Effective leadership, communication and supervision

Lecture Series on
Effective Leadership, Communication and Supervision in
Workplace
Compiled by
Chanakya P. Rijal, PhD in Leadership
Nepal College of Management
In Affiliation with
Kathmandu University, School of Management
Lalitpur, Nepal
[Spring, 2015]
Instruction for academic reference:
Rijal, C. P. (2015). Effective leadership, communication and supervision in workplace.
Lecture Series. Kathmandu: Author.
1Leadership, communication and supervision

The Contents
1. Leadership: Meaning and importance, leading as a
managerial process, styles of leadership
2. Communication: Basic concepts and functions of
communication; Interpersonal Communication
[methods, making interpersonal communication
more effective]; Organizational Communication
[types, directions and networks]
3. Supervision: Concepts, importance, types,
processes and methods, providing with effective
supervision.

• Are leaders born?
• Can leadership be learnt?
• What are the determinants of effective leaders and
leadership?
• Are leaders different from managers?
• What is the role of leadership in transformation?
Leadership: Learning AgendaLeadership: Learning Agenda
Leadership, communication and supervision 3

Your mission…is to win our wars…you are
the ones who are trained to fight. Yours is the
profession of arms, the will to win, the sure
knowledge that in war there is no substitute
for victory; That if you lose, the nation will be
destroyed.…
General of the US Army
Douglas Macarthur

The most precious commodity with
which the army deals is the individual
soldier who is the heart and soul of our
combat forces.
General J. Lawton Collins,
VII Corps Commander, World War II

• The act of leading
• One of the key management process functions.
• Process of influencing people to do something that
they might otherwise not do.
• Refers to ‘Getting It Done’.
• An art which defies precise definitions.
• The action through which one or more persons are
influenced or guided to behave the way they are
expected to.
• Cannot occur without the consent of followers.
Introducing LeadershipIntroducing Leadership

• Leadership ranges from the smallest decision, such
as where to eat lunch, to the decisions that affect
the directions of nations.
• Attainment of agreement upon goals or purposes is
important, but the group or organization is an
important part of the leadership process.
• Once individuals turn as successful leaders, they are
more likely to accept or seek more challenging
opportunities
Introducing LeadershipIntroducing Leadership

Leadership
Influencing people by providing the purpose,
direction, and motivation while operating to
accomplish the mission and improving the
organization.

Influencing
• Getting people to do what you want them to
do.
• The example you set is just as important as
the words you speak.
• Through your words and example, you must
communicate purpose, direction, and
motivation.

• Persuades people with a reason to
something.
• You must earn their trust: they must know
from experience that you care about them
and would not ask them to do something
particularly dangerous or affective unless
there is a good reason, and unless the task is
essential to mission accomplishment.
Purpose

• Communicate the way you want the mission
be accomplished.
• Prioritize tasks.
• Assign responsibility and communicate;
delegate authority when necessary.
• Make sure your people understand the
standard.
• Listen, and correct the limitations that
oppose your direction.
Direction

• People want direction. They want to be given
challenging tasks, training in how to accomplish
them, and the resources necessary to do them well.
Then they want to be left alone to do the job.

• Motivation gives subordinates the will to do
everything they can to accomplish a mission.
• To motivate your people, give them goals that
challenge them.
• Get to know your people and their capabilities.
• Give them as much responsibility as they can.
Motivation

• When they succeed, praise them.
• When they fall short, give them credit for what they
have done and coach or counsel how to do better
next time.
• Make sure that the example you set is as important
as what you say and how well you manage the
work.
Motivation

• Actions taken to influence others serve to
accomplish operating actions
• Take take those actions that help accomplish the
stated goals.
• All leaders execute operating actions, which
become more complex as they assume positions of
increasing responsibility.
Operating

• Leaders should strive for improving everything that
is entrusted to them, their people, facilities,
equipment, training, and all resources.
Improving

Means Ends
Efficiency Effectiveness
Goals
Low High
wastage attainment
Leadership Vs. Efficiency and Effectiveness

1. Planning
1. Define goals
2. Establish strategy
3. Develop tactics/subplans
3. Leading
1. Direct the people
2. Motivate the people
3. Resolve the conflicts
2. Organizing
Determine:
1. What to be done
2. How to be done
3. Who is to do
4. Controlling
Motivate activities
to ensure that they
are accomplished
as planned.
Achieving the
organization’s
stated purpose
Leadership as One of the Management Functions

LEADERSHIP & MANAGEMENT PROCESS
 The processes aimed at the achievement of the
organization’s stated objectives.
 The French industrialist Henri Fayol wrote that all
managers perform FIVE management activities; planning,
organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling.
 In the 1950s, two professors at UCLA recognized FIVE
terms planning, organizing, staffing, directing and
controlling as the framework of management.
 Now condensed to FOUR; Planning, organizing, leading
and controlling.

21
Formality of Leadership
• Individuals who occupy organizational offices or
positions which have power as part of the position.
• Individuals who have power with an organization
because other personal charisma or other
characteristics but do not hold an official position of
power.

