Qualitative_Data_Analysis.pptx

Qualitative Data Analysis
Ref. : Sekaran,and Bougie. Research Methods for Business:
A Skill Building Approarch. 2013

QUALITATIVE DATA ARE
DATA IN THE FORM OF WORDS
EXAMPLES OF QUALITATIVE DATA ARE INTERVIEW NOTES,
TRANSCRIPTS OF FOCUS GROUPS, ANSWERS TO OPEN-ENDED
QUESTIONS, TRANSCRIPTIONS OF VIDEO RECORDINGS, ACCOUNTS
OF EXPERIENCES WITH A PRODUCT ON THE INTERNET, NEWS
ARTICLES, AND THE LIKE

THE ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE DATA IS AIMED AT
MAKING VALID INFERENCES FROM THE OFTEN
OVERWHELMING AMOUNT OF COLLECTED DATA
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH MAY INVOLVE
REPEATING SAMPLING, COLLECTION OF
DATA, AND ANAYLSIS OF DATA

AS A RESULT, QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS MAY START
AFTER ONLY SOME OF THE DATA HAVE BEEN
COLLECTED
THE PROBLEM IS THAT, THERE ARE RELATIVELY FEW
WELL-ESTABLISHED AND COMMONLY ACCEPTED
RULES AND GUIDELINES FOR ANALYZING
QUALITATIVE DATA

THERE ARE GENERALLY 3 STEPS IN QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS :
DATA REDUCTION, DATA DISPLAY,
AND THE DRAWING OF CONCLUSION
DATA REDUCTION REFERS TO THE PROCESS OF SELECTING,
CODING, AND CATEGORIZING THE DATA
DATA DISPLAY REFERS TO WAYS OF PRESENTING THE DATA

DATA CODING MAY HELP YOU SIMULTANEOUSLY TO DEVELOP IDEAS
ON HOW THE DATA MAY BE DISPLAYED, AS WELL AS TO DRAW
SOME PRELIMINARY CONCLUSIONS. IN TURN, PRELIMINARY
CONCLUSIONS MAY FEED BACK INTO THE WAY THE RAW DATA ARE
CODED, CATEGORIZED, AND DISPLAYED
THERE ARE GENERALLY 3 STEPS IN QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS :
DATA REDUCTION, DATA DISPLAY,
AND THE DRAWING OF CONCLUSION

Qualitative Data Analysis Data
reduction
QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION PRODUCES
LARGE AMOUNTS OF DATA
THE FIRST STEP IN DATA ANALYSIS IS
THEREFORE THE REDUCTION OF DATA
THROUGH CODING AND CATEGORIZATION

reduction
CODING IS THE ANALYTIC PROCESS THROUGH WHICH
THE QUALITATIVE DATA THAT YOU HAVE GATHERED
ARE REDUCED, REARRANGED, AND INTEGRATED TO
FORM THEORY
THE PURPOSE OF CODING IS TO HELP YOU TO
DRAW MEANINGFUL CONCLUSIONS ABOUT
THE DATA

reduction
CODING IS OFTEN AN ITERATIVE PROCESS, YOU MAY
HAVE TO RETURN TO YOUR DATA REPEATEDLY TO
INCREASE YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE DATA
CODING BEGINS WITH SELECTING THE
CODING UNIT. INDEED, QUALITATIVE DATA
CAN BE ANALYZED AT MANY LEVELS
berulang

reduction
EXAMPLES OF CODING UNITS INCLUDE
WORDS, SENTENCES, PARAGRAPHS, AND
THEMES
THE SMALLEST UNIT THAT IS GENERALLY
USED IS THE WORD

reduction
A LARGER, AND OFTEN MORE USEFUL, UNIT OF
CONTENT ANALYSIS IS THE THEME : “A SINGLE
ASSERTION ABOUT A SUBJECT” (Kassarjian, 1977, p.12)
WHEN YOU ARE USING THE THEME AS A CODING
UNIT, YOU ARE PRIMARILY LOOKING FOR THE
EXPRESSION OF AN IDEA (MINICHIELLO ET. AL, 1990)
forceful statement

