8Associated Press Connecting With Families and Communities Chapter Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter you should be able to · Explain the bioecological theory of human development and its importance · Discuss the importance of families as children’s first teachers · Explain the importance of home–school partnerships · Identify elements of the larger community that contribute to centers and schools and vice versa, as well as plan for your potential leadership roles as an early education professional · Discuss ways in which teachers or caregivers can interact most effectively with a school’s or center’s community Introduction: The Adults in Children’s Lives Introduction: The Adults in Children’s Lives nteracting with young children in ways that are most beneficial is more than possessing good teaching techniques and affection for youngsters as individuals. It is important for teachers to realize that much of what children are comes from their family and cultural backgrounds, and that this fact determines, to great extent, their responses to what their teachers do and say. I In the education field, it is often regarded as a truism that parents are children’s first teachers. The intent of this statement is to convey the point of the parents being first sequentially, but also as first in importance. This reminder is a good one for teachers and caregivers to keep in mind, but it needs to go further, given the many models of family in today’s world. In this chapter we will discuss some of these models and how they impact what children bring to a center or to school. Also of importance is the cultural community and its influence on young children. As one writer has powerfully stated, educators “must view each child and family within a framework that encompasses the entire political, social, economic, cultural, and spiritual experience that shapes the identity and behavior of the families and children with whom they work. The one-size-fits-all approach is a gross oversight . . .”(Prater, 2002, p. 150). So then, not only must teachers remember to place their children in a large and complex cultural context, but their families as well, and this chapter will discuss these issues. There is another community that teachers and caregivers must learn to be skillful partners of, As children’s first teachers, parents are responsible for what their children know upon entering school. How might different backgrounds impact what a young learner brings to a center or to school? and it is visibly around them every day. It is the community of their own workplace. Collaboration, cooperation, skillful communication, and effective listening with colleagues are all important to professionalism. This chapter will provide specific suggestions for successfully negotiating Artiga Photo/Corbis the workplace world. The concept of an interdependency of home, school, center, school, community, and culture is a complex one that has been studied for more th.

1. 8Associated Press
Connecting With Families and Communities
Chapter Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter you should be able to
· Explain the bioecological theory of human
development and its importance
· Discuss the importance of families as children’s
first teachers
· Explain the importance of home–school partnerships
· Identify elements of the larger community that
contribute to centers and schools and vice versa,
as well as plan for your potential leadershiproles as
an earlyeducation professional
· Discuss ways in which teachers or caregiverscan
interact most effectively with a school’s or
center’s community
Introduction: The Adults in Children’s Lives Introduction: The
Adults in Children’s Lives
nteracting with young children in ways that are most
beneficial is more than possessing good teaching
techniques and affection for youngsters as
individuals. It is important for teachers to
realize that much of what children are comes

2. from their family and cultural backgrounds, and
that this fact determines, to greatextent, their
responses to what their teachers do and say.
I
In the education field, it is oftenregarded as a
truism that parents are children’s first teachers.
The intent of this statement is to convey
the pointof the parents being first sequentially,
but also as first in importance. This reminder is
a good one for teachers and caregiversto keep in
mind, but it needs to go further, given
the many models of family in today’s
world. In this chapter we will discuss someof
thesemodels and how they impact what children
bring to a center or to school.
Also of importance is the cultural community
and its influence on young children. As one
writer has powerfully stated, educators “must
view each childand family within a framework
that encompasses the entire political, social,
economic,cultural, and spiritual experience that
shapes the identity and behavior of the
families and children with whom they work.
The one-size-fits-all approach is a gross
oversight . . .”(Prater, 2002, p. 150). So
then, not only must teachers remember to place
their children in a largeand complex cultural
context, but their families as well, and this chapter
will discuss theseissues.
There is another community that teachers and
caregiversmust learnto be skillful partners of,
As children’s first teachers, parents are responsible for what
their children know upon entering school. How might different
backgrounds impact what a young learner brings to a center or
to school?

3. and it is visibly around them every day. It is
the community of their own workplace.
Collaboration, cooperation, skillful communication,
and effective listening with colleagues are all
important to professionalism. This chapter will
provide specific suggestions for successfully negotiating
Artiga Photo/Corbis the workplaceworld.
The concept of an interdependency of home,
school, center, school, community, and culture
is a complex one that has been studied for
more than half a century with a single figure
at the forefront of emerging theory and
research. In the next section we discuss the
thought and influence of the Russian-American
Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005).
Section 8.1 The Bioecological Theory of Human Development
8.1 The Bioecological Theory of Human Development
t age six, Urie Bronfenbrenner moved with his
family from Russia to New York where he
eventually earned degrees in psychology
and music. After serving as an
A
Army psychologist during World War II, he
became a member of the Cornell University
faculty. There, he developed his ecological
systems theory in which individuals were viewed as
the center of ever-larger and more remote
influenceson their lives. Improving all these
influencesfor the sake of children’s development
was a key motivating factor in
Bronfenbrenner’s life work, important in his
earlier professional years as a contributor
to the creation of HeadStart and, in his last
years to a final publication inspired by