Manager Characteristics
Administers
A copy
Maintains
Focuses on systems and structures
Relies on controls
Short-range view
Asks how and when
Eye on the bottom line
Imitates
Accepts the status quo
Classic good soldier
Does things right
Manager Vs. LeaderManager Vs. Leader
Leader Characteristics
Innovates
An original
Develops
Focuses on people
Inspires trust
Long-range perspective
Asks what and why
Eye on the horizon
Originates
Challenges the status quo
Own person
Does the right things
Warren G. Bennis, Managing the dream: leadership in 21st century, journal of
Organizational Change Management, vol. 2, No. 1, 1989, p. 7

Personal
Goal Setting
Elements of Self-Leadership
Constructive
Thought Patterns
Designing
Natural Rewards
Self-Monitoring
Self-Reinforcement

• Weber has defined THREE types of leadership
legitimacies:
• Traditional Legitimacy,
• Charismatic Legitimacy, and
• Bureaucratic Legitimacy
Legitimacy - what makes you a leader!

• Legitimacy to control is handed down from the
past
• Based on most traditional forms of customs
• Obedience based on loyalty to traditions
• Leadership decisions can be arbitrary
• Leadership authority is limited by the displeasure
of the subjects, and failure to follow traditions
Examples: Kingdoms of China, Egypt, family schools
Pros: Leadership is clearly defined
Cons: Possible irrationalism, easily corrupted
Traditional Legitimacy

Based on Inspiration: Vision and projection
Legitimacy occurs after leader proves him/herself
Examples: Jesus Christ, Hitler, Ghandi
Pros: The leader is not restricted by tradition and
technical knowledge
Cons: Power can be abused, and people can be
mislead into following
Charismatic Legitimacy

Power is given based on skills, knowledge, and
experience.
Obedience is based on rank which is completed for
and earned.
Structured hierarchy prevails.
Examples: Headteacher, Army General, Catholic
Church
Pros: Rational, technically efficient, and favours
levelling of social classes
Cons: Breeds impersonality and contempt, and stunts
enthusiasm.
Bureaucratic Legitimacy

Accountability and responsiveness to be the
central aspects.
External environmental forces likely to create
unexpected pressure.
Management rigidity to be the strongest enemy
of leadership.
Nations more likely to go for international jobs.
Leadership to be applied in every sector.
Future of LeadershipFuture of Leadership

To set standards and accountabilities for operational
outcomes produced at all levels.
Measure the outcomes to confirm that they have positive
relationship with the improvements made.
Initiate changes for systems improvement to facilitate long
term system’s transformation.
Communicate the problems, prospects, and necessary
changes with the external forces, and seek their continued
support.
Create and maintain international partnerships.
Enhance overall team effectiveness
Roles of Current LeadershipRoles of Current Leadership

• Systems thinking
• Organizational designing
• Stewardship: share vision
and purpose
• Creating creative tensions
• Teaching for development
Other Important Roles of LeadersOther Important Roles of Leaders

• Do all people want to lead?
• Is it the part of universality of leadership to pay
high for the managers from the developed
countries?
• Is leadership not dominated by situation?
• Does legacy of leadership have its final definition?
Leadership DilemmasLeadership Dilemmas

• The change or legacy of a good leader will last
longer after the leader has left the role.
• Role model unconsciously important role in writing
leadership schools
• A school, once it is created, provides a platform to
play for all and forever.
• Bad aspects are dominated and ignored.
Leadership EffectsLeadership Effects

2. Leadership in Perspectives2. Leadership in Perspectives
• Slater (1995) has defined leadership from four
major perspectives:
–Structural-Functionalist Perspective
–Political-Conflict Perspective
–Constructivist Perspective
–Critical Humanist Perspective

Structural Functionalist PerspectiveStructural Functionalist Perspective
• This is a dominant perspective of leadership.
• It sees leadership as a set of measurable behavior
or skills.
• Includes all functional activities covering planning,
organizing, leading, and controlling of the resources
for their best utilization to make the institutional
operations more cost effective.

Political-Conflict PerspectivePolitical-Conflict Perspective
• This perspective contrasts with the structural-
functionalist perspective because it does not see
leadership as a set of behavior and skills, rather it
sees it as power relationship with the subordinates.
• 'Structure of domination' is the essence of this
perspective.
• This perspective can be seen as the relationship
between the manager and other members.

Constructivist PerspectiveConstructivist Perspective
• This perspective also tends to see leadership as the
leader behaviors and skills.
• It emphasizes that the majority of the behavior and
skills become dominated by one or two major
behaviors that lead the functioning of other
behaviors and skills.
• As its symbolic aspect, this perspective tends to
convey the meaning that the underlying dynamic
social laws construct the structure of the society.

Constructivist PerspectiveConstructivist Perspective
• This perspective disagrees that the social structure
or the social science, and administration are value
free.
• Creating and imparting values for life is the essence
of this perspective of leadership.
• Since institutions are for providing products or
services with value for life, this perspective is
instrumental in better understanding the
philosophy of leadership.

