IE

INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING
9/15/2010

ASSIGNMENT NO-01
METHOD & TIME STUDY OF OPERATIONS WITH MOTION
ECONOMICS

OPERATIONS:
1. HEMMING
2. LAP FELT SEAM
3. BOUND SEAM

SUBMITTED BY:
DILIP SIGH (ROLL NO-11) S

KUMAR SARVESH (ROLL NO-13)

RAJEEV SHARAN (ROLL NO-23)

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TIME STUDY & MOTION ECONOMICS

[Type your address]  [Type your phone number]  [Type your e-mail address]
DILIP SINGH  KUMAR SARVESH  RAJEEV SHARAN
September 15, 2010

What is Industrial Engineering?

Definition of Industrial Engineering - The Work of an Industrial
Engineer

The field of engineering is subdivided in several major disciplines like
mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering,
electronical engineering, chemical engineering, metallurgical engineering,
and also industrial engineering. Certainly this disciplines can also be
subdivided further. Industrial Engineering integrates knowledge and skills
from several fields of science: From the Technical Sciences, Economic
Sciences as well as Human Science - all these can also be supported with
skills in Information Sciences. The Industrial Engineer comprehends
knowledge in those sciences in order to increase the productivity of
processes, achieve quality products and assures Labour safety.

BFTECH-05 / 2008-12/ NIFT BANGALORE |

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Hence, we can define Industrial Engineering as given below:

“Industrial Engineering is concerned with the design, improvement, and
installation of integrated systems of people, materials, information,
equipment and energy. It draws upon specialized knowledge and skill in the
mathematical, physical, and social sciences together with the principles and
methods of engineering analysis and design to specify, predict, and evaluate
the results to be obtained from such system‖.

(The above given formal definition of industrial engineering has been
adopted by the Institute of Industrial Engineers (IIE)).

Role of Industrial Engineering (IE):

 To understand the role of industrial engineering (IE) it is helpful to
learn the historical developments that were involved in the
development of IE.
 Principles of early engineering were first taught in military academies
and were concerned primarily with road and bridge construction and
with defenses.
 Interrelated advancements in the fields of physics and mathematics
laid the groundwork for practical applications of mechanical
principles.
 The first significant application of electrical science was the
development of the telegraph by Samuel Morse (approximately 1840).
 Thomas Edison‘s invention of the carbon lamp (approximately 1880)
led to widespread use of electricity for lighting purposes.
 The science of chemistry is concerned with understanding the nature
of matter and learning how to produce desirable changes in materials.
 Fuels were needed for the new internal combustion engines.
Lubricants were needed for the rapidly growing collection of

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mechanical devices. Protective coatings were needed for houses,
metal products, ships, and so forth.
 Five major engineering disciplines (civil, chemical, electrical,
industrial, and mechanical) were the branches of engineering that
came out prior to the 1st World War.
 Developments following 2nd World War led to other engineering
disciplines, such as nuclear engineering, electronic engineering,
aeronautical engineering, and even computer engineering.

Chronology of Industrial Engineering

 Charles Babbage visited factories in England and the United States in
the early 1800‘s and began a systematic recording of the details
involved in many factory operations.
 He carefully measured the cost of performing each operation as
well as the time per operation required to manufacture a pound
of pins.
 Babbage presented this information in a table, and thus
demonstrated that money could be saved by using women and
children to perform the lower-skilled operations.
 The higher-skilled, higher-paid men need only perform those
operations requiring the higher skill levels.
 Frederick W. Taylor is credited with recognizing the potential
improvements to be gained through analyzing the work content of a
job and designing the job for maximum efficiency.
 Frank B. Gilbreth extended Taylor‘s work considerably. Gilbreth‘s
primary contribution was the identification, analysis and measurement
of fundamental motions involved in performing work.
 Another early pioneer in industrial engineering was Henry L. Gantt,
who developed the so-called Gantt chart. The Gantt chart was a
significant contribution in that it provided a systematic graphical
procedure for pre-planning and scheduling work activities, reviewing
progress, and updating the schedule. Gantt charts are still in
widespread use today.

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 During the 1920s and 1930s much fundamental work was done on
economic aspects of managerial decisions, inventory problems,
incentive plans, factory layout problems, material handling problems,
and principles of organization.

Scope of Industrial Engineering (IE)

 The extent of industrial engineering is evidenced by the wide range of
such activities as research in biotechnology, development of new
concepts of information processing, design of automated factories,
and operation of incentive wage plans.

Diversity of Industrial Engineering (IE)

 Industrial engineering is a diverse discipline concerned with the
design, improvement, installation, and management of integrated
systems of people, materials, and equipment for all kinds of
manufacturing and service operations.
 IE is concerned with performance measures and standards, research of
new products and product applications, ways to improve use of scarce
resources and many other problem solving adventures.
 IE draws upon specialized knowledge and skill in the mathematical,
physical, and social sciences, together with a strong background in
engineering analysis and design and the management sciences to
specify, predict, and evaluate the performance from such systems.

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What Industrial Engineers do??

So what do industrial engineers do to increase productivity and assure
quality?

An Industrial Engineer can perform several activities to fulfil its task:
Processes and Procedures of manufacturing or service activites can be
examined through Process Analysis.

He can Use Work Study comprehending Method Study and Time Study.
Method Study is the Study of How a job is performed examining and
recording the activities, operators, equipment and materials involved in the
process. Time Study records and rates the times of jobs being performed.
The mentioned activities are also called operations Management.
Furthermore can Industrial Engineering involve inventory management to
make a manufacturing process more feasible and efficient. Industrial
Engineers are also involved in design activities for Products, Equipment,
Plants an Workstations. Here ergonomics and motion economy play a role.
Last but not least is the Industrial Engineer playing an important role in
developing Quality Management Systems (as they i.e. should comply with
the ISO 9000 Standards). Here they often have job titles like Quality
Engineer or Quality Manager.

Employment

 An Industrial Engineer may be employed in almost any type of
industry, business or institution, from retail establishments to
manufacturing plants to government offices to hospitals.
 Because their skills can be used in almost any type of organization,
and also industrial engineers are more widely distributed among
industries than other engineers.

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 For example, industrial engineers work in insurance companies,
banks, hospitals, retail organizations, airlines, government agencies,
consulting firms, transportation, construction, public utilities, social
service, electronics, personnel, sales, facilities design, manufacturing,
processing, and warehousing.

What activities…???