4. the events in New York city on September
11, 2001 (Lerner, 2005).
Figure 8.1 shows the basicecological systems model as
it graphically defines how each system nests
within the next and how each one acts on
children’s development. The microsystem at the
center is “the setting within which the
individual is behaving at a given moment in
his or her life” (Lerner, 2005, p. xiii). For
young children this will most oftenmean the
family, home, center or school classroom,
and possibly a religious setting. The mesosystem
doesn’t exist on its own, but is “the set of
Microsystems constituting the individual’s
developmental niche within a given period
of development” (p. xiii). The center or school,
immediate community, television and otherin-
home media, and possibly health agencies would
fit into the mesosystem. A more remote
influence is the exosystem, which could
include the parents’ workplaceor caregivers’
own home lives as either of theseinfluence
the attitudes and behaviors of adults toward
the children. Mostremote is the macrosystem, which
includes economic,cultural, political, and national
influences, including public policies that bear on
children’s lives.
Figure 8.1: The ecological systems model
Microsystem
Child
M
e
sosytem
Exosystem

5. M
a
crosystem
Bronfenbrenner’s original ecological systems model included
increasingly distant influences on individual development. In
recent years, the influences of biology and the passage of time
were added.
Source: Adapted from Bronfenbrenner, U. (1975). Influences on
human development. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER 8
Eventually, Bronfenbrenner cameto believe that
this model was incomplete, that it needed to
incorporate the child’s own biological development
as well as the influence of time.Referring to
time,Bronfenbrenner said that over a lifetime,
individuals learnnew skills and knowledge at
increasinglevels of complexity. In addition, at
the outerlevels of the system, historical periods
and their changes needed to be taken into
consideration. Important to parents especially was
his contention that for a childto develop
wholly, he or she requires “a strong, mutual
emotional attachment” to one or more people “who
are committed to the child’s well-being and development,
preferably for life” (Bronfenbrenner, 2005, p. 9,
emphasis his). To this requirement for optimum
development, he added, “. . . and when
available, staff members of family support and
childcare programs” (p. 11). The most recent
versions of the ecologicalsystems model
incorporate an outerring termed the

6. chronosystem, which indicates the importance of
the continuing, yet changing, nature of time
and its effect on “the biopsychological
characteristics of human beings both as individuals and as
groups. The phenomenon extends over the life course across
successive generations and through historical time, both past
and present (Bronfenbrenner, 2005, p. 3,
emphasis his). This more complex new model may
now be termed bioecological systems model.
Bronfenbrenner has been credited with influencing
much of today’s understanding of the
complex interactions between child, home,
center, school, community, and the larger
society. Directly, or indirectly, his work has
contributed to what you will read in the
upcoming sections of this chapter.8.2 Parents, and
Other Significant Players, as Partners
Section 8.2 Parents, and Other Significant Players, as Partners
CHAPTER 8
Section 8.2 Parents, and Other Significant Players, as Partners
CHAPTER 8
Section 8.2 Parents, and Other Significant Players, as Partners
CHAPTER 8
I
t can be tempting to thinkthat thereis a
“traditional” family model that includes two
biological parents, two sets of biologi-
cal grandparents who live nearby, and perhaps
assorted otherrelatives who will be responsible
for stepping in if emergencies arise. Such a
configuration of family may have been common at
one time (or perhaps it has always only been in
books or on TV), but the concept of family
has greatly expanded. Some statistics tell the

7. storyof today’s family. In 2010, therewere
about 75 million children in the United
States, ages 0 to 17 and:
· 66 percent of children livedwith two parents (down
from 77 percent in 1980). Of this group, 3
percent livedwith unmarried parents.
· 23 percent of children livedonly with their mothers; 3
percent only with their fathers.
· 4 percent of all children livedwith neither parent.
Of this group, 54 percent
With modern families consisting of a variety of diverse
situations, teachers need to be both comfortable with and
knowledgeable about each student’s situation. How would you
prepare for diversity?
Associated Press
livedwith grandparents, 21 percent with otherrelatives,
and 24 percent with non-relatives, including foster
parents.
· Of all children in the United States, 2.5 per
cent had been adopted (America’s Children, 2011).
Figure 8.2 provides an overall view of the United
States for 2010.
Figure 8.2: Family living arrangements for children ages 0–17
100
80
60
40
20
0
Two parents
(69%)
One parent

8. (27%)
No parents (4%)
Two biological/adoptive
cohabiting parents
One biological/adoptive
parent and stepparent
Two biological/
adoptive married
parents
Single mother
Single mother with
cohabiting partner
Single father
Single father with
cohabiting partner
Pe
rcent
Grandparent
Foster parent(s)
Other
Nonrelative
only
Other relative
only
There is no “typical” living arrangement for the approximately
75 million children living in the United States.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey,
Annual Social and Economic Supplements.
These demographics, while current and informative,
are themselves in flux. For example, in 2009,
41 percent of American births were to
unmarried women, up from 18 percent in 1980
and 33 percent in 1994 (America’s Children,
2011). FieldNotes 8.1 is a first-person

