A BRIEF HISTORY OF INDIA

1. A BRIEF HISTORY OF INDIA
BY BIKRANT ROY
ANCIENT INDIA
The Indus Valley Civilisation
The first Indian civilization arose in the Indus valley about 2,600 BC. It actually
straddled northwest India and Pakistan. By 6,500 BC the people of the area had
begun farming. By 5,500 BC they had invented pottery. By about 2,600 BC a
prosperous farming society had grown up. The farmers used bronze tools. They
grew wheat, barley and peas. They also raised cattle, goats and sheep. Water
buffalo were used to pull carts. The people spun cotton and they traded with
other cultures such as modern day Iraq. Some of the people of the Indus Valley
began to live in towns. The two largest were at Mohenjo-daro and Harrapa.
Mohenjo-daro probably had a population of 35-50,000. By the standards of the
ancient world it was very large. It consisted of two parts. One part was a citadel.
It contained a public bath and assembly halls. It also held a granary where grain
was stored. The lower part of the town had streets laid out in a grid pattern.
The houses were 2 or even 3 stories and were made of brick as stone was
uncommon in the area. Bricks were of a standard size and the Indus Valley
civilization had standard weights and measures. The streets had networks of
drains.
Life in Mohenjo-daro was obviously highly civilized and ordered although most
of the people of the Indus Valley civilization were farmers outside the towns.
The Indus Valley civilization had a form of writing but unfortunately it has not
been deciphered so nothing is known of their political system or their religion.
However many engraved seals and terracotta figurines have been found. The
Indus Valley civilization was at its peak in the years 2,300-1,700 BC. Then after
1,700 BC it broke down.
The reasons for this are not clear. Perhaps there was a climatic changed and the
area grew cooler and drier. It has also been suggested that rivers changed
course. In those days less rainfall or a changed in the course of a river would
have had severe consequences for farming and of course, like all early
civilizations the Indus Valley depended on farming. Civilization was only possible
if the farmers made a surplus. They could exchange their surplus with craftsmen
for manufactured goods. They could also exchange some for goods from far
away. However if the farmers no longer made a surplus they could no longer
support the craftsmen who lived in the towns. The populations of the towns

2. would drift away to the countryside. Trade and commerce would decline. As
society grew less prosperous people would return to a simpler way of life and
the invention of writing would disappear. The Indus Valley civilization vanished
and it was forgotten. It was not rediscovered until the 1920s.
The Aryans
After the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization a new wave of people entered
India. The Aryans came from central Asia and they probably entered India
through Afghanistan after 1500 BC. There were probably waves of invasions over
a period of time rather than just one. The Aryans were a semi-nomadic race of
pastoralists.
At first they wandered about with their herds of cattle rather than live in one
place. They had 2-wheeled chariots which allowed them to subdue the native
people. By 1,000 BC they had learned to use iron. However in time the Aryans
settled down and became farmers.
Slowly a more ordered and settled society evolved. Tribes became kingdoms. The
Aryans became the priests, rulers and warriors, free peasants and merchants.
The subdued people became the slaves, laborers and artisans. In time this
stratified society crystallized into the caste system. The Hindu religion also
evolved at this time. The sacred literature called The Vedas was created. (At first
they were orally transmitted. Later they were written down.)
In time the Aryans learned to farm rice rather than crops like barley. By 600 BC
rice cultivation was flourishing in India. With a more settled and ordered society
trade and commerce flourished. In time people began to live in towns again and
writing was re-invented. By 600 BC a highly civilized society had emerged in
India.
Although Buddha was born in India about 483 BC the religion he founded failed
to take root in the country. At approximately the same time
the Persianscaptured the extreme North-west of India. Alexander the Great
destroyed the Persian Empire and penetrated the far North-west of India.
However after his death in 317 BC the Greeks withdrew. The Persians and
Greeks had little affect on Indian civilization. The various Indian kingdoms had
begun to conquer one another and after 322 BC the first great empire arose.
The Mauryan Empire in India
In 322 BC Chandragupta Maurya became king of the powerful and highly centralized
state of Magadha in the North of India. Chandragupta founded a great empire. After
Alexander the Great died his empire split up. Seleucus took the eastern part. He

