1. stages of
human
development
J.S.K. Uthpala Isuranga Siriwardena

2. 2
ABSTRACT
S
ocial Work is a practical job. It is
about
protecting
people
and
changing their lives, not about giving
theoretical explanations of why they
got into difficulties…Social work is about social
change at the individual as well as at
community
level.
Change
is
complex,
diversified and risk prone. To understand it,
social worker need knowledge, imagination,
comprehension & creativity…. In short, a
radical shift in understanding “Knowledge as
process” as opposed to “Knowledge as product”
is needed.
Our understanding of social work is simplified
with the simple definition of social work...it is
the art and science of helping the people to
help themselves.
Compilation and interpretation of social work
definition conveys a meaning that social work
is a “helping” “assisting” „enabling” activity.
Thus with the light of assisting disciplines
social works can engage in practical application
of gained knowledge.
Confining in to the scope of this study, it is
intended to point out the use of knowledge on
stages of human development as a social
worker in connection with psychology.
In social work practice it is always applicable
the vast knowledge base provided by the
discipline to come to a proper solution when
the concern is about an individual. Even
©2011 Uthpala Isuranga

3. 3
though it refers to identify individual’s
visualization of an issue the solution can be
effective to a group as well when it is creative.
Thus for such a creative solution it is indeed
essential
the
knowledge
on
human
developmental stages. These stages can be
varied according to respective psychologist but
the approach to a solution would not be that
complicated with the knowledge in hand. It is
this clarity that normally makes one to commit
in his/ her professional responsibilities. Latter
is a concise but analytical study on the subject
matter.
development. Erik Erikson’s theory
was
supported by or backed by Freudian
theory[2].Jean Piaget’s[3] theory of cognitive
development
and
Lawrence
Kohlberg’s[4]
theory of personality development are also
among those .
Theory of Psychosexual
Development
Theories of Human
Development
I
nitially it is always convenient to denote
at least a little on theories related to
human development. This will make it
easier to familiarize with the facts how
internal and external forces shape life
development, generally by life stages. There
are grand theories such as Psychoanalytic,
behaviorism, cognitive and less discussed
theories as well as sociocultural, epigenetic. In
this study a it is mainly concerned about
Psychoanalytic theory.
Sigmund Freud’s theory of ‘Psychosexual
Development’ can be identified as the most
prominent
advancement
on
human
development stages .Another prominent theory
is
1
Erikson's[1]
stages
of
psychosocial
Erik Erikson (15 June 1902 – 24 May 1994) was a
student of Sigmund Freud.
Freud advanced a theory of personality
development focusing on the effects of the
sexual pleasure drive on a person's emerging
personality. According to his theory, parts of
the personality develop as one move through a
series of psychosexual stages. Each stage is
characterized by different demands for sexual
pleasure and different ways of achieving that
pleasure. There can be 5 stages of
Psychosexual Development identified. They are
as follows[5];
2
Psychoanalytic theory contributed to the basic
outline of the eight stages, at least those
concerned with childhood. Namely, the first four of
Erikson's life stages correspond to Freud's oral,
anal, phallic, and latency phases, respectively. Also,
the fifth stage of adolescence is said to parallel the
genital stage in psychoanalytic theory.
3
Jean Piaget (9 August 1896 – 16 September 1980).
4
5
Lawrence Kohlberg (October 25, 1927 – January 19,
1987)
Elkind ,(1980). Erik Erikson's Eight Ages of Man. In M.
G. McGee (Ed.), Introductory Psychology Reader, p. 136
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4. 4
Oral- From birth to about 15 months is t he
oral, stage. A newborn is governed only by its
drives. So the infant seeks immediate
gratification, achieved through its mouth feeding, crying, and oral exploration of the
world.
Anal- From 15 months to about 3 YEARS is
The focus of gratification shifts from the mouth
to the anus. The child experiences pleasure
from the elimination of faeces. Toilet training is
a vital part in this explanation.