9. report from a teen mother about her
experiences as she balanced the demands of
earlymotherhood with childcare needs and efforts
to return to school. Although Kristen
recounts here her earlystruggles, she ultimately
triumphed, earning a doctoral degree while
raising a happy and academically successful
young daughter. Readers should carefully note
the ways in which Kristen found support
and respect from the education community and
the ways in which she didn’t.
Field Notes 8.1: Being a Teen Mother and Single
As I reflect back and move forward, there is no doubt that I was
a troubled teen. Upon graduation from high school, I found out I
was pregnant. What were my options? What would my life hold
for my child and me? As a young indigenous working-class
woman, would I become another casualty of societal inequities
that would position my child to follow a path of poverty and
disempowerment? Yes, I had a loving family, and yes, I had
personal drive, but I didn’t have wealth, racial, or gender
privilege.
Because of my perseverance and familial love, I entered an
urban community college. There I met a faculty mentor who
helped me empower myself. Without his belief in me, I may not
have been able to believe in myself. My daughter was born at
the end of my first year. I was worried about how I could
continue school and care for my newborn. My mentor
encouraged me to bring her to school when my family was
unable to help. He would watch her in his office while I
attended class. I had an academic home.
Not all of my experiences were positive. Because I was a
teenage mom, I was often talked down to, expected to do poorly
academically, and it was assumed that I provided inadequate
care for my child. For example, I was strongly encouraged by
the college to attend parenting classes. Although I learned

10. valuable information about the importance of play and had
wonderful opportunities to learn songs and games with my
child, I also was positioned as the “teenage mother”—the “at-
risk” parent. These educators failed to understand that my lived
experiences gave me an incredible life tool. I was raised by a
hard-working single mother and a loving family. My parental
funds of knowledge came from a loving community that
cherished each child as a sacred gift. We may not have always
been lavished with extravagant gifts, but we were always
immersed in love.
In reflecting back, I realize how much I believe in the power of
fierce hopefulness through mentorship and love. For me, the
stereotypical portrayals of teen moms and societal inequities
were what could have been my roadblocks. I urge all teachers
and caregivers to examine their biases about teen moms and the
social issues that impact the lives of young mothers. Every
mom, as well as every child, deserves empowering spaces where
they can succeed.
As the statistics for 2011 suggest, Kristen’s single
motherhood is, in many ways, not
unusual. On a practical level, this means
that your interactions with children’s families will
have somecomplexity to them and require a
good amount of diplomacy and communication
skill.Skilled diplomacy will be especially
important to avoid communicating negative
attitudes, such as those suffered by Kristen.
The potential results, however, will be well worth
the effort.
The necessary skills are not generally acquired
overnight,making patience with oneself an
essential as well. One parent educator and
program director (Keyser, 2006) has described
the evolution of her attitude toward parents,
one which she suspects she shares with many
otherteachers and caregivers. Her first stage,

11. she says, could be titled “Save the Child”
in which, as a new teacher, she wanted to
convince parents to be more like her and, if
that didn’t work, she would just take their
children home with her. After someexperience
as a teacher, stagetwo, “Save the Parents”
evolved. In this stage, she wanted to share
with parents everything she knew about
good childdevelopment practice so they could
learnto care for their children as she did. While
this second stagewas more advanced, she believes it
failed to “acknowledge the gifts, resources,
goals, and culture that all parents hold for
their children” (p. xi). Finally, she reached the third
stage, “Partnership with Families” in which it
was possible to “acknowledge that both teachers
and parents have the knowledge, expertise,
experience, and resources that are needed for
the best education, care, and support for every
child.” Families, and not just the children, she argues,
“are in the center of care, and as children’s primary
teachers and advocates, families are essential
partners in the care and education of their
children” (p. xi).
The National Association for the Education of Young
Children (NAEYC) is in complete agreementwith
this final statement,saying that, “Families matter,
both in terms of their influence on their own
childor children and as partners with
administrative and teaching staff who are working to
maximize the quality of children’s experiences”
(NAEYC, n.d., p. 9). Given the importance of
families as partners, we will discuss next the
benefits to everyone of good parent–teacher
interactions. For the purposes of our discussion,
we will include in the definition of parent, a