3. attempted to reclaim the Indian provinces once ruled by Alexander. However his army
was stopped by Chandragupta in 305 BC. Seleucus was then forced to cede most of
Afghanistan to Chandragupta, who also conquered parts of central India.
This new empire was rich and trade thrived. Its capital was one of the largest
cities in the ancient world. In 296 Chandragupta abdicated in favor of his son
Bindusara who pushed the frontier of the empire further south. The greatest
Mauryan ruler was Ashoka or Asoka (269-232 BC). He conquered Kalinga
(modern day Orissa). Afterwards he declared he was appalled by the suffering
caused by war and decided against any further conquest. Asoka also converted
to Buddhism. He decreed that the Buddhist principles of right conduct should
be engraved in stone pillars or on rocks throughout his kingdom to teach the
people how to live. Asoka set about pacifying and consolidating his empire.
However despite his conversion to Buddhism Mauryan rule was authoritarian
and punishments for wrongdoers were severe.
After his death the Mauryan empire declined, as all empires do. It suffered an
economic decline and political instability as different brothers tried to become
king. A general assassinated the last Mauryan ruler in 185 BC. The general then
took over running the empire and founded the Shunga dynasty. However in 73
BC the last Shunga ruler was, in turn, assassinated. They were replaced by the
Kanva dynasty which ruled from 73-28BC.
The influence of the Mauryans penetrated into Southern India. In the time of
the Mauryans the farmers there became more advanced. By the first century BC
organised kingdoms had grown up and trade and commerce were flourishing
there.
The Indo-Greeks in India
After Alexander the Great's death his empire was split between his generals. The
various successor states fought each other until a strong state emerged in
Bactria (roughly modern Afghanistan). The Greek rulers of Bactria attempted to
control Northwest India.
About 185 BC King Demetrius invaded India. About 160 BC one of his
successors, King Menander conquered most of northern India. However after the
death of Menander this empire broke up into separate states and Indian
civilization developed without European influence.
The Kushan
India now faced a new invader. Nomads from Central Asia conquered Bactria in
about 120 BC. They then settled down and gave up their nomadic lifestyle. They
were split into 5 tribes. One of the tribes, the Kushans conquered the others.

4. They then turned their attention to Northern India. Gradually they conquered
more and more territory. Successive kings carved out a bigger and bigger
empire in Northern India.
The Kushan Empire reached its peak under King Kanishka (about 78 AD to 114
AD). During his reign Northern India was prosperous and did much trade with
the Roman Empire. Kanishka was also a patron of the arts, which flourished.
However after his death the empire declined and broke up. By the early 3rd
century AD India was once again split into small states.
INDIA IN THE MIDDLE AGES
The Gupta Empire in India
A new empire was founded early in the 4th century AD by Chandragupta. After
his death in 335 AD his son Samudragupta (335-375) conquered the whole of
Northern India and much of Central India. India once again became prosperous
and stable and much trade was done with China. Mathematics, astronomy and
medicine flourished. Literature also blossomed. This was the age of the great
poet Kaidasa.
However Gupta rule was less strict then Mauryan rule. Punishments were less
harsh and provinces of the empire were given some autonomy. The Gupta
Empire reached a peak under Chandragupta II 375-415 AD. However it then
went into decline. The Gupta Empire broke up in the early 6th century.
The Huns
In the mid 5th century AD, the Huns, a fierce and warlike people from Central
Asia invaded Northwest India. However about 460 AD they were repulsed by
Skandagupta (454-467). Nevertheless the Huns returned at the end of the 5th
century. This time they conquered most of North-western India. However their
rule lasted no more than about 30 years. About 528 AD the Indians, led by a
ruler called Yashodharman defeated them in battle and drove them out.
Harshavardana
The next great ruler in Indian history was king Harshavardhana (606-647). He
created an empire to rival the Guptas. Harsha began as ruler of the kingdom of
Thanesar, north of India. He then carved out an empire in Northern India.
However in 630, when he attempted to conquer Southern India he was severely
defeated by a king called Pulakesin (610-643). (By this time the South of India
was definitely equal to the North).