• This perspective deals with the human relations at
the workplace.
• Creating motivating jobs, providing guidance, love
and care, and offering a vision for the team, one
may be able to establish personally as a leader.
• The indicators of the humanist perspective of
leadership are the personality traits, and leader
member relations.
Critical Humanist PerspectiveCritical Humanist Perspective

Perspectives of LeadershipPerspectives of Leadership
• To summarize from the various leadership
perspectives, it may be concluded that leader
behavior has to be measured in terms of -
–leader's relationship of power position,
–leader’s behavior and skills to add values to
the society, and
–leader’s personality traits to figurehead the
work teams.

Issues Governing LeadershipIssues Governing Leadership
Political-legal issuesPolitical-legal issues
Economic issuesEconomic issues
Socio-cultural issuesSocio-cultural issues
Technological issuesTechnological issues
International issuesInternational issues

Selected Leadership Theories
Trait Theories
Behavioral Approaches
Contingency Approaches
Neocharismatic Approaches

Theoretical Considerations in LeadershipTheoretical Considerations in Leadership
Trait Theories focus on learning about specific personality
traits and attributes of the leaders that separate them from
non-leaders.
Behavioral Approaches specialize on studying the impact of
particular leadership behavior on his/her success of leading.
Contingency Approaches try to visualize the influence of
context or contingency factors that influence leader’s
approach to leading in different situations.
Neocharismatic Approaches reveal a number of newer
approaches to leadership practices.

Trait Theory
• The theories that sought personality, social,
physical, or intellectual traits that differentiated
leaders from nonleaders
• The traits are the inherent attributes of the leaders
to keep them distinct from others
• For example, Margaret Thatcher, as the prime
minister of UK, was recognized for her leadership in
terms of her confidence, iron-willed, determined,
and decisive.

• A research study was conducted in the 1930s to
study the attributes that differentiate the leaders
from nonleaders.
• A review of 20 different studies identified nearly 80
leadership traits, though the study was not aimed
to identify the leadership traits
• Among the identified traits, only FOUR of them
were common to all cases, which included
personality, social, physical, and intellectual traits.
Trait Theory

• Earliest approach to study leadership
• Used to identify great persons from masses
• Based on the assumption of -
certain traits = success/effectiveness
• The logic of leadership traits is as basic as
height, as complex as intelligence
Trait Theory

How Leaders Differ from Nonleaders?
• According to Kirkpatrick & Locke (1991),
leaders can be distinguished from nonleaders
on the basis of SIX attributes or traits:
• Drive
• Desire to lead
• Honesty and integrity
• Self-confidence
• Intelligence
• Job-relevant knowledge

Important Traits of Effective Leaders
• Personality
• Persuasive
• Persistence
• Patience
• Probity
• Praise giving
• Positive orientation
 People BasedPeople Based
 PossiblePossible
 PracticalPractical
 ProgressiveProgressive
 PreparedPrepared
 Power-buildingPower-building
13 Ps

Personality Factors for Effective Leadership
Capacity Achievement Responsibility Participation Status
Intelligence Scholarship Honesty Activity Socioeconomic
position
Alertness Knowledge Dependability Sociability Popularity
Verbal
facility
Athletic
accomplishment
Initiative Cooperation
Originality Personality
adjustment
Persistence Adaptability
Judgment Aggressiveness Humor
Self-confidence
Desire to excel

Criticisms on Trait Theories of Leadership
The belief that personality traits determine the rate of
success of a leader could easily be challenged because
practically it is very hard to distinguish leaders from non-
leaders based on personality traits
There exists a very thin relationship between traits and
leader’s success
Some traits are achieved by birth
Personality traits without motivation are worthless for
success
It does not look like a theory
“Traits Plus Motivation Equals Leadership”

Behavioral Approaches to Leadership
• Pattern of actions used by different
individuals determines leadership potential
• Examples
–Autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire
–Michigan Studies: Employee centered
versus task centered

Three Approaches to Behavioral Studies
1. Studies Based on Leadership Styles
2. Studies Based on Leadership Dimensions
3. Studies Based on Leadership Grid

1. Studies Based on Leadership Styles
Lewin, Lippitt, and White are probably the earliest
contributors of leadership study in a scientific
manner.
The authors specialized in leadership styles while
conducting a series of research studies in the 1930s
at the University of Iowa.
The suggested leadership styles include:
• Autocratic
• Democratic
• Laissez-Faire

When Quantity of work is important
When Quality of work is important
When Satisfaction with work is important
Which is the Best Style?
Autocratic Democratic Laissez Faire
Most Least
Democratic Autocratic Laissez Faire
Best Worst
Democratic Laissez Faire Autocratic
Most Least

Tannenbaum and Schmidt
- Continuum of Leadership Behavior
Autocratic Democratic Laissez-faire
Use of Authority by the Manager
Area of Freedom for Subordinates
Boss- Centered
Leadership
Subordinate- Centered
Leadership

Optimal Leadership Style Depends Upon:
1.Forces in the Leader
2.Forces in the Subordinate Group
3.Forces in the Situation
Tannenbaum/Schmidt’s Leadership Continuum