 Develop applications of new processing, automation, and control
technology.
 Install data processing, management information, wage incentive
systems.
 Develop performance standards, job evaluation, and wage and salary
programs.
 Research new products and product applications.
 Improve productivity through application of technology and human
factors.
 Select operating processes and methods to do a task with proper tools
and equipment.
 Design facilities, management systems, operating procedures.
 Improve planning and allocation of scarce resources.
 Enhance plant environment and quality of people's working life
 Evaluate reliability and quality performance
 Develop management control systems to aid in financial planning and
cost analysis
 Implement office systems, procedures, and policies
 Analyze complex business problems by operations research
 Conduct organization studies, plant location surveys, and system
effectiveness studies
 Study potential markets for goods and services, raw material sources,
labor supply, energy resources, financing, and taxes.

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The evolution of the industrial and systems engineering profession has been
affected significantly by a number of related developments:

1. Impact of Operations Research
 The development of industrial engineering has been greatly influenced
by the impact of an analysis approach called operations research.
 This approach originated in England and the United States during 2nd
World War and was aimed at solving difficult war-related problems
through the use of science, mathematics, behavioral science,
probability theory, and statistics.
2. Impact of Digital Computers
 Digital computers permit the rapid and accurate handling of vast
quantities of data, thereby permitting the IE to design systems for
effectively managing and controlling large, complex operations.
 The digital computer also permits the IE to construct computer
simulation models of manufacturing facilities and the like in order to
evaluate the effectiveness of alternative facility configurations,
different management policies, and other management considerations.
 Computer simulation is emerging as the most widely used IE
technique.The development and widespread utilization of personal
computers is having an exciting impact on the practice of industrial
engineering.
3. Emergence of Service Industries
 In the early days of the industrial engineering profession, IE practice
was applied almost fully in manufacturing organizations. After the
2nd World War there was a growing awareness that the principles and
techniques of IE were also applicable in non-manufacturing
environments.
 Thousands of Industrial Engineers are employed by government
organizations to increase efficiency, reduce paperwork, design
computerized management control systems, implement project

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management techniques, monitor the quality and reliability of vendor-
supplied purchases, and for many other functions

Productivity

Productivity is a measure of output from a production process, per unit of
input. For example, labor productivity is typically measured as a ratio of
output per labor-hour, an input. Productivity may be conceived of as a
metric of the technical or engineering efficiency of production. As such, the
emphasis is on quantitative metrics of input, and sometimes output.
Productivity is distinct from metrics of allocative efficiency, which take into
account both the monetary value (price) of what is produced and the cost of
inputs used, and also distinct from metrics of profitability, which address the
difference between the revenues obtained from output and the expense
associated with consumption of inputs.

Productivity is the ratio of output to input and is normally represented in
the following way:

PRODUCTIVITY = ( OUTPUT / INPUT)

OUTPUT refers to goods or services produced
INPUT refers to all resources used in producing the Output

This includes one, or all, of the following:
 Land and Buildings
 Materials
 Machines
 People
The use which is made of all of these resources combined, determines the
productivity of the enterprise.

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The Task of Management

Management is responsible for making sure that the best use is made of all
resources, ie. Land and buildings, materials, machine and men. This can be
achieved by co-ordinating the efforts to everyone in the organisation to
achieve the best results, and to use the resources as effectively as possible.

Economic growth and productivity

Production is a process of combining various material inputs (stuff) and
immaterial inputs (plans, know-how) in order to make something for
consumption (the output). The methods of combining the inputs of
production in the process of making output are called technology.
Technology can be depicted mathematically by the production function
which describes the relation between input and output. The production
function can be used as a measure of relative performance when comparing
technologies.
The production function is a simple description of the mechanism of
economic growth. Economic growth is defined as any production increase of
a business or nation (whatever you are measuring). It is usually expressed as
an annual growth percentage depicting growth of the company output (per
entity) or the national product (per nation). Real economic growth (as
opposed to inflation) consists of two components. These components are an
increase in production input and an increase in productivity.

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The figure illustrates an economic growth process (exaggerated for clarity).
The Value T2 (value at time 2) represents the growth in output from Value
T1 (value at time 1). Each time of measurement has its own graph of the
production function for that time (the straight lines). The output measured at
time 2 is greater than the output measured at time one for both of the
components of growth: an increase of inputs and an increase of productivity.
The portion of growth caused by the increase in inputs is shown on line 1
and does not change the relation between inputs and outputs. The portion of
growth caused by an increase in productivity is shown on line 2 with a
steeper slope. So increased productivity represents greater output per unit of
input.
Accordingly, an increase in productivity is characterised by a shift of the
production function (steepening slope) and a consequent change to the
output/input relation. The formula of total productivity is normally written as
follows:
 Total productivity = Output quantity / Input quantity
According to this formula, changes in input and output have to be measured
inclusive of both quantitative and qualitative changes. In practice,
quantitative and qualitative changes take place when relative quantities and
relative prices of different input and output factors alter. In order to
accentuate qualitative changes in output and input, the formula of total
productivity shall be written as follows:
 Total productivity = Output quality and quantity / Input quality and
quantity

Relationship between higher productivity and higher living standards

Higher productivity can contribute to a higher standard of living and will
also provide:
• Larger supplies of consumer goods and capital goods at lower costs
and lower prices.
• Higher real earnings .
• Improvements in working and living conditions, including shorter
hours of work.

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• A strengthening of the economic foundations on which the well being
of individuals is based.

Main processes of a company

A company can be divided into sub-processes in different ways; yet, the
following five are identified as main processes, each with a logic, objectives,
theory and key figures of its own. It is important to examine each of them
individually, yet, as a part of the whole, in order to be able to measure and
understand them. The main processes of a company are as follows

 real process
 income distribution process
 production process
 monetary process
 market value process

Productivity is created in the real process, productivity gains are distributed
in the income distribution process and these two processes constitute the
production process. The production process and its sub-processes, the real
process and income distribution process occur simultaneously, and only the
production process is identifiable and measurable by the traditional
accounting practices. The real process and income distribution process can
be identified and measured by extra calculation, and this is why they need to
be analysed separately in order to understand the logic of production
performance.

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Real process generates the production output from input, and it can be
described by means of the production function. It refers to a series of events
in production in which production inputs of different quality and quantity are
combined into products of different quality and quantity. Products can be
physical goods, immaterial services and most often combinations of both.
The characteristics created into the product by the manufacturer imply
surplus value to the consumer, and on the basis of the price this value is
shared by the consumer and the producer in the marketplace. This is the
mechanism through which surplus value originates to the consumer and the
producer likewise. Surplus value to the producer is a result of the real
process, and measured proportionally it means productivity.