5. Despite this setback Harsha remained a powerful ruler. During his reign his
biography was written. It was called the Harschacharita. Nevertheless Harsha's
kingdom really depended on his personality to hold it together. After his death it
quickly broke up.
India once again became a land of several kingdoms, which were frequently at
war with each other. The three most important dynasties were the Rajputs, the
Pallavas and the Chalukyas. However in the 9th century a new empire arose in
Southern India - the Cholas.
The Cholas
In the late 10th century the Chola king Rajaraja I began to expand his kingdom.
He conquered his neighbors and took Sri Lanka and the Maldives. The next king,
Rajenda I took more territory including the Ganges and the Andaman Islands.
The Chola was a prosperous empire with many merchants organised into guilds
to protect their interests. Trade with Southeast Asia thrived. So did trade with
the Arabs.
The empire of the Cholas, although powerful, was less centralized than older
empires such as the Gupta. Rulers, once conquered were often reinstated as
vassals called samantas and they were allowed a certain amount of autonomy. In
some ways this political system resembles European feudalism. Of course there
was always a risk that a samanta would rebel!
The Turks
In the 10th century Turks from central Asia conquered Afghanistan. Under their
ruler Mahmud 971-1030 they conquered Punjab. He led raids deep into India and
plundered temples. The Turks returned in 1191, this time as conquerors not
raiders. They were led by Sultan Muhammad. He was defeated in 1191 at the
battle of Tarain but he returned the following year. This time he prevailed. The
Turks were able to conquer large parts of Northern India and they created a
powerful state - the Delhi Sultanate
The Dehli Sultanate
Under the Sultans Qutubuddin 1206-1211 and Iltumish 1211-1236 the Sultanate
flourished. However Iltumish was succeeded by his daughter Raziyyat. She
reigned for only 3 years before she was deposed and later murdered. The
Sultanate reached a peak under Alauddin 1296-1316. In 1298 he conquered
Gurjarat. In 1309 he invaded Southern India. He looted southern cities and
forced rulers there to submit to him and become vassals.

6. Meanwhile a new threat came from the North - the Mongols. In 1296-97 they
raided Northwest India. The Mongols returned in 1299. This time they
penetrated as far as Delhi then, like a swarm of locusts they disappeared. The
Mongols returned in 1306 but this time they were repulsed.
Muhammad Tughluq 1324-1351 extended the Sultanate still further. He decided
he wanted a new, more central capital and he moved it to Daulatabad. However
he was later forced to move his capital back to Delhi. The Sultanate of Delhi
declined rapidly in the late 14th century.
The final blow came in 1498 when Timurlane, a descendant of Genghis Khan
sacked Delhi and massacred many of the inhabitants. In the early 15th century
independent Sultanates appeared and the Delhi Sultanate became one of several.
Under Sultans Bhalul 1451-1489 and Sikander Lohdi 1489-1517 Delhi revived to a
certain extent but it never regained its former importance. Meanwhile another
empire arose in the South - the Vijayangar.
The Vijayangar
The Vijayangar Empire was founded by 2 brothers, Harihara and Bukka.
According to legend they were officers of Muhammad Tughluq. They were sent
to crush a rebellion in the South. Instead they broke away and founded their
own kingdom. Harihara was crowned king in 1346. His brother Bukka I ruled
after him, 1357-1377. The Vijayanagar Empire is named after its capital city (Its
name means city of victory). The rulers of Vijayanager gradually conquered
more and more territory and the empire reached a peak early in the 16th
century. However in 1564 Vijayngar was utterly defeated in battle. By then a
new empire had arisen - the Mughals.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE IN INDIA
The Rise of the Mughal Empire
This great empire was founded by Babur 1483-1530, a descendant of Genghis
Khan. From 1504 he was ruler of part of what is now Afghanistan. From the
Turks he had learned to use cannons and muskets. Guns enabled him to win
great victories over the Indians who were still using traditional methods of
warfare. He had also learned new cavalry tactics from the Turks. Instead of
charging straight at the enemy Babur's cavalry rode round their flanks and
attacked from the rear.
In 1526 Babur crushed the army of Ibrahim Lhodi at the battle of Panipat. Babur
made a barricade of carts. Behind them he positioned his cannons and
musketeers. The enemy attacked but they faced withering cannon and musket