2. Studies Based on Leadership Dimensions
Key Contributions
a. Ohio State University Studies
b. Michigan State University Studies

Ohio State University Studies
Two Dimensions
• Initiating structure: The extent to which a
leader is likely to define and structure his/her
role and roles of subordinates in the search
for goal attainment
• Consideration: The extent to which a leader is
likely to have job relationships characterized
by mutual trust, respect for subordinates’
ideas, and regard of their feelings

Initiating Structure
–Is task oriented
–Directs subordinate work activities toward goal
attainment
–Typically give instructions, spend time planning,
and emphasize deadlines
–Provide explicit schedules of work activities
Consideration
–Is mindful of subordinates
–Establishes mutual trust
–Provides open communication
–Develops teamwork

Two Dimensions
• Employee Oriented: The leadership dimension in
which the leader emphasizes interpersonal
relations; relationship oriented.
• Production Oriented: The leadership dimension in
which the leader emphasizes on technical or task
aspect of the job; result oriented.
Michigan State University Studies
Similar to Ohio StudiesSimilar to Ohio Studies

Studies Based on Leadership Grid
• Blake and Mouton (1964) represented with the
graphical portrayal of the two dimensional view of
leadership
• The authors proposed a managerial grid showing
the key managerial styles of ‘concern for people’
and ‘concern for production’
• The grid has been developed in a nine-by-nine
matrix outlining 81 different leadership styles

The Managerial Grid
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Concern for People
ConcernforTask
(1,9)(1,9)
(9,1)(9,1)
(9,9)(9,9)
(5,5)(5,5)
(1,1)(1,1)

Figure 13.4 B: The Managerial Grid
High
High
Low
Low
Concern for Production
ConcernforPeople
1,9
Country Club Management
Thoughtful attention to the needs of people
for satisfying relationships leads to a com-
fortable, friendly organization atmosphere
and work tempo.
1,1 Impoverished Management
Exertion of minimum effort to get required
work done is appropriate to sustain
organization membership.
9,9
Team Management
Work accomplishment is from
committed people;
interdependence
through a “common stake” in
organization purpose leads to
relationships of trust and respect.
5,5
Middle-of-the-Road Management
Adequate organization performance is possible
through balancing the necessity to get out work
with maintaining morale of people at a
satisfactory level.
Authority-Compliance 9, 1
Efficiency in operations results from
arranging conditions of work in such a
way that human elements interfere to a
minimum degree.

Leadership Styles
Likert’s System Four
System I—Exploitive Autocratic
System II—Benevolent Autocratic
System III—Consultative
System IV—Participative Group

Contingency Theories of Leadership
• Leader traits and/or leader behaviors are
important aspects but must be taken in context.
That is, the situation matters.

Selected Studies on Contingency Approaches
• Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
• Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational (Life Cycle)
Theory
• House’s Path-Goal Theory

LPC: LEAST PREFERRED COWORKER
• Low LPC Score: task-oriented leader
• High LPC Score: relationship-oriented leader
• According to Fiedler, a person is one or the
other - it is a fixed personality trait

FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY
OF LEADERSHIP
A person’s LPC score correlates with:
• Task structure
• Leader/Member relations
• Leader position power
in terms of group effectiveness

Three Elements of Leadership Situations
Leader-member relations: refers to group
atmosphere and members’ attitude toward and
acceptance of the leader
Task structure: refers to the extent to which
tasks performed by the group are defined,
involve specific procedures, and have clear,
explicit goals
Position power: is the extent to which the
leader has formal authority over subordinates

Task-Oriented (low LPC)
Leader is best when situation either favorable
or unfavorable
Employee-Oriented (high LPC)
Leader is best when situation is moderately
favorable

POSSIBLE USES OF FIEDLER’S THEORY
1.Train leaders in needed style
(Fiedler says no)
2.Match the leader with the job
(Fiedler says this is a good start)
3.Engineer the job to fit the manger
(Fiedler says this is the best approach)

Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory
A contingency approach to leadership that
links the leader’s behavioral style with the
task readiness (maturity) of subordinates.
Also known as ‘life cycle’ theory.

Situational Leadership
• No single best way to lead
• Focus on maturity or readiness of followers
– Ability and willingness
• Adjust emphasis on task and relationship
behaviors according to the readiness of
followers to perform their tasks

Hersey’s Situational Leadership Model
• Based on
– Style of leadership
• Giving direction (task behaviour)
• Giving motivational support (relationship behaviour)
– “Readiness” of followers to perform a task
• Ability
• Willingness

Situational Leadership
• Telling: low readiness, untrained and inexperienced
employees
• Selling: low/moderate readiness, trained but
inexperienced employees
• Participating: moderate/high readiness, able but
unwilling, employees skeptical
• Delegating: high readiness, employees ready and
willing to take responsibility

