polystyrene Sheets
PVC Foam Boards
By Rajat Nainwal

34. POLYURETHANE
The most commonly used techniques for producing rigid PU foams include:
• Foam-in-place • Spraying • Continuous slabbing.
- Foaming-in-place is a useful method for filling irregular voids or cavities, it is
especially suited to high-rise applications and gives good uniformity in density and
foam structure.
- The slab produced can be cut after curing, or formed to a specific shape and size.
The main advantages of PU over other foams lie in its:
• Low thermal conductivity (0.02 W/m°C).
• Good thermal resistance (up to 120 °C).
• Low vapour permeability.
• Light weight and strength.
PHENOL-FORMALDEHYDE
Phenol-formaldehyde (PF) foam has:
• Good chemical and thermal resistance
• High resistance to water transmission and water uptake
• Good dimensional stability
• High strength to weight ratio
• Less flammability than most foams.
• Because of its high open-cell content it has relatively
low thermal resistance.
• Thermal insulation efficiency can be improved by the
application of a skin of hot bitumen or other suitable
material.
Epoxy
The technology of epoxy foam is similar to that of
PU foams, except that epoxies need the addition of a
foaming agent. Epoxy foams have very good
chemical stability, moisture resistance and thermal
insulating properties, but because of the high cost
their use in building construction is limited.
Polyurethane foam for use in sealing, filling
and insulating.
Pelican Cast Reinforced-steel-epoxy
Phenol Formaldehyde foam flame resistance
1200 degrees, non-toxicity, low smoke resist
By Rajat Nainwal

35. FIBRE REINFORCED POLYMERIC MATERIALS (FRPS)
FRP materials consist of two or more distinct physical phases, one of which, the fibrous, is dispersed in a continuous matrix phase. FRPs offer
the designer a combination of properties not available in traditional materials. It is possible to introduce the fibres in the polymer matrix at
highly stressed regions in a certain position, direction and volume in order to obtain the maximum efficiency from the reinforcement, and then,
within the same member to reduce the reinforcement to a minimal amount at regions of low stress value. Other advantages offered by the
material are lightness, resistance to corrosion, resilience, translucency and greater efficiency in construction compared with the more
conventional materials.
APPLICATION OF FRP’S IN CONSTRUCTION
• Time saving – low weight for fast construction in time tight projects
• Durability – able to survive, especially in harsh environments
• Repair – allow repair of structures in situ
• Strengthening – strengthening of structures in situ
• Tailor-made properties – where especially high performance is needed in one direction
• Appearance – where a particular colour, shape or texture is required
• Blast/fire – where blast or fire resistance is required
• Radio transparent
• Low maintenance – in conditions where difficult access makes maintenance hard
The main current areas of application of FRPs in construction are:
• Architectural features, i.e., non-structural elements
• Bridges • Cladding • Column wrapping
• Domes • Enclosures • Fencing
• Masts • Pipes • Roofing
• Structures – including modular • Tanks • Towers
• Refurbishment/strengthening existing structures
• Seismic retrofitting – strengthening of a structure with FRP to withstand earthquake.
Architectural features FRP bridge
FRP cladding FRP swimming pool lining
Strengthening with
carbon fibre
FRP modular structure
By Rajat Nainwal