7. fire. Babur's cavalry then rode around the enemy army and attacked from the
rear. The Indians were routed.
Other Indian rulers now united against Babur but they were crushed at the
battle of Khanau in 1527. Babur placed his cannons and guns behind ramparts.
The Indians attacked on horseback again and again but were mowed down.
Babur then became ruler of Northern India.
He was succeeded by his son Humayan 1508-1556. However in the 1530s an
Afghan ruler named Sher Shah attacked the empire. By 1540 Sher Shah prevailed
and made himself ruler of much of Northern India. Humayan went into exile and
wandered from place to place. Then in 1542 his son Akbar was born. Humayan
then moved to Persia. Sher Shah died in battle in 1545 and his empire split up.
Humayan was then able, with Persian help to re-conquer the Mughal empire. He
invaded India in 1554 and by 1556 was in control of the North. Unfortunately he
died after falling down some stairs.
However his son Akbar 1556-1605 was, perhaps, the greatest Mughal ruler. He
took Gujarat in 1574, Bengal in 1576, Kashmir in 1586, Orissa in 1592 and
Baluchistan in 1595. Akbar also reorganized the government and he created an
efficient civil service. Akbar was a Muslim but he was tolerant in matters of
religion. He abolished a tax previous rulers levied on non-Muslims. He also gave
Hindus high office.
Akbar admired Persian culture and promoted it in India. Persian language
literature flourished in India during his reign (although Hindi literature flowered
too). Persian and Hindu styles of painting merged to form a new style of Mughal
painting.
Akbar was succeeded by his son Selim, who called himself Jahangir. Under him
Mughal influence in the South of India increased and the empire flourished. His
wife was named Mehrunissa (later she was called Nur Jahan or light of the
world). She was Persian and because of her Persian culture became even more
influential in the Mughal realms. During the reign of Jahangir the arts continued
to flourish. An elaborate and intricate school of painting existed. It was also a
great age for architecture. When Jahangir died in 1627 his wife was forced into
retirement but she occupied herself by building a magnificent mausoleum for
her father in Agra.
The Mughal Empire at its Peak
The Mughal Empire reached its zenith in the 17th century its only weakness
being powers struggles among the ruling family and occasional rebellions. Shah
Jahan became ruler in 1627. Under him the empire prospered. He is famous for
building the Taj Mahal, one of the most beautiful buildings in the world. It was

8. erected as a memorial to his queen Mumatz Mahal 1594-1630. Shah Jehan was
devastated when she died. After her death he began building the Taj Mahal. It
took an 'army' of 20,000 craftsmen and laborers 22 years to build. It was begun
in 1631 and completed in 1653.
Aurngzeb (1658-1707) greatly expanded the empire. He conquered almost all of
southern India by 1687. Under him the empire became so vast it was difficult
for one man to rule. However he undid the religious toleration of his
predecessors. In 1664 he banned the repair of Hindu temples and in 1669 he
banned his subjects from building new ones. Also, in 1679 he reintroduced a poll
tax on Hindus called the Jizira. Aurangzeb also taxed his subjects heavily. The
result was a series of rebellions.
Aurangzeb's greatest enemy was Shivaji, leader of the Marathas in southern
India. Shivaji led a form of guerrilla warfare. His bases were in mountains but
mounted on horses his men could raid caravans then fell back to the mountains.
In 664 his men raided the port of Surat. Aurangzeb sent an army to intimidate
Shivaji then invited him to the capital, Delhi and tried to come to terms with
him by offering him a post in the empire. However the two men fell out and
Shivaji escaped from Delhi by hiding in a basket. He then returned to raiding.
Shivaji was succeeded by his son Sambhaji. He was captured by the Mughals and
executed in 1689 but the guerrilla war went on.
The Decline of the Mughal Empire
Aurangzeb was succeeded by his son Bahadur Shah 1707-1712. By his time cracks
were appearing in the empire. Oppressive taxation caused more and more
rebellions. After 1712 powerful nobles in the empire began to break away and
form virtually independent states.
Meanwhile the old enemy, the Marathas attacked the Mughal Empire led by a
man named Baji Rao. The Mughals were forced to cede territory to them. Then
in 1739 disaster struck when the Persians launched an attack on the Mughal
Empire. They sacked Delhi. The empire continued but its power was rapidly
fading. Delhi was sacked again in 1761, this time by an Afghan kingdom.
EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM IN INDIA
The decline of the Mughal Empire caused a vacuum into which the Europeans
moved. The first Europeans to reach India by sea were the Portuguese who
arrived in 1498 and began importing spices from India. They formed a base at
Goa in 1510. However in the 17th century the Portuguese declined and the
English and Dutch took their place.