reduction
AFTER THE MEAL I ASKED FOR THE CHECK. THE WAITRESS
NODDED AND I EXPECTED TO GET THE CHECK. AFTER THREE
CIGARETTES THERE WAS STILL NO CHECK. I LOOKED AROUND
AND SAW THAT THE WAITRESS WAS HAVING A LIVELY
CONVERSATION WITH THE BARTENDER
THE CRITICAL INCIDENT CONTAINS TWO THEMES :
1. THE WAITRESS DOES NOT PROVIDE SERVICE AT THE TIME
PROMISES TO :
”THE WAITRESS NODDED AND I EXPECTED TO GET THE CHECK.
AFTER THREE CIGARETTES THERE WAS STILL NO CHECK”

reduction
AFTER THE MEAL I ASKED FOR THE CHECK. THE WAITRESS
NODDED AND I EXPECTED TO GET THE CHECK. AFTER THREE
CIGARETTES THERE WAS STILL NO CHECK. I LOOKED AROUND
AND SAW THAT THE WAITRESS WAS HAVING A LIVELY
THE CRITICAL INCIDENT CONTAINS TWO THEMES :
2. THE WAITRESS PAYS LITTLE ATTENTION TO THE CUSTOMER :
SHE IS NOT LATE BECAUSE SHE IS VERY BUSY; INSTEAD OF
BRINGING THE CHECK, SHE IS ENGAGED IN A LIVELY

reduction
ACCORDINGLY, THE AFOREMENTIONED CRITICAL
INCIDENT WAS CODED AS “DELIVERY PROMISES”
(THAT WAS BROKEN) AND “PERSONAL
ATTENTION” (THAT WAS NOT PROVIDED)
THIS EXAMPLE ILLUSTRATES HOW THE CODES
“DELIVER PROMISES” AND “PERSONAL
ATTENTION” HELP TO REDUCE THE DATA TO A
MORE MANAGEABLE AMOUNT
NOTE THAT PROPER CODING
NOT ONLY INVOLVES
REDUCING THE DATA BUT
ALSO MAKING SURE THAT NO
RELEVANT DATA ARE
ELIMINATED

Developing
themes or
patterns
SEE THE EXPLANATION FROM FILE
“PENELITIAN KUALITATIF MITOSIS-BISNIS”

Creating concept,
propositions, and
mini-theory
SEE THE EXPLANATION FROM FILE
“PENELITIAN KUALITATIF MITOSIS-BISNIS”

Validity and
reliability in
qualitative
research
IT IS IMPORTANT THAT THE CONCLUSIONS
THAT YOU HAVE DRAWN ARE VERIFIED IN
ONE WAY OR ANOTHER
THAT IS, YOU MUST MAKE SURE THAT THE
CONCLUSIONS THAT YOU DERIVE FROM YOUR
QUALITATIVE DATA ARE PLAUSIBLE, RELIABLE,
AND VALID
seeming reasonable

Validity and
reliability in
qualitative
research
RELIABILITY IN QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
INCLUDES CATEGORY AND INTERJUDGE
RELIABILITY
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY HAVE A SLIGHTLY
DIFFERENT MEANING IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
IN COMPARISON TO QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Validity and
reliability in
qualitative
research
CATEGORY RELIABILITY “DEPENDS ON THE
ANALYST’S ABILITY TO FORMULATE CATEGORIES
AND PRESENT TO COMPETENT JUDGES
DEFINITIONS OF THE CATEGORIES SO THEY WILL
AGREE ON WHICH TERMS OF A CERTAIN
POPULATION BELONG IN A CATEGORY AND WHICH
DO NOT (Kassarjian, 1977, p.14)

Validity and
reliability in
qualitative
research
THUS, CATEGORY RELIABILITY RELATES TO THE
EXTENT TO WHICH JUDGES ARE ABLE TO USE
CATEGORY DEFINITIONS TO CLASSIFY THE
QUALITATIVE DATA
WELL-DEFINED CATEGORIES WILL LEAD TO
HIGHER CATEGORY RELIABILITY AND EVENTUALLY
TO HIGHER INTERJUDGE RELIABILITY (Kassarjian,
1977)

Validity and
reliability in
qualitative
research
HOWEVER, CATEGORIES THAT ARE DEFINED IN A
VERY BROAD MANNER WILL ALSO LEAD TO HIGHER
CATEGORY RELIABILITY
THIS CAN LEAD TO THE OVERSIMPLIFICATION OF
CATEGORIES, WHICH REDUCES THE RELEVANCE OF
THE RESEARCH FINDINGS
For instance, McKellar (1949) in an attempt to classify instigation of anger
distinguished between NEED SITUATION and PERSONALITY SITUATION.
NEED SITUATION were defined as “any interference with the pursuit of a
personal goal” such as missing a bus
PERSONALITY SITUATION included the imposition of physical or mental pain
or the violation of personal values, status, and possession.
This classification, which focuses on whether an anger-provoking event can
be classified as a PERSONALITY SITUATION or a NEED SITUATION, will
undoubtedly lead high category and interjudge reliability, but it seems to be
too broad to be relevant to service firm management trying to avoid
customer anger.
Therefore, Kassarjian (1977) suggests that the researcher must find a
balance between category reliability and the relevance of categories