Income distribution process of the production refers to a series of events in
which the unit prices of constant-quality products and inputs alter causing a
change in income distribution among those participating in the exchange.
The magnitude of the change in income distribution is directly proportionate
to the change in prices of the output and inputs and to their quantities.
Productivity gains are distributed, for example, to customers as lower
product sales prices or to staff as higher income pay. Davis has deliberated [4]
the phenomenon of productivity, measurement of productivity, distribution
of productivity gains, and how to measure such gains. He refers to an
article[5] suggesting that the measurement of productivity shall be developed
so that it ‖will indicate increases or decreases in the productivity of the
company and also the distribution of the ‘fruits of production‘ among all
parties at interest‖. According to Davis, the price system is a mechanism
through which productivity gains are distributed, and besides the business
enterprise, receiving parties may consist of its customers, staff and the
suppliers of production inputs. In this article, the concept of ‖distribution of
the fruits of production‖ by Davis is simply referred to as production income
distribution or shorter still as distribution.

The production process consists of the real process and the income
distribution process. A result and a criterion of success of the production
process is profitability. The profitability of production is the share of the real
process result the producer has been able to keep to himself in the income
distribution process. Factors describing the production process are the
components of profitability, i.e., returns and costs. They differ from the
factors of the real process in that the components of profitability are given at
nominal prices whereas in the real process the factors are at periodically
fixed prices.

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Monetary process refers to events related to financing the business. Market
value process refers to a series of events in which investors determine the
market value of the company in the investment markets.

Surplus value as a measure of production profitability

The scale of success run by a going concern is manifold, and there are no
criteria that might be universally applicable to success. Nevertheless, there is
one criterion by which we can generalise the rate of success in production.
This criterion is the ability to produce surplus value. As a criterion of
profitability, surplus value refers to the difference between returns and costs,
taking into consideration the costs of equity in addition to the costs included
in the profit and loss statement as usual. Surplus value indicates that the
output has more value than the sacrifice made for it, in other words, the
output value is higher than the value (production costs) of the used inputs. If
the surplus value is positive, the owner‘s profit expectation has been
surpassed.

The table presents a surplus value calculation. This basic example is a
simplified profitability calculation used for illustration and modelling. Even
as reduced, it comprises all phenomena of a real measuring situation and
most importantly the change in the output-input mix between two periods.
Hence, the basic example works as an illustrative ―scale model‖ of
production without any features of a real measuring situation being lost. In
practice, there may be hundreds of products and inputs but the logic of
measuring does not differ from that presented in the basic example.

Both the absolute and relative surplus value have been calculated in the
example. Absolute value is the difference of the output and input values and
the relative value is their relation, respectively. The surplus value calculation

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in the example is at a nominal price, calculated at the market price of each
period.

Productivity model

The next step is to describe a productivity model[6] by help of which it is
possible to calculate the results of the real process, income distribution
process and production process. The starting point is a profitability
calculation using surplus value as a criterion of profitability. The surplus
value calculation is the only valid measure for understanding the connection
between profitability and productivity or understanding the connection
between real process and production process. A valid measurement of total
productivity necessitates considering all production inputs, and the surplus
value calculation is the only calculation to conform to the requirement.

The process of calculating is best understood by applying the term ceteris
paribus, i.e. "all other things being the same," stating that at a time only the
impact of one changing factor be introduced to the phenomenon being

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examined. Therefore, the calculation can be presented as a process
advancing step by step. First, the impacts of the income distribution process
are calculated, and then, the impacts of the real process on the profitability
of the production.

The first step of the calculation is to separate the impacts of the real process
and the income distribution process, respectively, from the change in
profitability (285.12 – 266.00 = 19.12). This takes place by simply creating
one auxiliary column (4) in which a surplus value calculation is compiled
using the quantities of Period 1 and the prices of Period 2. In the resulting
profitability calculation, Columns 3 and 4 depict the impact of a change in
income distribution process on the profitability and in Columns 4 and 7 the
impact of a change in real process on the profitability.

Illustration of the real and income distribution processes

Measurement results can be illustrated by models and graphic presentations.
The following figure illustrates the connections between the processes by
means of indexes describing the change. A presentation by means of an
index is illustrative because the magnitudes of the changes are
commensurate. Figures are from the above calculation example of the
production model. (Loggerenberg van et al. 1982. Saari 2006).

The nine most central key figures depicting changes in production
performance can be presented as shown in Figure. Vertical lines depict the
key figures of the real process, production process and income distribution
process. Key figures in the production process are a result of the real process
and the income distribution process. Horizontal lines show the changes in
input and output processes and their impact on profitability. The logic

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behind the figure is simple. Squares in the corners refer to initial calculation
data. Profitability figures are obtained by dividing the output figures by the
input figures in each process. After this, the production process figures are
obtained by multiplying the figures of the real and income distribution
process.

Depicting the development by time series

Development in the real process, income distribution process and production
process can be illustrated by means of time series. (Kendrick 1984, Saari
2006) The principle of a time series is to describe, for example, the
profitability of production annually by means of a relative surplus value and
also to explain how profitability was produced as a consequence of
productivity development and income distribution. A time series can be
composed using the chain indexes as seen in the following.

Now the intention is to draw up the time series for the ten periods in order to
express the annual profitability of production by help of productivity and
income distribution development. With the time series it is possible to prove
that productivity of the real process is the distributable result of production,
and profitability is the share remaining in the company after income
distribution between the company and interested parties participating in the
exchange.

The graph shows how profitability depends on the development of
productivity and income distribution. Productivity figures are fictional but in
practice they are perfectly feasible indicating an annual growth of 1.5 per
cent on average. Growth potentials in productivity vary greatly by industry,
and as a whole, they are directly proportionate to the technical development
in the branch. Fast-developing industries attain stronger growth in

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productivity. This is a traditional way of thinking. Today we understand that
human and social capitals together with competition have a significant
impact on productivity growth. In any case, productivity grows in small
steps. By the accurate measurement of productivity, it is possible to
appreciate these small changes and create an organisation culture where
continuous improvement is a common value.

Measuring and interpreting partial productivity

Measurement of partial productivity refers to the measurement solutions
which do not meet the requirements of total productivity measurement, yet,
being practicable as indicators of total productivity. In practice,
measurement in production means measures of partial productivity. In that
case, the objects of measurement are components of total productivity, and
interpreted correctly, these components are indicative of productivity
development. The term of partial productivity illustrates well the fact that
total productivity is only measured partially – or approximately. In a way,
measurements are defective but, by understanding the logic of total
productivity, it is possible to interpret correctly the results of partial
productivity and to benefit from them in practical situations.