9. The English East India Company was formed in 1600 to trade with India. In 1639
the English established a trading base in India. It grew into Madras. In 1662 the
English king married a Portuguese princess and he was given Bombay. In 1668 it
was sold to the East India Company. In 1690 the English established a base in
Bengal, which grew into Calcutta. In the late 17th century the Dutch also
declined and the French replaced them. In 1673 the French established a base at
Pondicherry.
In the 18th century French and English became bitter rivals and they both began
to interfere in Indian politics. The Seven Years war between Britain and France
began in 1756. With the outbreak of war the Nawab (ruler) of Bengal, Siraj-ud-
Daula captured the British base at Calcutta. Notoriously he forced captives into
a small cell and most of them suffocated overnight. This became known as the
Black Hole of Calcutta. The East India Company sent a force led by Robert Clive
(1725-1774) to recapture Calcutta. They soon did so.
However Clive was not satisfied and he decided to take the whole of Bengal.
Clive won a great victory at Plassey in June 1757. (The battle was won largely
because one of the commanders of the Bengali army, Mir Jafar, changed sides
and refused to join the battle). Clive then overthrew the ruler of Bengal, Siraj-
ud-Daula and replaced him with Mir Jafar. However Mir Jafar was only a puppet.
In 1765 the company began to rule Bengal directly. Clive's victory at Plassey
ensured that India would eventually become a British colony not a French one.
However the Company did not take over India straight away. It was a gradual
process, which took several decades. The East India Company eliminated French
influence in India and began to subdue other Indian states.
British imperialism was bitterly resisted by the state of Mysore under the two
rulers Haidar Ali 1761-1782 and Tipu Sultan 1782-1799. The army of Mysore was
a formidable fighting force. A series of wars were fought in the years 1767-1769,
1780-1784, 1790-1792 and 1799. The resistance of Mysore finally ended in 1799
and Mysore was forced to hand over half its territory.
The British then took over more territory in India. Indian states were forced to
accept British 'protection'. One state, Hyderabad made a treaty with the British
in 1798 and retained some independence but other states were forced to accept
British rule.
In 1803 war broke out between the British and the Marathas. The British were
led by Arthur Wellesley (later the Duke of Wellington). Wellesley was Governor
General 1798-1805 and he was an unashamed imperialist. In 1803 the chiefs of
the Marathas were disunited and the British were able to make some gains. They
took Agra and Delhi. (At that time Delhi was still ruled by the last Mughal.
When the British took the city the Mughal Empire was finally extinguished).

10. However in 1804 the British suffered some defeats and they made peace.
Another war broke out in 1817. This time the Maratha chiefs were all defeated
and they were forced to accept British rule. By 1819 the East India Company was
in control of most of India except the North West.
Assam was annexed in stages between 1826 and 1838. There were revolts in
parts of India between 1819 and 1839 but most of it was at peace. The British
now began to impose their culture on India. In 1829 the custom of suttee or
sati, which involved a widow throwing herself onto her husbands funeral pyre
was abolished. In 1835 English was made the official language of Government
and education.
Outside British control was a powerful Sikh kingdom. However the leader of the
Sikhs, Ranjit Singh, died in 1839 and fighting began over the succession. In 1845-
46 the British fought a war against the Sikhs. After bitter fighting they captures
Lahore. The Sikhs were forced to surrender Kashmir and parts of the Punjab.
However a second war was fought in 1848-49. The fighting was bitter but in
March 1849 the East India Company took control of all of Punjab.
The Indian Mutiny
The East India Company had long employed Indians as soldiers. There were
supposed to be not more than 4 Indian soldiers to every British one. However
the British had withdrawn troops to serve in conflicts elsewhere. By 1857 there
were only 40,000 British troops in India and 311,000 Indians. The mutiny began
on 10 May 1857. The spark that lit the fire was the fact that soldiers were issued
with a new rifle - the Enfield. It was said that the cartridge was greased with fat
from a cow (sacred to Hindus) or pigs (unclean to Muslims).
The mutiny began at Meerut or Mirat 60 miles from Delhi.The soldiers
massacred the British and the uprising spread rapidly. The rebels took Delhi and
proclaimed the restoration of the old Mughal Empire. The rebellion spread
across Central and Northern India but the south did not rise. Soldiers in Madras
and Bombay stayed loyal to the British. Eventually the British were able to re-
establish control.
Rebels besieged the British in Cawnpore and Lucknow. The British in Cawnpore
surrendered on 27 June 1857. They were then massacred. However the British
quickly sent reinforcements to India. Sir Henry Havelock led a force to relieve
Lucknow. He defeated the rebel leader Hana Sahib at Cawnpore on 16 July 1857.
Havelock reached Lucknow on 25 September 1857. However he then found
himself besieged by the rebels. A relief force was sent under Sir Colin Campbell
(1792-1863). He reached Lucknow on 16 November and the garrison escaped.
Campbell decisively defeated a rebel force outside Cawnpore on 6 December.