12. child’s primary home caregiver, whether
biological parent or not.
Benefits to Children of Good Home–School Interaction
According to NAEYC, “Children are the ones who
benefit most from healthy, reciprocal relationships
between teachers and families” (NAEYC, n.d., p. 9).
When young children know that their parents
are actively and contentedly involved in their
school or center experience, they are most
likely to feel comfortable in their away-from-
home environment. There are otherbenefits as
well and the following research-based findings are
adapted from several sources (Brown, Hemmeter,
& Pretti-Frontczak, 2005; Kersey &
Masterson, 2009; Keyser, 2006; Prior&
Gerard, 2007; Spaggiari,1998; Valverde, 2006;
Willis, 2009).
One important result of parental involvement is
that children know that they are supported and
are more motivated to succeed. When family
members are able to help in the classroom,
young children feel secure with their presence
and pridein their being there. One thingthat
family members can bring to class or center
is information about their cultural traditions.
When they do, their children feel they are better
understood and that their cultures are respected.
They have opportunities to learnabout and
appreciateothercultures as well. In addition, student
achievement, including test performance, has been
shown to increase when parents are
involved in the school experience.
The team approach of teachers and parents working
together provides further benefits. Research has
shown that children’s social/emotional development

13. is enhanced by the good social modeling of
teachers and parents interacting well together.
When teachers and parents help youngsters
view any learning deficits as challenges rather
than as weaknesses, they help the children feel
encouraged to work harder rather than give
up. If communication is difficult due to
linguistic backgrounds, bringing translators to
meetings makes children feel valued and better
understood. When teachers and parents
successfully team up, a culture of peace is
promoted in children’s lives, both in the
immediate sense and as a model to
take into the future.
Benefits to Parents of Good Home–School Interaction
As teacher or caregiver, you will quickly learnthat
thereare parents who check in with you daily
and are interested in knowing about everything
that is going on. There will also be parents
who avoid coming in at all. And then,
perhaps, the largest group will be those in
the middle who check in on occasion, seem
happy to hear classroom stories, especially those
about their own children of course, and who
are diligent about showing up for scheduled
conferences. In an upcoming section we will
discuss the seeming mysteries of these behaviors.
At this point, let us describe the benefits
for all threetypes of parents as they interact
with teachers and caregivers. The following
discussion, like the one before it, is also
based on the work of several writers and
researchers (Brown et al., 2005; Copple &
Bredekamp, 2009; Keyser, 2006; Powers,
2005; Prior& Gerard, 2007; Swick, 2003).

14. Some parents have not forgotten their own negative
school experiences, but being involved in
the classroom can help them be more positive with
their own children. If caregiversand teachers listen
to and respect them, parents’ self-confidence
and feelings of empowerment are enhanced, and
they will tend to be more comfortable in the
center or school setting. In turn, they will
understand better the teaching and caring
philosophy of their children’s programs, leading to
more skillful participation and supportive
attitudes at home. At home too, involved
parents will likely have higher confidence in
their own parenting and what the home environment
should be to promote their children’s learning.
When parents and teachers engage in a team
approach, a sense of mutual concern
emerges. Parents who feel comfortable at school
or center know they have an appreciative
place to share stories of their children’s
accomplishments and struggles. Also, when
teachers respond sensitively to parents’ choices
and goals for their children, harmonious
conclusions to difficult issues are more likely.
As teachers help parents differentiate issues
that are developmental and those that are specific
to their own children, parents can gain a
One way to promote good home–school interaction is to create
opportunities where children can bring their parents to school.
Here, parents take part in PE class with their youngsters.
Associated Press
better understanding of their children’s development
and capabilities. Perhaps most important, parents

15. with good home–school relationships can leave
their children each day with a feeling of
confidence and security.
Benefits to Teachers and Caregivers of Good Home–School
Interaction
Whatever your goals are, and have been, in the
field of earlyeducation, they are most likely
focused on a future with young children.
Many teachers-to-be, and even practicing teachers,
find it difficult to see the importance, even
the necessity, of focusing also on the children’s
families. As you have just seen,thereare definite
benefits for both parents and children for good
home–school interactions. But thereare, as well,
benefits to teachers and caregivers. What
follows are several, among many benefits, as
observed by and discovered through the
research of a number of writers (Copple &
Bredekamp, 2009; Keyser, 2006; Prior&
Gerard, 2007; Spaggiari,1998).
Early educators who take time to learnabout and
workwith families learnmore about the children they
are teaching. As well, teachers can gain valuable
knowledge about the families’ cultures and
traditions.All this goes a long way toward planning
curriculum that meets the needs of every child.
It also helps to carryon successfuldialoguing
with parents in terms of learning much more
about children’s interests and needs; and the
parents can learnmore about the teacher’s need
for resources, materials, and time.
Teachers who devote time and energy to interactions
with families are more likely to see families
not as a threat, but as colleagues,

16. appreciating the different wisdoms they provide.
Parents who learnabout what is happeningin
school or center are more likely to
understand and appreciatethe work that teachers
do. Not surprisingly, teachers who interact well
with family members tend to receive higher
parent ratings and increased support from them.
Joyce Epstein at Johns Hopkins University
has created a useful framework for school,
family, and community partnerships. Although its
focus is elementary and secondary school,
much of it is helpful for earlychildhood
professionals as well. See Table 8.1 for an
abbreviated version of the framework
(Epstein. Sanders, Simon, Salinas, Jansorn, &
Voorhis, 2002).Table 8.1: Framework for partnership
involvement
Type 1 Parenting
Type 2
Communicating
Type 3
Volunteering
Type 4
Learning at
Home
Type 5
Decision
Making
Type 6 Collaborating with
Community
Help all families support children as learners
Design effective forms of school– home and home–school
communications
Recruit and organize parent help and support
Provide ideas about how to help at home