Validity and
reliability in
qualitative
research
INTERJUDGE RELIABILITY CAN BE DEFINED AS A
DEGREE OF CONSISTENCY BETWEEN CODERS
PROCESSING THE SAME DATA (Kassarjian, 1977)
A COMMONLY USED MEASURE OF INTERJUDGE
RELIABILITY IS THE PERCENTAGE OF CODING
AGREEMENTS OUT OF THE TOTAL NUMBER OF
CODING DECISIONS
AS A GENERAL GUIDELINE,
AGREEMENT RATES AT OR
ABOVE 80% ARE CONSIDERED TO
BE SATISFACTORY

Validity and
reliability in
qualitative
research
VALIDITY WAS DEFINED AS THE EXTENT TO WHICH
AN INSTRUMENT MEASURES WHAT IT PURPORTS
TO MEASURE
IT REFERS TO THE EXTENT TO WHICH THE RESEARCH RESULTS :
1. ACCURATELY REPRESENT THE COLLECTED DATA (INTERNAL
VALIDITY)
2. CAN BE GENERALIZED OR TRANFERRED TO OTHER CONTEXTS
OR SETTINGS (EXTERNAL VALIDITY)
The meaning or substance of something

Validity and
reliability in
qualitative
research
TWO METHODS THAT HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED TO
ACHIEVE VALIDITY IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ARE :
• SUPPORTING GENERALIZATIONS BY COUNT OF EVENT.
THIS CAN ADDRESS COMMON CONCERNS ABOUT THE REPORTING OF
QUALITATIVE DATA : THAT ANECDOTES SUPPORTING THE RESEARCHER’S
THEORY HAVE BEEN SELECTED, OR THAT TOO MUCH ATTENTION HAS
BEEN PAID TO A SMALL NUMBER OF EVENTS, AT THE EXPENSE OF MORE
COMMON ONES

Validity and
reliability in
qualitative
research
TWO METHODS THAT HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED TO
ACHIEVE VALIDITY IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ARE :
• ENSURING REPRESENTATIVENESS OF CASES AND THE
INCLUSION OF DEVIANT CASES (CASES THAT MAY CONTRADICT
YOUR THEORY). THE SELECTION OF DEVIANT CASES PROVIDES
A STRONG TEST OF YOUR THEORY

Some other methods
of gathering and
analyzing qualitative
data
CONTENT
ANALYSIS
CONTENT ANALYSIS IS AN OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH METHOD
THAT IS USED TO SYSTEMATICALLY EVALUATE THE SYMBOLIC
CONTENTS OF ALL FORM OF RECORDED COMMUNICATIONS
(KOLBE & BURNETT, 1991)
CONTENT ANALYSIS CAN BE USED TO ANALYZE
NEWSPAPERS, WEBSITES, ADVERTISEMENTS,
RECORDINGS OF INTERVIEWS, AND THE LIKE

Some other methods
of gathering and
data
CONTENT
ANALYSIS
THE METHOD OF CONTENT ANALYSIS ENABLES THE RESEARCHER
TO ANALYZE (LARGE AMOUNT OF) TEXTUAL INFORMATION AND
SYSTEMATICALLY IDENTIFY ITS PROPERTIES, SUCH AS THE
PRESENCE OF CERTAIN WORDS, CONCEPTS, CHARACTERS,
THEMES, OR SENTENCES
TO CONDUCT A CONTENT ANALYSIS ON A TEXT, THE
TEXT IS CODED INTO CATEGORIES AND THEN ANALYZED
USING CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS OR RELATIONAL ANALYSIS

Some other methods
of gathering and
data
CONTENT
ANALYSIS
CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS ESTABLISHES THE
EXISTANCE AND FREQUENCY OF CONCEPTS (SUCH
AS WORDS, THEMES, OR CHARACTERS) IN A TEXT
CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS ANALYZES AND INTERPRETS
TEXT BY CODING THE TEXT INTO MANAGEABLE
CONTENT CATEGORIES