11. Meanwhile the British recaptured Delhi in September. The British recaptured
Lucknow in March 1858. Sir Hugh Rose took the rebel stronghold of Jahnsi on 3
April. He decisively defeated a rebel leader, Tantia Topi, on 19 June 1858 at the
battle of Gwalior. This blow broke the back of the rebellion. The British then
'mopped up' the remaining rebels. By the end of 1858 the rebellion was over.
However the East India Company lost control of India. On 1 September 1858
control was transferred to the British government.
India in the Late 19th Century and Early 20th Century
After the lesson of the Indian Mutiny the British became a little more respectful
of Indian culture. However the desire for independence did not die. On the
contrary it slowly grew. The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885. The
Muslim League was founded in 1906.
In 1861 legislative bodies was formed for India. However the members were not
elected. They were appointed by the governor-general or by provincial
governors. Most of their members were British. Furthermore after the mutiny
the ratio of British soldiers to Indians was increased. In 1877 Queen Victoria was
made Empress of India.
In the late 19th century the British created a network of railways in India. By
1900 there were 25,000 miles of railway in India. The first train made in India
was built in Bombay in 1865. The British also built new roads across India.
Improved communications meant the different parts of India were bought closer
together and Indians began to feel a greater sense of national identity. In the
late 19th century many newspapers were founded and they helped to mobilize
public opinion.
In 1905 the British divided Bengal. They did this to make it easier to rule. This
move provoked unrest in Bengal. People demonstrated and boycotted British
goods.
In the late 19th century India was an agricultural society. Jute, raw cotton and
tea and coffee were exported to Britain. In return textiles and other
manufactured goods were imported from there. The Indian textile industry could
not compete with cheap, mass produced British goods. However in the early
20th century Indian industries began to develop. It was still an overwhelmingly
agricultural country but it was just beginning to change.
At the same time Britain was in decline. In the mid-19th century Britain was the
most powerful country in the world but by the end of the century other powers
such as Germany and the USA had caught up. Britain was weakened by the first
world and continued to decline in the 1920's and 1930's. As Britain declined
Indian nationalist feeling grew stronger.

12. Indian public opinion was embittered by the Amristar massacre, which took
place on 13 April 1919. A crowd of thousands gathered in a square named
Jallianwalla Bagh to protest against recent legislation. General Reginald Dyer
decided on a show of force. Dyer told his men to open fire. They did so, killing
379 people and wounding about 1200 more.
At this point a remarkable individual rose to be the leader of the struggle for
independence. This was Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869-1948). Gandhi
was a lawyer. For a time he lived in South Africa and became the leader of the
Indians in that country. In 1915 he returned to India and soon emerged as the
leader of the nationalists. In 1920 he launched a campaign of non-co-operation
with the British. This included boycotting British textiles and their schools.
Against Gandhi's wishes some people turned to violence. Gandhi was arrested in
1922 and remained in prison for 2 years.
Not everyone agreed with Gandhi's desire for peaceful campaigning. Nevertheless
his skill as a politician and his personal charisma ensured that he became the
leader of the independence movement. In 1930 he began a campaign to end the
governments monopoly of salt production. He led a march to the sea to collect
salt. The British arrested Gandhi and tens of thousands of others. However in
1931 they were forced to back down. They released Gandhi and most (not all) of
the other prisoners. They also allowed people to make salt for their own
personal use. In 1932 the army began to recruit Indian officers.
Meanwhile In 1931 the capital of India was moved from Calcutta to New Delhi.
Gandhi continued campaigning. He was arrested again in 1932 and in 1933 but
both times was soon released. By 1935 the British realized that Indian
independence was inevitable, sooner or later. In that year they granted a new
constitution. When it came in effect, in 1937, Indians were allowed to elect
provincial assemblies. (Although the British retained control of central
government).
In 1939 the Viceroy of India declared war on Germany, without consulting the
Indians, much to their chagrin.
INDIAN INDEPENDENCE
By 1940 the Muslims demanded their own separate state made up of those
provinces where Muslims were the majority.
In 1942 the National Congress demanded that the British quit India. The British
responded by imprisoning their leaders, including Gandhi, who was released in
1944.