Phallic- According to Freud from 3 years to
about 5 years, the focus of gratification is now
on the genitals, although this gratification is
not the same as that experienced by adults.
Children take an increasing interest in their
own genitals, and show a curiosity about other
people's bodies.
Latent- around five years until puberty is the
latent drives that have been responsible for
gratification in the previous stages appear
relatively inactive. This is partly due to the
control of sexual drives that is accomplished
during the Oedipal stage.
Genital- With puberty there is re-emergence of
the earlier drives. Drive energy is focused on
the genitals once more, but this time with an
adult expression of sexuality. Although the
term 'genital' suggests that gratification during
this stage must inevitably be sexual
Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust- [6] Occurs
between birth and one year of age and is the
most fundamental stage in life. Because an
infant is utterly dependent, the development of
trust is based on the dependability and quality
of the child’s caregivers.
Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt[7]
The second stage of Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development takes place during
early childhood and is focused on children
developing a greater sense of personal control
toilet training was a vital part of this process.
But quite different than that of Freud's Erikson
believe that learning to control one’s body
functions leads to a feeling of control and a
sense of independence.
Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt- [8] During the
preschool years (4–6 years), children begin to
assert their power and control over the world
through directing play and other social
interaction
Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority- [9]This
stage covers the early school years from
approximately age 5 to 11.Through social
interactions, children begin to develop a sense
of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion-[10] During
adolescence, children are exploring their
independence and developing a sense of self
Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation- [11] This
stage covers the period of early adulthood
when
people
are
exploring
personal
relationships.
Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation[12]
During middle adulthood, we continue to
build our lives, focusing on our career and
family.
Theory of Psychosocial
Development
Erik
Erikson’s
theory
of
psychosocial
development is one of the best-known theories
of personality in psychology. Much like
Sigmund
Freud,
Erikson
believed
that
personality develops in a series of stages.
Unlike Freud’s theory of psychosexual stages,
Erikson’s theory describes the impact of social
experience across the whole lifespan.
6
Elkind, (1980). Erik Erikson's Eight Ages of Man. In M.
G. McGee (Ed.), Introductory Psychology Reader, p. 124
7
Op. cit., p.125
Op. cit., p.126
9
Op. cit., p.127
10
Op. cit., p.128
11
Op. cit., p.130
12
Op. cit., p.130
8
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5. 5
Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair- [13] This
phase occurs during old age and is focused on
reflecting back on life.
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development
Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive
development
of
children.
Cognitive
development involves changes in cognitive
process and abilities. In Piaget's view, early
cognitive development involves processes
based upon actions and later progresses into
changes in mental operations.
Disturbances
knowledge
stages?
on
human
development
To answer these questions one need to know
why people are suffering. Then comes the
knowledge there to search and dig out the
roots of the problem occurred.
Thus keen to facilitate client- fellow human
being with our responsibilities towards them,
the gained knowledge about the human
problems are essential. Knowledge or the
theories are attempts to explain…a frame work
for understanding …a set of ideas linked
together to help us make sense of a particular
issue.
Since the life span of a human being is
diversified as stages in above mentioned
theories it is easy to social worker to
comprehend ;
•
&
P
Resolutions
ositive influence of the former
mentioned developmental stages are
necessary for a proper personal
development. If as growing humans,
we do not receive an appropriate amount of
gratification. Receiving either too little or too
much of this gratification or the pleasure, one
may become engaged in a particular stage.
That is, someone continues to have the same
demand for pleasure that he had at that stage
throughout the rest of their lives. This
condition is thought to produce a variety of
adult behaviors. Failure to successfully
complete these stages, Freud suggested,
would lead to personality problems in
adulthood. On that point onwards practicality
of resolving the psychological issues of people
come front. Though there are contradictions to
the accuracy of this theory as per the
researchers, this theory holds a prominence in
popular culture.
•
•
•
•
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•
Psychosexual Development and
Social Work
The disturbances and applicable approach
to resolve is also introduced in the latter.