17. Include parents
in decision making
Identify and integrate community resources to strengthen school
or center programs
Sample Practices and Overcoming Challenges
Family support programs to assist with health, nutrition, etc.
Provide translators as
needed
Family center for volunteer work, meetings, resources
Information for families on expected skills and behaviors
Active committees for parent participation
Information for families on community
services of all kinds
Home visits
Have regular schedule of memos, phone calls, newsletters, etc.
Family phone tree to provide important information
Calendars with
community
activities
Networks to link families
Information on community
activities
Enable families to share culture and children’s
talents and needs
Consider parents who don’t read well or need large type
Recruit volunteers widely so all families feel
welcome
Involve families in curriculum decision making as possible
Include parent leaders from all racial, ethnic, and other groups
on committees
Ensure equity of opportunities for families to
participate in programs
Epstein and colleagues’ framework includes six types of
involvement that educators use to design effective partnerships

18. between schools, families, and communities.
Source: Adapted from Epstein et al., 2002
Section 8.3 Creating Successful Home–School Partnerships 8.3
Creating Successful Home–School Partnerships
he advantages to everyone of partneringshould be
apparent from the previous sections. This doesn’t, of
course, mean that successfulpartneringis always
easy,as we saw earlier in Keyser’s three-step
evolution. The upcoming sections will offer spe-
T
cific advice for your own stepstoward success. We
will begin with considerations based on
differing ages,then discuss good relationships more
generally, and finally focus on extrainformation
you may find useful when children represent
different languages and cultures.
Infants and Their Families
Infancy is, perhaps, the most difficult time for parents
to leave children in the care of someone
else; caregiversneed to be sensitive to the
different ways that parents cope with taking this
step. Some parents find it easy to develop a
good relationship with caregiverswhile others
“are clearly sad and need more emotional support
and reassurance”, while still others “may
become competitive with the infant care
teacher” (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009, p.
59). Add to thesedifferences the multitude of
ways that families regard “correct” parenting. For
example, they may believe that babies should
always be in the presence of adults and
that their needs be immediately met at all
times; crying and fussiness are unacceptable.

19. The caregiver, on the otherhand, might well
believe that waiting a shorttime to respond
will provide babies with an opportunity to
learnindependence. At times like these, it is
essential that caregiverscultivate their communication
skills and find solutions that work for everyone.
Establishing informal and ongoing methods of
communicating will lay a foundation for dealing
with the more sensitive issues. Ideas might
include notes home, phone calls, e-mail,
text messaging, photographs, and casual
conversations, along with the more formal
conferences.
Toddlers and Their Families
Toddlers and their families also benefit from ongoing
efforts at good communication. The continuity
between home and center provides the
stability that youngsters need as they navigate
between the highs and lows of their emerging,
but still shaky, stepstoward independence. The
toddler’s conflicting emotions during this period
can better be interpreted and dealt with when
parents and caregiversshare their observations
and responses. Although toddlers need continuity
between home and center expectations and
responses to emotional needs, this is not, of
course, always possible. As long as they see
the adults in their lives working smoothly
together to iron out the differences, however,
toddlers can handle such minor difficulties. To
the suggestions listed for families of infants,
NAEYC adds others for toddler families such as
“potluck suppers, special celebrations, parents’
nights out, and family reading parties” that
“help builda community that enjoys their

20. young children together and supports them as
they grow” (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009, p.
73).
Preschoolers and Their Families
Preschoolers act, at times, like the toddlers they
have so recently been, making it imperative
that teachers consider interactions much like
those of the earlier years. At the same
time,the first step toward many years of
formal schooling oftenbegins in preschool or
childcare programs, and parents begin to have a
different view of their interactions with the other
adults in their children’s lives. It becomes
important for schools to ensure parents that
they are always truly welcome, not just officially as
licensing agencies oftenrequire, and not only during
scheduled conferences and on specific visiting
days. When their children first go off to
preschool, parents may, for the first time,tune in
to their own fuzzy memories from childhood.
These memories may be positive, but the
opposite may also be true. In addition, the
understanding of “developmentally appropriate
practices” may well have changed in the intervening
years. Good communication is essential for
teachers, and this includes respectful listening to
parents’ opinions. Accordingly, teachers should
“listen to parents, seek to understand their
goals and expectations for their children, and
respect the family’s personal and cultural
preferences” (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009, p.
182).
Kindergarteners and Their Families
Kindergarteners are embarking on their actual journey