13. In 1946 the Viceroy appointed an interim cabinet with Jawaharlal Nehru as
prime minister. However the divide between Muslims and Hindus had become
unbridgeable. The leader of the Muslims, M A Jinnah declared a 'day of action'
on 16 August 1946. In Calcutta the 'day of action' led to violence between
Muslims and Hindus. About 5,000 people were killed in what became known as
'The Great Killing'.
Mountbatten was then made viceroy. He quickly realized the Muslims must be
granted their own state (modern Pakistan and Bangladesh). India became
independent on 15 August 1947. Mountbatten agreed to stay in India as
Governor-general for an interim period.
Unfortunately some provinces had mixed populations of Muslims and Hindus
and violence broke out between them. Many Hindus fled to India and Muslims
fled to Pakistan but about half a million people died in the violence.
The violence threatened to overwhelm New Delhi but Gandhi managed to
prevent it by fasting and threatening to fast to death unless the violence
stopped. It did but some extreme Hindus became angry with Gandhi. One of
them murdered Gandhi on 30 January 1948.
In December 1946 a Constituent Assembly met to draw up a constitution for
India. The new constitution came into force in January 1950. India became a
secular state. Prime minister Nehru made the economy a 'mixed economy' of
some state owned industry and some private enterprise. Industry was strictly
regulated. Unfortunately this restricted free enterprise.
Nevertheless in the 1950s a series of 5 year plans were devised. The first
increase irrigation and boosted agriculture. The second and third plans boosted
industry. On the other hand India's population grew rapidly. Poverty and
illiteracy remained common.
India in the Late 20th Century
In the 1960s India fought two wars. In 1962 there was a conflict with China.
There were clashes along the border between India and Tibet in the late 1950s.
Then on 20 October 1962 Chinese troops attacked along the North-eastern
border of India. They quickly captured key mountain passes and redrew the
border. On 21 November the Chinese declared a ceasefire.
India also fought a war with Pakistan in 1965. The two countries always
disagreed over the border. On 1 September 1965 Pakistani troops attempted to
capture Kashmir. However the Indians won a tank battle and drove them back.
On 27 September both sides agreed to a ceasefire.

14. Nehru died in 1964 and Indira Gandhi became prime minister in 1966. At first
she proved to be a popular politician.
In 1971 India fought another war with Pakistan. At that time Pakistan was
divided into two parts, West and East Pakistan (modern Bangladesh). Then in
March 1971 East Pakistan broke away and declared its independence. West
Pakistan refused to accept the move and sent troops to force the East to submit.
Refugees flooded into India.
Then on 3 December 1971 the Pakistani air force attacked air bases in North
West India. Pakistani ground forces attacked but were unable to make much
headway. Meanwhile on 4 December Indian troops entered East Pakistan. The
Pakistani forces in the East, under General Niazi surrendered on 16 December.
Pakistan agreed to a ceasefire on 17 December 1971. Bangladesh then became
independent.
In 1974 India exploded an atomic bomb.
However in 1973 oil prices rose sharply triggering rapid inflation in India. That
harmed agriculture by making fertilizer much more expensive. Indian industry
also entered a recession. Growing discontent in India led to strikes such as a
railway strike in 1974.
Then a High Court declared that Mrs Gandhi's election in 1971 was invalid
because of election malpractice. However Mrs Gandhi persuaded the president
to declare a state of emergency on 17 June 1975. Civil liberties were suspended
and Mrs Gandhi's opponents were arrested. Her son Sanjay led a mass
sterilization campaign in Northern India to combat the population explosion.
The emergency was lifted in January 1977. During it inflation was curbed and
industry revived.
Elections were due to be held in 1976 but they were delayed until March 1977. However
Mrs Gandhi lost anyway. The Janata party held power from 1977 to 1980 when Mrs
Gandhi returned.
In the early 1980s India, like the rest of the world, entered a recession. Worse
was to come. Sikhs in Punjab were demanding independence. A man named
Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale (1947-1984) and his supporters took over the Golden
Temple in Amristar. Then in May 1984 the Indian army surrounded the temple.
They attacked the fundamentalists in the temple but in the process they
destroyed the holiest place in the Sikh religion. Two of Mrs Gandhi's Sikh
bodyguards killed her in revenge.
She was succeeded by her son Rajiv. He started to deregulate industry and the
Indian economy began to grow rapidly. However Rajiv was assassinated in 1991.