Hersey and
Blanchard’s
Situational
Leadership
Model Defines
Relationship
Between
Maturity and
Four
Leadership
Styles
HighHigh
relationshiprelationship
Low taskLow task
High taskHigh task
HighHigh
LowLow
Low taskLow task
High taskHigh task
LowLow
M1M1
M2M2M3M3
M4M4
Participating
Delegating
Telling
Selling
HighHigh
LowLow HighHigh
Task BehaviorTask Behavior
RelationshipBehaviorRelationshipBehavior
Style ofStyle of
LeaderLeader
ImmatureImmatureMaturityMaturity
AbilityAbility
WillingnessWillingness
M1M1M2M2M3M3M4M4
HighHigh ModerateModerate LowLow
This person is able
(has the necessary
knowledge and skill)
This person is willing
(has the necessary
confidence and
commitment)
Maturity of Followers
Psychological maturity
Job maturity
A great dealA great deal
44
Quite a bitQuite a bit
33
SomeSome
22
LittleLittle
11
UsuallyUsually
44
OftenOften
33
On occasionOn occasion
22
SeldomSeldom
11

HOUSE’S PATH-GOAL THEORY OF LEADERSHIPHOUSE’S PATH-GOAL THEORY OF LEADERSHIP
 Based on Expectancy Theory of Motivation
 A leader should emphasize either path
clarification or adjust rewards depending on
the factors affecting a person’s motivation
 Theory assumes people can change their
leadership styles to fit the situation

Situational Contingencies
Three Important Situational Contingencies
in Path-Goal Theory
 The personal characteristics of group
members
 The work environment
 The situation

Path-goal Theory
• Rooted in Expectancy Theory
• Leader behaviors
– Directive
– Supportive
– Achievement-oriented
– Participative

Path-Goal Model of Leadership
Follower CharacteristicsFollower Characteristics
1.1. Locus of controlLocus of control
2.2. AuthoritarianismAuthoritarianism
3.3. AbilityAbility
OutcomesOutcomes
1.1. Job satisfactionJob satisfaction
2.2. PerformancePerformance
3.3. Acceptance of the leaderAcceptance of the leader
FollowersFollowers
1.1. PerceptionsPerceptions
2.2. MotivationMotivation
Environmental FactorsEnvironmental Factors
1.1. TasksTasks
2.2. Formal authority systemFormal authority system
3.3. Work groupWork group
Leader Behavior StylesLeader Behavior Styles
1.. DirectiveDirective
2.. SupportiveSupportive
3.. ParticipativeParticipative
4.. Achievement-orientedAchievement-oriented

Change Leadership
• Transactional Leader: Provides direction for
subordinates to achieve set objectives (typical
“good manager” using position power and some
personal power).
• Transformational Leader: Special ability to create
innovation & change (charismatic leader within an
organization – high on position & personal power).

Effects of Change Leadership
Transactional
Leadership
Current
state of
expected
subordinate
effort
Normal
expected
subordinate
performance
Transformational
Leadership
Heightened
motivation
to attain
designed
outcome
(extra effort)
Subordinate
performance
beyond
normal
expectations

Transformational Leadership
Transformational
Leadership
• Idealized Influence
• Inspiration
• Intellectual stimulation
• Individualized
consideration
Transformational
Leadership
• Idealized Influence
• Inspiration
• Intellectual stimulation
• Individualized
consideration
Transactional
Leadership
• Contingent reward
• Management by
exception (active or
passive)
• Laissez faire
Transactional
Leadership
• Contingent reward
• Management by
exception (active or
passive)
• Laissez faire
Performance
beyond
expectations
Performance
beyond
expectations
Agreed upon
performance
Agreed upon
performance
Broadening and
elevating
follower
goals
Leader/follower
exchange

Characteristics of Transactional LeadershipCharacteristics of Transactional Leadership
• Establishes goals and objectives
• Designs work flow and delegates task assignments
• Negotiates exchange of rewards for effort
• Rewards performance and recognizes
accomplishments
• Searches for deviations from standards and takes
corrective actions

Characteristics of Transformational LeadershipCharacteristics of Transformational Leadership
• Charismatic: Provides vision and a sense of mission,
gains respect and trust, instills pride.
• Individualized consideration: Gives personal
attention, and treats each person individually,
coaches.
• Intellectually stimulating: Promotes learning,
encourages rationality, uses careful problem
solving.
• Inspirational: Communicates high performance
expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, distills
essential purposes.

Participative Management
 Democratic approach of management
 Employees have autonomy in making and
implementing decisions
 Leader invites wider participation of the
subordinates in making and selling decisions
 Exists high degree of delegation of authority
 Managers listen and value the subordinate
suggestions
 High degree of customer focus exists
 A move into TQM process climate

Management by Objectives (MBO)
 A management system in which specific performance
goals are jointly determined by employees and their
managers, progress toward accomplishing those goals is
periodically reviewed, rewards are allocated on the basis
of the progress in accomplishing the goals.
 Goal achievement is the key of MBO.
 Management approach is driven by the nature of
performance objectives and goals.
 MBO consists of four elements -- i. goal specificity, ii.
participative decision making, iii. an explicit time
period, and iv. performance feedback.