Typical solutions of partial productivity are:

1. Single-factor productivity
2. Value-added productivity
3. Unit cost accounting
4. Efficiency ratios
5. Managerial control ratio system

Single-factor productivity refers to the measurement of productivity that is a
ratio of output and one input factor. A most well-known measure of single-
factor productivity is the measure of output per work input, describing work
productivity. Sometimes it is practical to employ the value added as output.
Productivity measured in this way is called Value-added productivity. Also,

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productivity can be examined in cost accounting using Unit costs. Then it is
mostly a question of exploiting data from standard cost accounting for
productivity measurements. Efficiency ratios, which tell something about the
ratio between the value produced and the sacrifices made for it, are available
in large numbers. Managerial control ratio systems are composed of single
measures which are interpreted in parallel with other measures related to the
subject. Ratios may be related to any success factor of the area of
responsibility, such as profitability, quality, position on the market, etc.
Ratios may be combined to form one whole using simple rules, hence,
creating a key figure system.

The measures of partial productivity are physical measures, nominal price
value measures and fixed price value measures. These measures differ from
one another by the variables they measure and by the variables excluded
from measurements. By excluding variables from measurement makes it
possible to better focus the measurement on a given variable, yet, this means
a more narrow approach. The table below was compiled to compare the
basic types of measurement. The first column presents the measure types,
the second the variables being measured, and the third column gives the
variables excluded from measurement.

National productivity

Productivity measures are often used to indicate the capacity of a nation to
harness its human and physical resources to generate economic growth.
Productivity measures are key indicators of economic performance and there
is strong interest in comparing them internationally. The OECD publishes an
annual Compendium of Productivity Indicators[7] that includes both labour
and multi-factor measures of productivity.

Labour productivity and multi-factor productivity

Labour productivity is the ratio of (the real value of) output to the input of
labour. Where possible, hours worked, rather than the numbers of
employees, is used as the measure of labour input. With an increase in part-
time employment, hours worked provides the more accurate measure of
labour input. Labour productivity should be interpreted very carefully if used
as a measure of efficiency. In particular, it reflects more than just the
efficiency or productivity of workers. Labour productivity is the ratio of
output to labour input; and output is influenced by many factors that are

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outside of workers' influence, including the nature and amount of capital
equipment that is available, the introduction of new technologies, and
management practices.

Multifactor productivity is the ratio of the real value of output to the
combined input of labour and capital. Sometimes this measure is referred to
as total factor productivity. In principle, multifactor productivity is a better
indicator of efficiency. It measures how efficiently and effectively the main
factors of production - labour and capital - combine to generate output.
However, in some circumstances, robust measures of capital input can be
hard to find.

Labour productivity and multifactor productivity both increase over the long
term. Usually, the growth in labour productivity exceeds the growth in
multifactor productivity, reflecting the influence of relatively rapid growth
of capital on labour productivity.

Importance of national productivity growth

Productivity growth is a crucial source of growth in living standards.
Productivity growth means more value is added in production and this
means more income is available to be distributed.

At a firm or industry level, the benefits of productivity growth can be
distributed in a number of different ways:

 to the workforce through better wages and conditions;
 to shareholders and superannuation funds through increased profits
and dividend distributions;
 to customers through lower prices;
 to the environment through more stringent environmental protection;
and
 to governments through increases in tax payments (which can be used
to fund social and environmental programs).

Productivity growth is important to the firm because it means that it can
meet its (perhaps growing) obligations to workers, shareholders, and
governments (taxes and regulation), and still remain competitive or even
improve its competitiveness in the market place.

There are essentially two ways to promote growth in output:

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 bring additional inputs into production; or
 increase productivity.

Adding more inputs will not increase the income earned per unit of input
(unless there are increasing returns to scale). In fact, it is likely to mean
lower average wages and lower rates of profit.

But, when there is productivity growth, even the existing commitment of
resources generates more output and income. Income generated per unit of
input increases. Additional resources are also attracted into production and
can be profitably employed.

At the national level, productivity growth raises living standards because
more real income improves people's ability to purchase goods and services
(whether they are necessities or luxuries), enjoy leisure, improve housing
and education and contribute to social and environmental programs.

‗Productivity isn't everything, but in the long run it is almost everything. A
country's ability to improve its standard of living over time depends almost
entirely on its ability to raise its output per worker. World War II veterans
came home to an economy that doubled its productivity over the next 25
years; as a result, they found themselves achieving living standards their
parents had never imagined. Vietnam veterans came home to an economy
that raised its productivity less than 10 percent in 15 years; as a result, they
found themselves living no better - and in many cases worse - than their
parents‘.

‗Over long periods of time, small differences in rates of productivity growth
compound, like interest in a bank account, and can make an enormous
difference to a society's prosperity. Nothing contributes more to reduction of
poverty, to increases in leisure, and to the country's ability to finance
education, public health, environment and the arts‘.

Sources of productivity growth

In the most immediate sense, productivity is determined by:

 the available technology or know-how for converting resources into
outputs desired in an economy; and
 the way in which resources are organised in firms and industries to
produce goods and services.

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Average productivity can improve as firms move toward the best available
technology; plants and firms with poor productivity performance cease
operation; and as new technologies become available. Firms can change
organisational structures (e.g. core functions and supplier relationships),
management systems and work arrangements to take the best advantage of
new technologies and changing market opportunities. A nation's average
productivity level can also be affected by the movement of resources from
low-productivity to high-productivity industries and activities.

National productivity growth stems from a complex interaction of factors.
As just outlined, some of the most important immediate factors include
technological change, organisational change, industry restructuring and
resource reallocation, as well as economies of scale and scope. Over time,
other factors such as research and development and innovative effort, the
development of human capital through education, and incentives from
stronger competition promote the search for productivity improvements and
the ability to achieve them. Ultimately, many policy, institutional and
cultural factors determine a nation's success in improving productivity.

Productivity studies

Productivity studies analyze technical processes and engineering
relationships such as how much of an output can be produced in a specified
period of time (see also Taylorism). It is related to the concept of efficiency.
While productivity is the amount of output produced relative to the amount
of resources (time and money) that go into the production, efficiency is the
value of output relative to the cost of inputs used. Productivity improves
when the quantity of output increases relative to the quantity of input.
Efficiency improves, when the cost of inputs used is reduced relative the
value of output. A change in the price of inputs might lead a firm to change
the mix of inputs used, in order to reduce the cost of inputs used, and
improve efficiency, without actually increasing the quantity of output
relative the quantity of inputs. A change in technology, however, might
allow a firm to increase output with a given quantity of inputs; such an
increase in productivity would be more technically efficient, but might not
reflect any change in allocative efficiency.

The Ishikawa diagram, and related business process modeling, may be a
useful tools for studying productivity. These methods list process inputs

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such as people, methods, machines, energy and materials and the
environment.