21. into formal schooling and “the quality of
interaction between a child’s kindergarten
teacher and family helps to form a
family’s overall connection with school”
(Copple & Bredekamp, 2009, p. 253). In
this way, the teacher is helping to establish a
family’s relationship with school for many
years to come. Parents may feel reluctant to
come to school now, finding school policies
intimidating or remembering—more clearly now—
their own unpleasant experiences as children. (See
FieldNotes 8.2 for an example of this.)
Thus, it is important for teachers to “solicit
parents’ knowledge about their children and
inputabout their goals and concerns” and then
“use this information in ongoing assessment,
evaluation, and planning” (p. 252).
Primary Grade Children and Their Families
Primary grade children are now well on their way into
formal schooling and the advice for kindergarten
teachers still holds true. Conferences are now
more oftenscheduled rather than informal, and it is
important to be sure that theseare held when
parents are able to participate. Scheduling
around parents’ work schedules can sometimes be
a challenge for teachers but it is a
challenge that must be met if home–school
communications are to be successful. In
addition to conferences focused on children’s
progress, thereare expandinglists of programs and
otherevents, and thesetoo need to employ flexible
scheduling to accommodate the diverse needs
of families.8.4 Tips, Strategies, and Plans for Caregivers
and Teachers
s you gain experience in centers and classrooms,

22. you will discover new and productive ways to be
successfulin your home–school interactions. Right
now, it will be helpful to have somesuggestions
to thinkabout, to discuss with others, and to
A
collect as you get started.
General Strategies for Home–School Interactions
The following ideascome from your authors’ and other
writers’ experiences as well as from actual
research (Arndt & McGuire-Schwartz, 2008:
Kersey & Masterson, 2009; Keyser, 2006;
Powers, 2005; Souto-Manning, 2010).
In person (informal):
· Say at least one positive thingwhenever you talk
with a parent.
· Stay both professional and friendly by refusing,
clearly but pleasantly, if parents ask you
casually for information about otherparents.
· Respect the privacy of family members by
discussing sensitive issues in secure
locations out of earshot of others. People
who overhear only part of a conversation may
misinterpret; parents may well wish to keep
conversations private.
· Be sufficiently available for chatting so that parents
find you an easy person to talk to. Then,
when difficult situations arise, they will feel
more comfortable discussing them.
· Let parents know when they can most easily
reach you by phone, e-mail, or other
method; then, because you need time for yourself
and family, stick to this schedule.
In person (formal meetings and conferences):

23. · Before a school year begins, contact or visit
children and their families to introduce yourself.
Give each childsomethingsmall to bring the
first day; even a simple pencil provides a
sense of belonging and knowing at least one
thingto do and somethingto look forward to.
· When visiting a family in the home, avoid
turning it into a parent-education experience.
Go thereto learnas well as to share.
· Several days before scheduled conferences, it is
helpful to send home a note that asks parents
to consider what they would like to discuss at
the conference, including goals for their child for
the year, questions they have about the program,
and things they would like to share about
CHAPTER 8
Section 8.4 Tips, Strategies, and Plans for Caregivers and
Teachers CHAPTER 8
Section 8.4 Tips, Strategies, and Plans for Caregivers and
Teachers CHAPTER 8
their family.
· Remember to ask parents their perspectives on
their children’s strengths or challenges; don’t
just lecture to them.
· Begin and end every meeting with something
positive (the “bread” in the communication
“sandwich”).
Other types of communication:
Formal parent–teacher meetings should include both positive
and constructive feedback. Why might this be important to
home–school interactions?
Digital Vision/Getty Images

24. · Quick e-mail communications reporting on a
day’s activities can help parents ask their
children appropriate questions and feel a part of
their lives.
· Make occasional phone calls of a positive
nature so parents learnthat hearing from you
doesn’t mean somethingis wrong.
· If children have transferred from another school or
district, seek permission to reach out to
this prior place for information.
· Parents whose schedules don’t permit them to
participate or volunteer when their children
are on-site can contribute in creative ways such as
recording books on tape, inviting the class to
their workplace, or illustrating posters.
· Keep a family calendar on the classroom wall
where children can writein special events
they are looking forward to such as family
birthdays and events.
When More Focused Strategies Might Help
The previous suggestions should see teachers and
caregiversthrough a variety of general home–
school interactions. There are, however, more specific
situations to consider as well because, of course,
children and their families do not fit into one
general mold. We have already introduced
statistics showing the greatdiversity of today’s
families. This section will offer further ideasto
thinkabout.
Diversities of Cultures and Languages
Mostlikely you will have children from family models
and cultures that are not the same as your own. It
is also possible that they will come from
countries with languages that are unfamiliar to