Management by Walking Around (MBWA)
 A term used to describe when a manager is out in
the work area, interacting directly with employees,
and exchanging information about what’s going on.
 MBWA is a management control process which
follows THREE steps:
 Measuring actual performance,
 Comparing actual performance with the standard
performance, and
 Taking managerial actions for further
improvement

Management by Exception
 An alternative approach of management when the
other conventional laws management do not work
 Difficult to distinguish from charismatic,
transformational, and transactional leadership
approaches
 Examples:
 Use negative reinforcement if positive reinforcement
does not work
 Reward for faulty deeds if punishment does not work
 Do it yourself to let others know how to follow it
 Induce unexpected surprising ways to doing things

Learning Organization
 An organization with exceptional work culture.
 The most open type of organization.
 An organizational system in which fear of
ignorance and inability is eliminated through
relevant training and development.
 People learn through open interactions.
 Managers value subordinate problems and their
suggestions.
 Creativity creeps eternally in all members .
 A move towards TQM process climate.

Key Findings from Leadership Theories
• Transformational leaders inspire higher
performance than do transactional leaders.
• Effective leaders must be concerned about
accomplishing the task and relationships.
• Effective leaders know when to tell, sell, participate,
or delegate.
• Effective leaders understand mission and strategy,
know how to implement change, motivate
employees to high performance, and operate
effectively.
• Effective leaders lead by example and are honest
and fair. They inspire confidence.

Reasons for Derailment of Top Management
Rank the following in order of importance. Choose 1 for the reason you feel is most
important, 2 for next most important, etc.
a)Betrayal of Trust—failure to meet commitments
b)Cold, aloof, arrogant
c)Overdependence on one’s boss or mentor
d)Insensitive to others: abrasive, intimidating
e)Over-managing: unable to delegate or build a team
f)Unable to think broadly or strategically - too much attention to detail
and minor technical problems
g)Unable to adapt to a boss with a different style
h)Unable to select and develop an effective staff
i) Overly ambitious—plays politics, pushes too hard to get ahead
j) Failure to handle specific performance problems - failure to handle
problems then not admit the problem, try to cover up or shift blame
Source: “What Makes a Top Executive” by McCall and Lombardo,Source: “What Makes a Top Executive” by McCall and Lombardo, Psychology TodayPsychology Today, February 1983, February 1983Leadership, communication and supervision 91

Section 2: CommunicationSection 2: Communication

A two-way traffic of exchange ofA two-way traffic of exchange of
information between at least twoinformation between at least two
partiesparties
Context could be interpersonal,Context could be interpersonal,
organizational, or social.organizational, or social.

The Communication Process Model
Communication Process
The steps between a source and a receiver that result in the
transference and understanding of meaning.

The Communication ProcessThe Communication Process
Channel: The medium selected by the sender through
which the message travels to the receiver.
Types of Channels
– Formal Channels
• Are established by the organization and transmit messages
that are related to the professional activities of members.
– Informal Channels
• Used to transmit personal or social messages in the
organization. These informal channels are spontaneous and
emerge as a response to individual choices.

Elements of the Communication Process
• The sender
• Encoding
• The message
• The channel
• Decoding
• The receiver
• Noise
• Feedback

Functions of Communication
Communication Functions
1. Control member behavior.
2. Foster motivation for what is to be done.
3. Provide a release for emotional expression.
4. Provide information needed to make decisions.
Communication Functions
1. Control member behavior.
2. Foster motivation for what is to be done.
3. Provide a release for emotional expression.
4. Provide information needed to make decisions.
Communication
The transference and the understanding of meaning.

Information Richness of Communication ChannelsInformation Richness of Communication Channels
Low channel richness High channel richness
Routine Nonroutine

Directions of Communication
Upward
Downward
Lateral

Interpersonal CommunicationInterpersonal Communication
Oral CommunicationOral Communication
– Advantages: Speed and feedback.
– Disadvantage: Distortion of the message.
Written CommunicationWritten Communication
– Advantages: Tangible and verifiable.
– Disadvantages: Time consuming and lacks feedback.
Nonverbal CommunicationNonverbal Communication
– Advantages: Supports other communications and
provides observable expression of emotions and
feelings.
– Disadvantage: Misperception of body language or
gestures can influence receiver’s interpretation of
message. Leadership, communication and supervision 100

Three Common Formal Small-Group NetworksThree Common Formal Small-Group Networks

Small-Group Networks and
Effectiveness Criteria
NETWORKS
Criteria Chain Wheel All Channel
Speed Moderate Fast Fast
Accuracy High High Moderate
Emergence of a leader Moderate High None
Member satisfaction Moderate Low High

Grapevine
• Grapevine Characteristics
– Informal, not controlled by management.
– Perceived by most employees as being more believable
and reliable than formal communications.
– Largely used to serve the self-interests of those who use
it.
– Results from:
• Desire for information about important situations
• Ambiguous conditions
• Conditions that cause anxiety

Computer-Aided Communication
1. Social media based communication
2. Virtual network-based communication
3. Communicating other ICT media and technologies

Computer-Aided Communication (cont’d)
• Intranet
– A private organization-wide information network.
• Extranet
– An information network connecting employees with
external suppliers, customers, and strategic partners.
• Videoconferencing
– An extension of an intranet or extranet that permits
face-to-face virtual meetings via video links.