Energy efficiency

Energy efficiency has played a significant role in increasing productivity in
the past; however, most industrial processes have exhausted the easy
efficiency gains. The early Newcomen steam engine was 1% efficient,
Watt's improvements increased efficiency to 4%, and today's steam turbines
may have efficiencies in the 40% range.

Increases in productivity

Companies can increase productivity in a variety of ways. The most obvious
methods involve automation and computerization which minimize the tasks
that must be performed by employees. Recently, less obvious techniques are
being employed that involve ergonomic design and worker comfort. A
comfortable employee, the theory maintains, can produce more than a
counterpart who struggles through the day. In fact, some studies claim that
measures such as raising workplace temperature can have a drastic effect on
office productivity. Experiments done by the Japanese Shiseido corporation
also suggested that productivity could be increased by means of perfuming
or deodorising the air conditioning system of workplaces. Increases in
productivity also can influence society more broadly, by improving living
standards, and creating income. They are central to the process generating
economic growth and capital accumulation. A new theory suggests that the
increased contribution that productivity has on economic growth is largely
due to the relatively high price of technology and its exportation via trade, as
well as domestic use due to high demand, rather than attributing it to micro
economic efficiency theories which tend to downsize economic growth and
reduce labor productivity for the most part. Many economists see the
economic expansion of the later 1990s in the United States as being allowed
by the massive increase in worker productivity that occurred during that
period. The growth in aggregate supply allowed increases in aggregate
demand and decreases in unemployment at the same time that inflation
remained stable. Others emphasize drastic changes in patterns of social
behaviour resulting from new communication technologies and changed
male-female relationships.

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Labor productivity

Labour productivity is generally speaking held to be the same as the
"average product of labor" (average output per worker or per worker-hour,
an output which could be measured in physical terms or in price terms). It is
not the same as the marginal product of labor, which refers to the increase in
output that results from a corresponding increase in labor input. The
qualitative aspects of labor productivity such as creativity, innovation,
teamwork, improved quality of work and the effects on other areas in a
company are more difficult to measure.

Marx on productivity

In Karl Marx's labor theory of value, the concept of capital productivity is
rejected as an instance of reification, and replaced with the concepts of the
organic composition of capital and the value product of labor. A sharp
distinction is drawn by Marx for the productivity of labor in terms of
physical outputs produced, and the value or price of those outputs. A small
physical output might create a large value, while a large physical output
might create only a small value - with obvious consequences for the way the
labor producing it would be rewarded in the marketplace. Moreover if a
large output value was created by people, this did not necessarily have
anything to do with their physical productivity; it could be just due to the
favorable valuation of that output when traded in markets. Therefore, merely
focusing on an output value realised, to assess productivity, might lead to
mistaken conclusions. In general, Marx rejected the possibility of a concept
of productivity that would be completely neutral and unbiased by the
interests or norms of different social classes. At best, one could say that
objectively, some practices in a society were generally regarded as more or
less productive, or as improving productivity - irrespective of whether this
was really true. In other words, productivity was always interpreted from
some definite point of view. Typically, Marx suggested in his critique of
political economy, only the benefits of raising productivity were focused on,
rather than the human (or environmental) costs involved. Thus, Marx could
even find some sympathy for the Luddites, and he introduced the critical
concept of the rate of exploitation of human labour power to balance the
obvious economic progress resulting from an increase in the productive
forces of labor.

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Sceular decline in productivity

U.S. productivity growth has been in long term decline. U.S. GDP growth
has never returned to the 4% plus rates of the pre World War 1 decades.

Resource depletion decreases productivity as more effort in the form of
labor, materials and energy are required for extraction and processing. For
example, early U.S. onshore oil production yielded 100 barrels per foot
drilled whereas by the 1990's yield was one barrel per foot.

The long term decline in productivity may be viewed as a Kondratiev wave
(see: Peak progress: 1870 to 1914) phenomenon. Modern Kondratiev wave
research gives a clearer link between actual historical innovation and
economic growth.

Productivity paradox

Despite the proliferation of computers, productivity growth was relatively
slow from the 1970s threough the early 1990s. One hypothesis to explain
this is that computers are productive, yet their productive gains are realized
only after a lag period, during which complementary capital investments
must be developed to allow for the use of computers to their full potential.
Another hypothesis states that computers are simply not very productivity-
enhancing because they require time, a scarce complementary human input.
This theory holds that although computers perform a variety of tasks, these
tasks are not done in any particularly new or efficient manner, but rather
they are only done faster. It has also been argued that computer automation
just facilitates ever more complex bureaucracies and regulation, and
therefore produces a net reduction in real productivity. Another explanation
is that knowledge work productivity and information-technology (IT)
productivity are linked, and that without improving knowledge work
productivity, IT productivity does not have a governing mechanism.

Factors Tending to Reduce Productivity

Excess Work Content added bv Defects in Desiqn. or Specification of
Product

• The bad design of the garment prevents the use of the most economic

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methods of sewing.

• The lack of standardisation prevents the use of high speed production

processes.

• Incorrect quality standards cause unnecessary work.

• The design of the garment may mean that an excessive amount of

fabric has",to be wasted in cutting, due to the shape of the pattern parts.

• Large size ranges and colours reduce the number of sizes which can

be marked in, thereby increasing the cloth usage per size.

Excess Work content added bv Inefficient methods of manufacture or
operation

• The use of the wrong machine can cause reduced output.

• If the method is not being adhered to, then productivity will b,e,reduced.

• Bad workplace layout causes wasted movement.

• An operator's bad working methods cause wasted time and effort.

Ineffective Time due to Shortcominqs of Manaqement/Supervisors

• Excess Product variety adds to idle time, due to short runs.

• The lack of standardisation adds idle time due to changeovers.

• Design changes add ineffective time due to stoppages for re-training.

• Bad planning of the work and orders reduces efficiency.

• Lack of fabric due to bad planning causes waiting time.

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• Badly maintained machines cause idle time.

• Machines in bad condition cause bad quality.

• Bad working conditions prevent the operator from working steadily,
feeling

comfortable and at home.

• Accidents cause lost time.

• Poor service operators cause delays, waiting for cotton etc.

Ineffective time within the control of the Operator

• Absence, lateness and laziness reduce productivity.

• Careless workmanship causes bad quality.

• Accidents due to carelessness cause absenteeism.

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Introduction to Work Study

Basically Work Study concentrates in two areas, the time it takes to do the
job (Work Measurement) and the best way to do the job (Method Study)
 The first known practitioner of Work Study is Walter of Henley. As
early as the year 1240 he wrote a letter to his son, a farmer, explaining
the methods of ploughing a piece of land. He told him that by using a
specific number of oxen and for the ploughman to work in a specified
way, he would be able to plough a certain number of acres per day.
He continued to explain that on some land it was advisable to use
horses to pull the plough, although the number of acres ploughed
would be less than if oxen were used, the horses were more sure
footed and therefore stood less chance of being injured.