15. India in the 21st Century
In the 1990s the Indian economy was deregulated further and as a result it
boomed. In the early 21st century the economy of India grew rapidly. In the
future India will become a prosperous country.
Today the population of India is 1.19 billion.
A TIMELINEOF INDIA
c. 2,600 BC A great civilisation arises in the Indus Valley
c. 1,700 BC The Indus Valley civilization begins to decline. It gradually
disappears.
1,500 BC The Aryans enter India
c. 1,000 BC Iron tools are used in India
600 BC A civilization arises in India based on cultivating rice
322 BC Chandragupta Maurya becomes king of Magadha and he creates
an empire, the Mauryan Empire
269-232 BC Ashoka or Asoka is the greatest Mauryan ruler
185 BC The last Mauryan emperor is assassinated
160 BC King Menander conquers most of northern India. After his death his
empire breaks up.
120 BC Nomads from Central Asia conquer Bactria. They then slowly
conquer northern India.
78 AD to 114 AD The Kushan Empire reaches its height under King
Kanishka
The early 4th Century The Gupta Empire is founded in India
335-375 Samudragupta conquers northern India and part of central India.
Under the Gupta Empire India flourishes
606-647 King Harshavardhana creates a new empire. After his death his
empire breaks up.

16. Late 10th Century The Chola Empire rises in India
1206 The Delhi Sultanate is founded
1346 Harihara founds the Vijayanagar Empire
1498 Timurlaine sacks Delhi. The Portuguese reach India by sea.
1526 Babur ruler of Afghanistan wins the battle of Panipat. So begins the
Mughal Empire.
1527 Babur wins the battle of Khanau
1556-1605 Reign of Akbar the greatest Mughal ruler
1653 The Taj Mahal is completed
1658-1707 Aurngzeb expands the empire
1673 The French establish a base at Pondicherry
1690 The English found a base in Bengal
1712 The Mughal Empire begins to break up
1757 Clive wins a great victory at Plassey. As a result India becomes a
British colony rather than a French one.
1803 The British take Delhi
1819 The British East India Company rules all of India except the
Northwest
1829 The custom of suttee is abolished
1849 The British take control of Punjab
1857 The Indian Mutiny begins
1858 The Indian Mutiny is crushed. Control is switched from the East India
Company to the British government.
1885 The Indian National Congress is founded
1877 Queen Victoria is made
1919 The Amristar Massacre takes place

17. 1920 Gandhi launches a campaign of non-co-operation with the British
1930 Gandhi leads a march to the sea to collect salt (as part of a campaign
to end the governments monopoly of salt production)
1935 The British grant India a new constitution
1940 By now Muslims demand their own state
1946 As preparations are made for Indian independence violence breaks
out between Hindus and Muslims
15 August 1947 India becomes independent
1948 Gandhi is murdered
1962 India fights a war with China
1966 Indira Gandhi becomes prime minister
1971 India fights a war with Pakistan
1975 Mrs Gandhi declares a state of emergency
1977 The emergency is lifted
1984 Indira Gandhi is assassinated
1991 Rajiv Gandhi is assassinated
1997-2007 The Indian economy grows at over 7% a year