Emoticons in communication
Electronic mail needn’t be emotion free. Over the
years, a set of symbols (emoticons) has evolved that e-
mail users have developed for expressing emotions.
For instance, the use of all caps (i.e., THIS PROJECT
NEEDS YOUR IMMEDIATE ATTENTION!) is the
e-mail equivalent of shouting. The following
highlights some emoticons:

Barriers to Effective Communication
Filtering
A sender’s manipulation of information so that it will be
seen more favorably by the receiver.
Selective Perception
People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of
their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.
Information Overload
A condition in which information inflow exceeds an
individual’s processing capacity.

Barriers to Effective Communication (contd.)
Emotions
How a receiver feels at the time a message is received
will influence how the message is interpreted.
Language
Words have different meanings
to different people.
Communication Apprehension
Undue tension and anxiety about oral
communication, written communication, or both.

Communication Barriers
Between Men and Women
• Men talk to:
– Emphasize status,
power, and
independence.
– Complain that women
talk on and on.
– Offer solutions.
– To boast about their
accomplishments.
• Women talk to:
– Establish connection
and intimacy.
– Criticize men for not
listening.
– Speak of problems to
promote closeness.
– Express regret and
restore balance to a
conversation.

“Politically Correct” Communication
• Certain words stereotype, intimidate, and insult individuals.
• In an increasingly diverse workforce, we must be sensitive
to kown how words might offend others.
– Removed: handicapped, blind, and elderly
– Replaced with: physically challenged, visually impaired,
and senior.
• Removing certain words from the vocabulary makes it
harder to communicate accurately.
– Removed: death, garbage, quotas, and women.
– Replaced with terms: negative patient outcome,
postconsumer waste materials, educational equity, and
people of gender.

Cross-Cultural CommunicationCross-Cultural Communication
Cultural BarriersCultural Barriers
– Semantics
– Word connotations
– Tone differences
– Differences among
perceptions
Cultural GuideCultural Guide
– Assume differences until
similarity is proven.
– Emphasize description
rather than interpretation or
evaluation.
– Practice empathy.
– Treat your interpretations as
a working hypothesis.

Hand Gestures Mean Different
Things in Different Countries

Additional Works on OrganizationalAdditional Works on Organizational
CommunicationCommunication
1. Perform a depth review of different works on
organizational communication, its challenges,
situations of effective organizational
communication, its process and best practices.
2. Also provide with illustrative discussions on a few
examples of organizational communication.

Section 3: SupervisionSection 3: Supervision
1. Meaning of supervision
2. Importance of supervision
3. Types of supervision
4. Processes and methods of supervision
5. Providing with effective supervision

115
• Supervision may be referred to as executing the
responsibility of sustaining worker morale, helping
the workers with job-related discouragements and
discontents, and giving workers a sense of:
–worth as professionals,
–belonging to the agency, and
–security in their performance.
• Introduce new workers to the organization and help
them find their place in it.
• Act as a liaison person between various agencies
sharing policy and solving problems in terms of such
things as client referral.

116
What do supervisors do?
• They translate the policies and objectives of the
institution into specific work duties and timelines.
• They also select the jobs to be completed.
• Assign the right workers with right job.
• Determine the timelines when the jobs will be
completed.
• Review the works in progress and track the level of
compliance of defined standards.
• Perform employee job evaluation.

117
Continued…
• Educate workers on the goals and objectives of
the institution.
• Assure that employees behave in a manner they
are expected to.
• Resolve conflict:
– between workers;
– Between the agency and workers;
– Between units within the agency;
The supervisor is the bridge between higher levels of
administration and the worker.

118
There is linkage between leadership and
supervision, but how?

119
Empowerment-oriented leaders
• In empowerment-oriented practice, it is important that the
executive director establish a vision for the organization.
• The executive director must create an organizational culture
in which staff members and volunteers are client-oriented
and are committed to a set of values that supports power-
sharing.
• The executive director must have the ability to inspire and
motivate paid as well as unpaid workers. In addition, they
must be able to facilitate group-oriented decision-making
processes.

1. Autocratic or authoritarian supervision: A centralized
managerial approach in supervision whereby the
supervisor maintains the absolute power to maintain
employee discipline and obedience. May be suitable for
task-driven performance by less skilled workers; brick-lay
system.
2. Laissez-Faire or free-rein supervision: Widely known as
independent supervision as there exists maximum
decision-making freedom to the workers or subordinates.
May be suitable for highly skilled workforce loving for
gaining satisfaction from performance attainment through
self-regulation.
1. Autocratic or authoritarian supervision: A centralized
managerial approach in supervision whereby the
supervisor maintains the absolute power to maintain
employee discipline and obedience. May be suitable for
task-driven performance by less skilled workers; brick-lay
system.
2. Laissez-Faire or free-rein supervision: Widely known as
independent supervision as there exists maximum
decision-making freedom to the workers or subordinates.
May be suitable for highly skilled workforce loving for
gaining satisfaction from performance attainment through
self-regulation.
3/19/2015 120Team BMW
Types of Supervision