Result of oral stage disturbance and social
work approach;
According to the scope of subject matter
in what way should social worker use the
13
In what time period does the root of
the problem prevails.
What are the conditions of the
problem.
Consequences of the issue.
Plan the therapeutic solution.
How to apply the solution.
Supervision process.
Op. cit., p.131
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6. 6
According to Freud, disturbance of the oral
stage may result in a permanent fixation on
the oral channel for gratification. Examples of
resulting adult behaviors include smoking,
overeating,
thumb-sucking,
and
pencil
chewing.
Typical resulting personality qualities include
impatience, passivity, greediness, dependence
and a anxiety with giving and taking.
immediate needs
involving others.
to
larger
responsibilities
Psychosocial
Social Work
Development
and
and
Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust and social
work approach
Too little gratification in this stage results in an
'anal' or obsessive character who has a wish to
make a terrible mess and therefore must build
defenses against this, such as orderliness,
rigidity, and hatred of waste. They are also
stubborn, stingy, punctual and possessive.
If a child successfully develops trust, he or she
will feel safe and secure in the world.
Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally
unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings
of mistrust in the children they care for. Failure
to develop trust will result in fear and a belief
that
the
world
is
inconsistent
and
unpredictable.
Result of anal stage
social work approach;
disturbance
Too much gratification will result in opposite
behaviors, untidiness, a hot temper and
destructiveness.
Result of phallic stage disturbance and
social work approach;
According to Freud, the conflicts may result in:
homosexuality,
authority
problems,
and
rejection of appropriate gender roles if not
resolved.
Result of latency stage disturbance and
social work approach;
Freud suggests that these repressed drives
may be redirected into other activities, such as
the formation of friendships, or hobbies. This
stage is important in the development of social
and communication skills and self-confidence.
Result of genital stage disturbance and
social work approach;
If too much libidinal energy ’[14] is taken up in
the first three stages, the individual cannot
reach maturity, cannot shift the focus from
their own body, their own parents and their
14
A term used by in psychoanalytic theory to describe the
energy created by the survival and sexual instincts.
According to Sigmund Freud, the libido is part of the id
and is the driving force of all behavior.
Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
and social work approach
Children who successfully complete this stage
feel secure and confident, while those who do
not are left with a sense of inadequacy and
self-doubt.
Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt and social
work approach
Children who are successful at this stage feel
capable and able to lead others. Those who fail
to acquire these skills are left with a sense of
guilt, self-doubt and lack of initiative. [15]
Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority and
social work approach
Children who are encouraged and commended
by parents and teachers develop a feeling of
competence and belief in their skills. Those
who receive little or no encouragement from
parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their
ability to be successful.
Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion and social
work approach
15
Erikson, 1963.
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7. 7
Those who receive proper encouragement and
reinforcement through personal exploration will
emerge from this stage with a strong sense of
self and a feeling of independence and control.
Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and
desires will insecure and confused about
themselves and the future.
Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation and social
work approach
Remember that each step builds on skills
learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that
a strong sense of personal identity was
important to developing intimate relationships.
Studies have demonstrated that those with a
poor sense of self tend to have less committed
relationships and are more likely to suffer
emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.
Clinical social work serves a broad spectrum of
clients who are in need of professional help
that addresses mental and emotional
disorders, interpersonal dysfunction, and
environmental stressors. This focus includes,
but is not necessarily limited to[16]:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation and
social work approach
•
•
Those who are successful during this phase will
feel that they are contributing to the world by
being active in their home and community.
Those who fail to attain this skill will feel
unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
•
behavior patterns that are destructive to
self and/or others
chemical dependency
emotional problems of living
conscious and unconscious determinants of
behavior
intrapsychic dynamics
impaired cognitive and affective processes
troubled interpersonal relationships and
family dynamics
ineffective management of stress
problematic impact of economic, social and
cultural factors
prejudice, racism and issues of human
diversity
gender and sexual orientation issues
issues of deprivation, abuse and
victimization
life
consequences
of
illness
and/or
disability.
Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair and social
work approach
Those who are unsuccessful during this phase
will feel that their life has been wasted and will
experience many regrets. The individual will be
left with feelings of bitterness and despair.
Those who feel proud of their accomplishments
will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully
completing this phase means looking back with
few regrets and a general feeling of
satisfaction. These individuals will attain
wisdom, even when confronting death.
Almost all of above mentioned issues are
subjected to solve by a clinical approach.Not all
the issues are possible to solve but the clinical
social work emerges in to intervene positively.
16
Mizio, 1998; Garcia, 1998
©2011 Uthpala Isuranga

8. 8
SYNOPSIS
Most of the above mentioned areas are related
to or may be having roots driven in to stages
of social development. It is prominent that in
the light of knowledge on human development
stages social workers can better uplift the
standard of the discipline in a practicable
manner.
©2011 Uthpala Isuranga

9. 9
References:
•
•
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. (2011, November 22). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved
05:00, November 25, 2011, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erikson
%27s_stages_of_psychosocial_development&oldid=461915172
ABOUT, INC. (2011, October 6). Personality Development Major Theories of Personality Development.
psychology.about.com. Retrieved November 25, 2011, from
http://psychology.about.com/od/personalitydevelopment/a/personality-dev.htm
•
Freud, S., Brill, A. A., Putnam, J. J., & (INT), M. D. (2010). The Theory of Sexuality. Createspace, .
•
Freud, S. (1991). On sexuality: three essays on the theory of sexuality and other works. A. Richards (Ed.). London,
U.K.: Penguin
•
Erikson, E. H. (1980). Identity and the life cycle. New York, U.S.: Norton
•
Erikson, E.H. (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: Norton.
•
Erikson, E.H. (1963). Childhood and Society. (2nd ed.). New York: Norton.
•
Carver, C.S. & Scheir, M.F. (2000). Perspectives on Personality. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon
•
Elkind, D. (1980). Erik Erikson's Eight Ages of Man. In M. G. McGee (Ed.), Introductory Psychology Reader. (1st
ed.). (pp. 121-136). Minnesota, U.S.A.: WEST PUBLISHING CO.
•
•
Mizio, E. (1998). Staff development: An ethical imperative. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 30 (1/2), 17-32
Garcia, B. (1998). Professional development of AODA practice with Latinos: The utility of supervision, in-service
training and consultation. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly,16 (1/2), 85-108.
©2011 Uthpala Isuranga

10. 9
References:
•
•
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. (2011, November 22). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved
05:00, November 25, 2011, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erikson
%27s_stages_of_psychosocial_development&oldid=461915172
ABOUT, INC. (2011, October 6). Personality Development Major Theories of Personality Development.
psychology.about.com. Retrieved November 25, 2011, from
http://psychology.about.com/od/personalitydevelopment/a/personality-dev.htm
•
Freud, S., Brill, A. A., Putnam, J. J., & (INT), M. D. (2010). The Theory of Sexuality. Createspace, .
•
Freud, S. (1991). On sexuality: three essays on the theory of sexuality and other works. A. Richards (Ed.). London,
U.K.: Penguin
•
Erikson, E. H. (1980). Identity and the life cycle. New York, U.S.: Norton
•
Erikson, E.H. (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: Norton.
•
Erikson, E.H. (1963). Childhood and Society. (2nd ed.). New York: Norton.
•
Carver, C.S. & Scheir, M.F. (2000). Perspectives on Personality. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon
•
Elkind, D. (1980). Erik Erikson's Eight Ages of Man. In M. G. McGee (Ed.), Introductory Psychology Reader. (1st
ed.). (pp. 121-136). Minnesota, U.S.A.: WEST PUBLISHING CO.
•
•
Mizio, E. (1998). Staff development: An ethical imperative. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 30 (1/2), 17-32
Garcia, B. (1998). Professional development of AODA practice with Latinos: The utility of supervision, in-service
training and consultation. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly,16 (1/2), 85-108.
©2011 Uthpala Isuranga