 Leonardo da Vinci, Jean R Peronet, Charles Babbage, Boulton Watt &
Sons, Robert Owen, and many more, are famous names who have
been involved in Work Study techniques over the centuries.
 An American, Frederick Winslow Taylor was the pioneer of modern
scientific management. In 1874 he began an apprenticeship as a
patte,rn maker and machinist in a small shop in Philadelphia.
However, in 1878, as there was an industrial depression, Taylor was
compelled to take a job at the Midvale Steel Works as an ordinary
labourer.
Within a period of nine years he was rapidly promoted to time clerk,
lathe operator, gang boss, foreman of the machine shop and chief
engineer of the works.
When Taylor was appointed gang boss, he sought to increase output
by putting pressure on the men. A serious struggle between gang boss
and workers ensued.
After two years, Taylor finally won the struggle, but the experience
hurt him.Taylor was a humane and sincere man, and the forceful
methods he had been compelled to employ to achieve the result,
sickened him. He gave the matter thought and decided that the
primary cause of such conflicts was the management, without

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knowing what was a proper day's work, tried to secure output by
pressure. If Management knew the best way to do a job and what
constituted a proper day's work, it could then obtain the output by
demonstration. He decided to investigate what constituted a fair day's
work for every operation in the shop.
Taylor believed in high wages with low labour cost. His means of
attaining this objective was by accurate Time Study. It was in 1887
whilst a foreman in the Midvale Steel Company of Philadelphia that
Taylor started to break down the cycle of an operating into small
groups of motions called elements.

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What is Work Study???

Work Study is the systemeatic examination of the methods of carrying out
activities such as to improve the effective use of resources and to set up
standards of performance for the activities carried out.

Work Study

Components of Work Study

Another definition of Work Study could be:

A generic term for those techniques, particularly method study and work
measurement, which are used in the examination of human work in all its
contexts, and which lead systematically to to the investigation of all the
factors which affect the efficiency and economy of the situation being
reviewed, in order to effect improvement'
This has to do with Productivity Improvement, but also improvement of
Quality and Safety.

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The Role of Work Study as a means of Increasing Productivity
Work Study covers many management techniques, but is defined broadly as:
• Method Study: The systematic recording, examination and improvement
of doing work in order to develop a better METHOD.

The Value of Work Study
Investigations and improvements of work at the work place is not a new
task. In fact good managers have been performing these tasks ever since
human effort became organized on a large scale. However, due to a short
supply of skilled managers and increasing demands placed on them it is
virtually impossible to devote sufficient time and effort to investigating and
providing longer term solutions.
 The main value of Work study is that by carrying out it's systematic
procedures it provides managers with results that are better and longer
term than in the past.
 Due to it's systematic nature more time is needed to carry out a study
of work, as a result, it becomes necessary to separate this task from
that of a manager. Unless all the facts are know it is impossible to
ensure that any alteration to current methods will be effective. Thus, it
requires constant observation and study and should be the
responsibility of a person who is not involved in the direct
management duties.
Work Study is thus a service to management and supervision and will ensure
the following benefits: -
• It is a means of raising the productive efficiency of a factory or
organization with little or no capital investment.
• It is systematic and ensures that no factor is overlooked.
• It is the most accurate means of setting standards upon which production
planning and control can take place
• The resultant savings start at once and continue for as long as the
operations continue in the improved form.
• It is a "tool" which can be applied everywhere.
• It is one of the most penetrating tools of investigation available to
management.

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To achieve the full benefit of work study, it should be applied in all areas of
an organisation and continuously.
The full effect of work study will only be felt in an organization when all
employees become accustomed to an attitude that:
• Does not tolerate waste in any form, whether material, time effort or
human ability .
• The refusal to accept without question that things should be done in a
certain way because it is the way it has always been done.

Recording

The Need for Records •
A method of recording all the details and changes is needed to be able to be
visualized by those responsible for making the final decisions. It is also
important to have a record to be able to compare the past and present
systems and their pro's and con's.

Recordinq Techniques
Recording techniques fall into one of two categories depending on the nature
of the job and the purpose for which the record is required. At times both
techniques are used to present a complete record. The information for the
recording techniques is obtained by the following methods:
 Visual observation
 Calculation
 Photographic technique
 Specialised knowledge

The two types of recording techniques are:

1. Charts
 Outline process chart - principal operations and inspections
 Flow process chart - activities of men, material or equipment
 Two-handed process chart - activities of a worker's two hands.

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 Multiple activity chart - activities of men and/or machines on a
common time scale.
 Simultaneous motion cycle (simo) chart - activities of a worker's
hands, legs, and other body movements on a common time scale.
 Travel chart - movements of materials between departments, etc

2. Diagrams and models
 Flow and string diagrams - movements of materials between
departments, etc.
 Two and three dimensional Models - paths of movement of men,
materials or Equipment.
 Cyclegraphs - layout of work-place or plant.
 Chronocyclegraphs - high speed, short cycle operations

Process Chart Construction

The use of the following symbols recommended by the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers, simplifies the construction and interpretation
of process charts.

.
 These symbols are used to represent steps in the procedure or
manufacturing process in the case of outline and flow process charts.

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 When necessary the operation activity can be subjected to a more
detailed analysis.
 The distinction is then made between make ready, put away and do
operations.
"Make ready" and "put away" operations - these deal with the
preparation of material, plant or equipment t~ enable the "do" operations or
"inspection" to be performed, and with the placing aside or clearing up after
the "do" operation or "inspection".

"Do" operations - the actual performance of work on the material or work
with plant and equipment. The "do" operation symbols can be shades to
facilitate subsequent examination in order of the importance to the overall
process.

Time Chart Construction
These are bar charts, where shading is used on a time scale to represent
different activities in synchronizing work cycles also known as multiple
activity charts or Gantt charts. Various colours or shadings can be used to
make certain features stand out.

Basic Information
The information that is collected for the records must be easily understood
and recognised. The following information should always be provided:
• A description of all the activities and/or movements used in the method,
• Is the present or proposed method being shown,
• A clear reference to the beginning and end of activities,
• Distance and time scales used,
• An explanation of abbreviations and/or special devices used,
• The date of construction of the chart or diagram.

Flow Process Chart
This chart shows transports, delays and storage as well as operations and
inspections. It can show the process in terms of events as they affect the
material being processed, or in terms of the activities of the man or
equipment used.

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Flow process charts recording simultaneous activities of two or more
subjects can be presented alongside each other on the same sheet of paper.