25. you. Even if, on the surface, your community
seems homogeneous, therewill be economic and
education differences, plus family structures that
are diverse.
Here are ideasto take with you into your own center or
school that can help with new situations such as
these(Cheatham & Santos, 2011; Kirmani,
2007; Prior& Gerard, 2007; Valverde, 2006).
To begin, be alert to the needs of recent
arrivals. Moving to a new place and culture
can be extraordinarily lonely and challenging. Be
sure that families from othercountries, and even from
different parts of your own country, understand
the local education system. Be sure that newcomers
understand what is meant by parent
involvement. The term is defined differently in
different cultures, even within the United States.
Learn from the families what they see as most
important in their children’s development and
education. For example, somecultures focus on
academics, while others are most concerned
about moral development and care for others.
Learn too about the different cultures’ views
on discipline, physical affection, appropriate
rewards for good work, and otherinteractions
common to your classroom. Receive families’
differing ideasrespectfully and share your own
with equal respect. Prepare to make minor
compromises if appropriate. It will be worth
your while to learnas much as you can
about the different cultures in your classroom.
Consider learning more about your own too.
The following tips are related specifically to
conferences and language learning:
· Welcome everyone who comes to a conference.
Some cultures expect, or at least hope,

26. that their extended families will be included.
· Make yourself aware of body language, silences,
and othersubtle communication clues. People
from somecultures are quitehappy to let
teachers know when they disagree, while
others believe they must remain silent out of
respect. Be sure to ask parents what their own
feelings are about an issueor situation.
· Have patience if parents aren’t ready to
make decisions immediately. Some parents
will need to confer with extended family before
making decisions that impact their children.
· Arrange to have translators for English language
learners. Conferences will go much more
smoothly. If using another parent from the
school, be sure that he or she understands
the necessity of confidentiality.
· Demonstrate respect for the home languages of
children and their families. Children who learn
multiple languages are at long-term advantage,
even if it means picking up English more
slowly at first.
· As possible, translate school–home written
communications into the languages of people
who are just learning English. Within any center
or school, thereare usually parents who can do
this.
· Practice until you can say children’s and parents’ names
correctly. They must learnan entire new language;
just learning a name correctly shows at
least a minimum of respect. Try learning a
few words as well, especially essential ones such as
potty, nap, and water.
As illustrated in Figure 8.3, the percentage of
children in the United States who speak a
language otherthan English at home has

27. doubled since1979. Hence, the tips provided
regarding speakers of languages otherthan English
will most likely be valuable to you throughout
your career with young children and their
families.Figure 8.3: Children who speak a language other
than English at home
1979
19891992
1995
19992001
2005
2007
2009
2003
100
50
40
30
20
10
0
Pe
rcent
Children who speak a language other than English at home
Children who speak a language other than English at home and
have difficulty speaking English
Approximately 20 percent of children living in the United States
do not speak English at home.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, October (1992, 1995, and 1999)
and November (1979 and 1989) Current Population Surveys, and
2000–2009 American Community Survey.
Families of Children with Special Needs

28. In recent decades, families of children with special
physical, social/emotional, and cognitive needs
have become significantly more empowered by
the passage of federal laws supporting them.
Over time,theselaws have come to include even
the youngest children, as was explained in Chapter
2. In addition, research over the same decades
has demonstrated that, rather than separating
children from typically developing peers, it is
most advantageous when they are included in
the regular setting, “that is, places where
they would be found if they did not have a
disability” (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009, p.
331). Such an approach is termed inclusion
and its popularity signifies that you will more than likely
have children with disabilities placed in your
care. It is also likely that, due to the young age
of these children, it will be during their time with
you that their disabilities will be observed,
documented, and assessed. If special needs
are identified, a program of early
interventions may be developed through
collaboration with the family and earlychildhood
special educators.
As you might expect, the chil-
Young learners with disabilities can benefit developmentally by
dren’s families, at this challengbeing placed in regular
classrooms. What can you do to help ing period, may well be
under create an inclusive environment for all your
early learners? unusual stress. Thus, the teach er’s or
caregiver’s role is a sensiAssociated Press tive
and important one.
Among the categories of special needs or
exceptionalities are those children who are
identified as gifted. Although giftedness is
generally not a major consideration before

29. kindergarten or the primary grades, you may be
sure that parents are ever alert for this definition of
specialness andwill want to talk about it. For help
with all thesechildren, those who have difficulty
keeping up and those who are ahead, here
are somesuggestions from professionals in the
field (Parette, Meadan, & Doubet, 2010; Ray,
Pewitt-Kinder, & George, 2009).
· Keep good notes, with dates, of observations
and assessments as soon as you have questions
about a child’s development and/or
performance. These should be objective,
nonjudgmental,and accurate regarding specific
behaviors. Such matter-of-fact reporting will help
parents appreciateyour help and professionalism.
· Before talking with parents the first time about
concerns or observations of possible giftedness,
speak with your administrator for advice and
information that he or she may already have.
· Be supportive of the family’s decisions for their
child, whatever intervention or program they
may choose or decide to reject.
· Suggest web-based sources to families such as
“Learn the Signs/Act Early” at
www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/actearly/.
· The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
uses specific terms to identify children who
are entitled to special services. Two to use
are children with disabilities and children with special
needs. Using them will help children receive
services. Do remember that somechildren with
disabilities may also be classified as gifted.
· Encourage parents to involve their extended family
in the life of a childwith special needs .
. . and that includes children who are gifted.
Added encouragement and support go a long