Some other methods
of gathering and
data
CONTENT
ANALYSIS
RELATIONAL ANALYSIS BUILDS ON CONCEPTUAL
ANALYSIS BY EXAMINING THE RELATIONSHIP
AMONG CONCEPT IN A TEXT

Some other methods
of gathering and
data
CONTENT
ANALYSIS
THE RESULTS OF CONCEPTUAL OR RELATIONAL ANALYSIS ARE
USED TO MAKE INFERENCES ABOUT THE MESSAGE WITHIN THE
TEXT, THE EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES ON
MESSAGE CONTENT, THE EFFECTS OF MESSAGES ON THE
RECEIVER , AND SO ON
ALONG THESE LINES, CONTENT ANALYSIS HAS BEEN USED TO ANALYZE
PRESS COVERAGE OF ELECTION CAMPAIGNS, TO ASSESS THE EFFECTS OF
THE CONTENT OF ADVERTISEMENTS ON CONSUMER BEHAVIOR, AND TO
PROVIDE A SYSTEMATIC OVERVIEW OF TOOLS THAT ONLINE MEDIA USE TO
ENCOURAGE INTERACTIVE COMMUNICATION PROCESSES

Some other methods
of gathering and
data
NARRATIVE
ANALYSIS
A NARRATIVE IS A STORY OR “AN ACCOUNT
INVOLVING THE NARRATION OF A SERIES OF
EVENTS IN A PLOTTED SEQUENCE WITH UNFOLDS
IN TIME” (DENSIN, 2000)
NARRATIVE ANALYSIS IS AN APPROACH THAT AIMS TO
ELICIT AND SCRUTINIZE THE STORIES WE TELL ABOUT
OURSELVES AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR OUR LIVES

Some other methods
of gathering and
data
NARRATIVE
ANALYSIS
NARRATIVE DATA ARE OFTEN COLLECTED
VIA INTERVIEWS.
THESE INTERVIEWS ARE DESIGNED TO ENCOURAGE THE
PARTICIPANT TO DESCRIBE A CERTAIN INCIDENT IN THE
CONTEXT OF HIS OR HER LIFE HISTORY

Some other methods
of gathering and
data
NARRATIVE
ANALYSIS
NARRATIVE ANALYSIS HAS THUS BEEN USED TO STUDY
IMPULSIVE BUYING (ROOK, 1987), COSTOMERS’
RESPONSES TO ADVERTISEMENTS (MICK & BUHL, 1992),
AND RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN SERVICE PROVIDERS AND
CONSUMERS (STERN, THOMSON & ARNOULD, 1998)

Some other methods
of gathering and
data
ANALYTIC
INDUCTION
ANALYTIC INDUCTION IS AN APPROACH TO QUALITATIVE DATA
ANALYSIS IN WHICH UNIVERSAL EXPLANATION OF PHENOMENA
ARE SOUGHT BY THE COLLECTION OF (QUALITATIVE) DATA
UNTIL NO CASES THAT ARE INCONSISTENT WITH A
HYPOTHETICAL EXPLANATION OF A PHENOMENON ARE FOUND
ANALYTIC INDUCTION STARTS WITH A (ROUGH)
DEFINITION OF A PROBLEM (“WHY DO PEOPLE USE
MARIJUANA” IS A FAMOUS EXAMPLE),

Some other methods
of gathering and
data
ANALYTIC
INDUCTION
AND THEN PROCEEDS WITH THE EXAMINATION OF
CASES (e.g. THE COLLECTION OF DATA VIA IN-
DEPTH INTERVIEWS).

Some other methods
of gathering and
data
ANALYTIC
INDUCTION
IF A CASE IS INCONSISTENT WITH THE
RESEARCHER’S HYPOTHESIS (e.g. “I USE
MARIJUANA FOR HEALTH REASONS”),

Some other methods
of gathering and
data
ANALYTIC
INDUCTION
THE RESEARCHER EITHER REDEFINES THE
HYPOTHESIS OR EXCLUDES THE “DEVIANT” CASE
THAT DOES NOT CONFIRM THE HYPOTHESIS

Some other methods
of gathering and
data
ANALYTIC
INDUCTION
ANALYTIC INDUCTION INVOLVES INDUCTIVE – RATHER THAN
DEDUCTIVE – REASONING, ALLOWING FOR THE MODIFICATION
OF A HYPOTHETICAL EXPLANATION FOR PHENOMENA
THROUGHOUT THE PROCESS OF DOING RESEARCH

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