Only the activities of the particular subject which it refers, whether man,
material or equipment, are recorded on any single chart.

Construction of the chart
The conventions used in this chart are the same as for the outline process
chart, except that all five symbols are used. The distance is recorded on the.
left of the symbol. The total distance is entered at the foot of the chart.

Amplifying the Chart
The charts value as a record may be increased by making full use of
colouring and hatching in order to show up some particular aspect of a
process.
A clearer understanding of an activity that extends over a large area
including many workplaces, is obtained if they are separated on the chart.

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What is Method Study?

Method Study is the systematic recording and critical examination of ways
of doing things in order to make improvements.
Method Study Flow Chart

Process of a Method Study

Objective
The main objectives of method study are:
• The improvement of processes and procedures.
• The improvement of factory, shop and work place layout and design of
plant and equipment.
• Economy in human effort and the reduction of unnecessary effort.
• Improvements in the use of materials, machines and manpower.
• The development of a better physical working environment.

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The key to successful method improvement is to follow a systematic
approach, and the good Work Study Officer always uses the following steps:

 SELECT the job to be studied by making sure it is worthwhile
spending time to improve it.
For example - Economic Considerations
Technical Considerations
Human Factor

 RECORD - every detail about the job, even if it seems to have no
effect on the method; sometimes the most minor detail can lead to a
method improvement failure. Technique — ASME symbols
Therbliqs (The basic elements of hand work are termed Therbligs,
i.e. Grasp — begins when hand or body member touches an object,
consists of gaining control of an object, ends when control is gained).
 EXAMINE - all the details by asking WHY? WHO? WHERE?
WHAT?
 CONSIDER - alternatives for improvement and DEVELOP the most
suitable.
 DEFINE - all jobs other than those performed on standard machine
tools or specialized machine where the process and methods are
virtually controlled by the machine.
 INSTALL- the new method and make sure it is understood.
 MAINTAIN- the new method by continually checking that it is still
being performed correctly.

It is important to realise that improving the method is not simply having
good ideas, it is necessary to make sure that your "improved" method has
been properly thought out and that it in fact gives the results you
expected.

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Method Study Steps

 Selecting the work to be studied
When considering whether a method study investigation of a job
should be carried out, the following should be kept in mind:

1. Economic Considerations
If the economic considerations of the job are small, there is no reason to
continue a long investigation. Some questions to ask are — "Will it pay
to begin a method study of this job?", and " Will it pay to continue the
study?"
Some early choices are - bottlenecks
Movements of material over long distances
Operations involving repetitive work
2. Technical considerations
It must be clear if there is enough technical knowledge to carry out the
study.
Some examples are:
 The loading of unfired ware into kilns in a pottery. A method
change may bring increased productivity of plant and labour,
however, there may be technical reasons not to make this change.
Here advice should be given by a specialist in the field.
A high-speed cutting tool could replace a slower tool that is causing a
bottleneck. Can the machine be speeded up, or is the machine not
strong enough to handle the excess speed. Seek advice from a
specialist in this field.
3. Human Reactions
As mental and emotional reactions to investigations and changes of methods
play a big part in the process, Human reactions are important factors to take
into consideration. All the necessary Unions and personnel should be
involved in the process. If at any time a particular process is causing unrest
leave the process alone.

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Workplace Layout

The working area:
Before attempting to develop a new method, a Work Study Officer must
have a knowledge of the basic principles of Workplace layout.
There is a definite limited area which the worker can use with minimum
expenditure of effort.
This is known as the NORMAL WORKING AREA.

The area immediately in front of the worker, where the arcs overlap, is the
zone in which two handed work may be done most easily.

If all the parts, materials or equipment cannot be located in the Normal
Working Area, then they should be placed within the MAXIMUM
WORKING AREA.

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Objects placed between the Normal and Maximum Working Areas can be
picked up reasonably easily.
Anything placed outside the Maximum Area can only be reached with
difficulty, involving body stretching or bending.
As far as possible, materials should not be stored in the area directly in front
of the operator, as stretching forward is very tiring.
Reaching too high or too low can also cause tiredness. The Supervisor and
the Work Study Officer must consider this.

Location of Materials

The Work Study Officer should consider a number of points before deciding
where parts should be placed. These include:
 Garment parts should be located in the Normal Working Area, if
possible,because it is easier to handle and see things within this
area.
 Any holders or shelves should be arranged so that the contents are
used in the correct sequence. This assists when training the
method.

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Therblig

A therblig is the name for one of a set of fundamental motions required for a
worker to perform a manual operation or task. The set consists of 18
elements, each describing a standardized activity. These are listed below.
 Search
 Find
 Select
 Grasp
 Hold
 Position
 Assemble
 Use
 Disassemble
 Inspect
 Transport loaded
 Transport unloaded
 Pre-position for next operation
 Release load
 Unavoidable delay
 Avoidable delay
 Plan
 Rest to overcome fatigue
The therblig is used in the study of motion economy in the workplace. A
workplace task is analyzed by recording each of the therblig units for a
process, with the results used for optimization of manual labor by
eliminating unneeded movements.
The word therblig is a reversal of the word Gilbreth, with 'th' treated as one
letter. It was the creation of Frank Bunker Gilbreth and Lillian Moller
Gilbreth, the American industrial psychologists who invented the field of
time and motion study.

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Seams
In sewing, a seam is the join where two or more layers of fabric or other
materials are held together with stitches.

Seams are classified by their position in the finished object (center back
seam, side seam) and by their construction (plain seam, flat-felled seam)

Types

1. BOUND SEAM

construction of a bound seam

A bound seam has each of the raw edges of its seam allowances enclosed in
a strip of fabric, lace or net 'binding' that has been folded in half lengthwise.
An example of binding is double-fold bias tape. The binding's fold is

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wrapped around the raw edge of the seam allowance and is stitched, through
all thicknesses, catching underside of binding in stitching

2. HEM
To hem a piece of cloth (in sewing), a garment worker folds up a cut edge,
folds it up again, and then sews it down. The process of hemming thus
completely encloses the cut edge in cloth, so that it cannot ravel.
A hem is also the edge of cloth treated in this manner.

The hem may be sewn down with a line of invisible hem-stitch or blind-
stitch or sewn down by a sewing machine, usually leaving a visible line of
sewing. Modern sewing machines designed for home use can make many
decorative or functional stitches, so the number of possible hem treatments
is large. These home-use machines can also sew a reasonable facsimile of a
hem-stitch, though the stitches will usually be larger and more visible.

Clothing factories and professional tailors use a blind hemmer, or hemming
machine, which sews an invisible stitch quickly and accurately. A blind
hemmer sews a chain stitch, using a bent needle, which can be set precisely
enough to actually sew through one and a half thicknesses of the hemmed
fabric.