3. Democratic supervision: A participatory approach in which the
supervisor acts according to the mutual consent and discussion with
the subordinates. Suitable in team-based working environments.
4. Bureaucratic supervision: Such a type of supervision takes place as
part of system defined rules, regulations and working procedures.
Supervision takes place as a defined job duty of the supervisor and
also the reporting responsibility of the subordinate.
3. Democratic supervision: A participatory approach in which the
supervisor acts according to the mutual consent and discussion with
the subordinates. Suitable in team-based working environments.
4. Bureaucratic supervision: Such a type of supervision takes place as
part of system defined rules, regulations and working procedures.
Supervision takes place as a defined job duty of the supervisor and
also the reporting responsibility of the subordinate.
3/19/2015 121Team BMW
Types of Supervision

Let’s think of a few examples and best practices on --
1. Direct vs. non-direct
2. Routine vs. non-routine
3. Observational methods
4. Interviews
5. Technology supported supervision
122
Selected methods of supervisionSelected methods of supervision

123
Reasons of people turning in to leadersReasons of people turning in to leaders
1.Prestige and status
2.Increased salaries
3.A Desire to be a change agent
4.Increased opportunity for creativity
5.Increased capacity to give
6.A desire to control people

124
A good leader and supervisor…
1. Fosters trust;
2. Builds people rather than tears them down;
3. Is supportive;
4. Is consistent;
5. Is caring;
6. Uses time wisely;
7. Is persistent to their goals;
8. Is willing to compromise;
9. Allows as much freedom is possible;
10. Is creative.

125
Pre-requisites of quality supervisionPre-requisites of quality supervision
1. Clear and specific employee objectives in place.
2. Understanding of employee needs and motivation.
3. Leadership and managerial willingness to facilitate
the step-by-step progression of employees.
4. Organizational culture conducive to accept the
workforce diversity including differences in
viewing the role of working, differences in
motivation, differences in interest and differences
in cultural perspectives.

126
Emerging practices of supervision today
• Narrative assessments by supervisors using previously established
criteria; mostly in development organizations.
• Management by objective systems in which the supervisor
determines whether the employee has accomplished a
predetermined set of objectives.
• Rating scales and checklists that require the supervisor to make an
assessment of the worker’s level of performance on a standardized
scale; Norvic Hospital has a system of keeping performance
supervision logbook on daily basis.
• Comparison of an individual worker’s performance to those of other
workers. For example, workers could be compared in terms of the
number of successfully closed cases or the number of clients served
on average; Number of accounts created by medical sales
representatives.
• Multirater Assessment Systems in which more that one evaluator
directly assesses the worker’s skill or performance level.

127
Supervision as a tool for developing
competency and measuring it
• Many organizations and professional associations are now
evaluating performance by developing lists of specific skills
or competencies that professionally trained workers should
possess.
• Efforts have also been made to create tools or systems of
measurement to determine if workers in certain job
categories have actually acquired these skills or if they
need additional training

128
Worker empowerment through effective supervisionWorker empowerment through effective supervision
• According to Shera and Page (1995) a critical aspect of
empowerment-oriented organization is that the supervisors promote
positive relationships and images through the development of
positive language, help staff focus on client strengths, and model
appropriate behaviors and values to staff” (p. 4).
• Peer consultation for staff members who need assistance with
workplace issues may also be an effective means to provide support
and consequently increase a sense of personal empowerment and
autonomy (Shera, & Page, 1995).
• In a study of management practices in empowerment-oriented
organizations, Gutierrez et al. (1995) found that the use of peer
supervision techniques helped build relationships and support, with a
sense of shared philosophy and psychological safety among the staff
members.
• Employees can be organized into teams or support groups can be
established to facilitate peer consultation and information exchange.

129
Mentoring: A Key to Effective SupervisionMentoring: A Key to Effective Supervision
• Mentoring may be referred to as an effective method used to
provide peer support and involvement.
• Mentoring has been proved to be an effective method of orienting
new employees to the workplace and helping them to develop
appropriate workplace skills (Dreher, & Ash, 1990; Hardina, & Shaw,
2001).
• Kaminski et al. (2000) have studied the use of mentors to train
workers to act as workplace advocates and leaders. They found that
the best mentors repeatedly praised student performance, gave
trainees new tasks that involved greater levels of responsibility, and
encouraged them to develop their own goals and tactics for
producing results.
• An additional benefit of the mentoring process is that mentors can
help marginalized employees (say, people of gender and color)
navigate difficulties in workplace culture that could limit their ability
to secure promotions or become administrators (Burke, & McKeen,
1990; Ragins, Townsend, & Mattis, 1998).

130
Additional Issues to be coveredAdditional Issues to be covered
1. Major tools and techniques of supervision.
2. Issues and challenges concerning supervision.
3. Benefits of effective supervision.
4. Identification of organizational best practices in
supervision.
5. Supervision and compliance in organizations
[Hint: Needs thorough review of a few books and
working papers]

Effective leadership, communication and supervision

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