3. SUPERIMPOSED SEAM (SS)

The superimposed seam is used to join two or more pieces of material
(fabric or otherwise) together. It is created by one ply of fabric being stacked
(superimposed) upon another with their right sides (the one that will show
when the item is worn or used) together (RST) and using thread to stitch
through all layers. This is the one of the most recognized methods of
seaming and is used to construct most commercial garments.

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4. PLAIN SEAM

Construction of a plain seam

A plain seam is the most common sort of machine sewn seam. It joins two
pieces of fabric together face-to-face by sewing through both pieces, leaving
a seam allowance with raw edges inside the work. The seam allowance
usually requires some sort of seam finish to prevent raveling.
Either piping or cording may be inserted into a plain seam.

5. FRENCH SEAM

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Construction of a French seam.

In a French seam, the raw edges of the fabric are fully enclosed for a neat
finish. The seam is first sewn with wrong sides together, then the seam
allowances are trimmed and pressed. A seond seam is sewn with right sides
together, enclosing the raw edges of the original seam allowances

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6. GERMAN SEAM

Construction of an antique or old German seam.

Antique or old German seam is the 19th century name for a hand-sewn seam
that joins two pieces of fabric edge-to-edge at their selvages. This type of
construction is found in traditional linen garments such as shirts and
chemises, and in hand-made sheets pieced from narrow loom widths of
linen.

7. LAPPED SEAM

This class of seaming has the largest number of variations. A lapped seam is
achieved with two or more pieces of fabric overlapping each other. LS
commonly, but not always, have one ply of fabric fold under itself for a
finished edge. Lapped seams are common when working with leather and
sewing side seams on jeans and dress shirts.

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OPERATIONS

1. HEMMING

Purpose of the operation: To do the time study of the conventional
method of the operation and propose a new method which is less time
taking, more efficient and ergonomically more consistent. We are
hemming the fabric for the finishing of garment. This is the foremost
important operation of garment construction which is also considered
as one of the finishing operations in the construction of any garment.

Design of Parts
 fabric of 8‖ x 8‖.

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TWICE FOLD THROUGH ½‖ INCHES

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Tolerance and specifications

# PARTICULARS SPECIFICATIONS TOLERANCE
1. FIRST FOLD ½‖ +/- 1/8‖
2. SECOND FOLD ½‖ +/- 1/8‖

Material used: Popeline fabric used, 3 ply thread used.

Working condition

# Particulars Standard Experienced
1 Illumination 450 lux 383 lux
2 Noise level >85 decibels 78 decibels
3 Temperature 18-23oC 29-30oC

Ergonomics

# Particulars Dimensions
1 Machine table length 42 3/4‖
2 Machine table width 21‖
3 Machine table height 30‖
4 Stool height 19‖
5 Side table height from ground 24‖
6 Side table width 17 7/8‖

Conventional method:

Setting and Tools
Single needle lock stitch machine(SNLS)
No extra template and folder used.
Tools:
Shear

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Elemental breakdown (Material handling)
1. Lifting fabric from the side table from left hand placing it on the
sewing table.
2. Folding the fabric with both hands at the width of ½‖, twice.
3. Starting edge stitch of ½‖ distance from the folded end, giving back
tack in the starting and end with back tack.
4. Cutting needle thread and bobbin thread with shear.
5. Placing stitched pieces on the side table with left hand.

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# ELMENTS

1 Lifting fabric from
the side table from
left hand placing it
on the sewing table.

2 Folding the fabric
with both hands at
½‖, twice.
3 Start edge stich with
backtack
4 Cutting the threads
with shear.
5 Placing the finished
sample on the side
table.

Revised method:

Setting and Tools
Hem folder used.
Tools:
Shear

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Layout for revised method

FOLDER

sewing table.
2. Inserting the fabric with both hands.
3. Starting edge stitch of ½‖ distance from the folded end, giving back
tack in the starting and end with back tack.

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# ELMENTS

the side table from
left hand placing it on
the sewing table.

2 Inserting the fabric
through folder.
backtack
with shear.
sample on the side
table.

Time study

Sample Time taken By traditional/conventional Time taken by revised
No. method method
1. 44 sec 20 sec
2. 38 sec 17 sec
3. 40 sec 18 sec
4. 41 sec 20 sec
5. 33 sec 14 sec
6. 36 sec 14 sec
7. 34 sec 15 sec
8. 28 sec 17 sec
9. 33 sec 13 sec
10. 30 sec 12 sec
Avg. 35.7 sec 16 sec

Avg saved time: 35.7-16= 19.7 sec/sample

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2. BOUND SEAM

Purpose of the operation: To do the time study of the conventional
method of the operation and propose a new method which is less time
taking, more efficient and ergonomically more consistent. We are
bounding the fabric with a fabric strip for the finishing of garment.
This is one of the common operation of garment construction which is
also considered as one of the finishing operations in the construction
of any garment.

Design of Parts
 fabric of 9‖ x 8‖.
 Fabric strip of 1‖ x 9‖.

1”
8”

9” 9”

¼‖
Folded through these lines on both side

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Tolerance and specifications

# PARTICULARS SPECIFICATIONS TOLERANCE
1. FABRIC STRIPE 1‖ X 9‖ +/- 1/8‖
2. SIDE FOLD ON ¼‖ +/- 1/8‖
STRIPE

Material used: Popeline fabric used, 3 ply thread used.

Working condition

# Particulars Standard Experienced
1 Illumination 450 lux 383 lux
2 Noise level >85 decibels 78 decibels
3 Temperature 18-23oC 29-30oC

Ergonomics

# Particulars Dimensions
1 Machine table length 42 3/4‖
2 Machine table width 21‖
3 Machine table height 30‖
4 Stool height 19‖
5 Side table height from ground 24‖
6 Side table width 17 7/8‖

Conventional method:

Setting and Tools
No extra template and folder used.
Tools:
Shear

57

9/15/2010

sewing table.
2. Lifting the fabric stripe.
3. Folding the stripe with both hands at the width of ¼‘, on the both
sides.
4. Placing the stripe around the desired side of fabric.
5. Allignig the front & back side of stripe.
6. Starting edge stitch of ¼‖ distance from the central folded end, giving
back tack in the starting and end with back tack.

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9/15/2010

# ELMENTS

the side table from
left hand placing it on
the sewing table.

2 Lifting the fabric
stripe.
3 Folding the stripe
with both hands at
¼‖, on the both
edges.
4 Placing the stripe
around the fabric.
5 Aligning the front &
back side of the
stripe.
backtack
with shear.
sample on the side
table.

59

IE

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