30. way toward helping children develop to their
full capacity.
· Encourage parents to play with their children in
ways that encourage development in an area of
challenge or in ways that promote giftedness.
(You will learnmore specifics about this in an
upcoming course.)
Field Notes 8.2: Why the Parents Don’t Come
The following vignette is a true story as recalled by Joseph, an
American Indian who attended elementary school in the early
1970s. His experiences are certainly not universal and unlikely
to happen today. However, his story illustrates the ways in
which children’s experiences stay with them for many years to
come and can influence their attitudes into adulthood.
The teachers and principal of the local elementary school are
puzzled and concerned. They have done everything they can
think of to entice the parents of their American Indian children
to conferences, meetings, and special events. Virtually no one
shows up.
Joseph, American Indian father of a kindergarten child, could
tell them why and hopes to in the near future. As soon as he can
convince his wife that she needs to come too. To answer the
school’s questions, Joseph needs to tell them about his own
experience. It was in the early 1970s, the summer before he
entered first grade, that the tribal school was torn down and
nearly 100 children were transferred to the district’s public
schools. Joseph was assigned to the school his daughter now
attends.
On the day school began, he and his friends took their first ride
in a school bus to their first-ever school experience. Arriving at
the school, the older children knew to go straight into the
building. Joseph and his first-grade friends, uncertain about
what to do, noticed the nearby playground equipment and ran to
it with great glee. Within five minutes, the principal emerged
from the building, yelled angrily at them, and led them inside, a

31. couple boys by their ears. Joseph was terrified and
overwhelmed.
Within a few months, 70 of the 100 children had been placed in
special education classes. Even at the age of six, Joseph knew
that many didn’t deserve to be placed there. A number of boys
fell asleep in class because they had been out fishing the night
before with their fathers. The girls, too shy to speak up in class,
chatted about their schoolwork during recess on the playground.
Joseph also remembers a disparity in classroom discipline. Girls
could chatter endlessly in class and never be called out. If two
Indian boys began to talk to each other, they would be paddled
or sent home.
Today, Joseph still feels fortunate that he wasn’t sent to special
education classes, although he initially was confused by most of
what went on. How, for example, could someone look at that big
round object on the wall and tell what time it was? What were
shapes, letters, and numbers anyway?
As he looks back on his first-grade experience, Joseph knows
that many of those 70 children did not belong in special
education, or they wouldn’t now be in the midst of successful
(continued)
Field Notes 8.2: Why the Parents Don’t Come (continued)
adulthood. He, himself, holds graduate degrees and is dedicated
to helping today’s Indian children gain school success.
Joseph knows too why parents with decidedly un-fond memories
of their early schooling don’t want to revisit the scene of their
unhappiness. He has described the trip from reservation to
public school as a trip to a foreign country. Although Joseph is
aware that the opening scene with the principal wouldn’t happen
today and that his daughter’s school is committed to all its
children, he wonders if he will have the courage to tell the
school why the parents are reluctant to come. Perhaps his wife
can help.
It is oftenthe parents whose memories of school

32. are not positive who don’t appear for
conferences and otherevents, despite the
school’s best efforts. Other parents are too
tired, too shy, too intimidated, or too
insecure in their knowledge of English. On
occasion it may be that the parents truly don’t
care, but this is no doubt rare. It is
Joseph’s suggestion that caregiversand teachers
reach out to children’s parents and family
members. Onceparents have confidence in their
relationship with the teacher, they may feel
encouraged to visit their children’s school.
Visiting a reservation, a neighborhood, or a
child’s home is an important step toward
connecting with the community outside the
school. In the next section, we will discuss
this wider relationship with others.8.5 Teachers,
Caregivers, and the Community
hile a teacher’s or caregiver’s time and energy
are primarily devoted to young children and
their families, they will find that it is also
advantageous to tune into, and network with,the
larger community. Examples of useful
connections include “service providers and
organizations such as Catholic and district school
boards; childand youth services; departments of
health, social, and community service; and
regional police services.” Then thereare “service
clubs, libraries, businesses, and parentchild
centers” (Dickinson, Lothian, & Jonz, 2007,
p. 50). Your own community may have others as
well. As a professional, you will have networking
responsibilities: “Effectiveteachers provide support
and resources for families in need; develop
networks of complementary professionals with whom
they can consult on a variety of topics;

33. network with otherprograms, directors, and staff;
engage in dialogue; learnfrom one another; and
provide support and resources” (NAEYC, n.d., p.
62). Following are examples of centers and schools
that have been successfully proactive in working
with community members and organizations, both
for their own benefit and to benefit their
communities.
W
Benefits of Community Outreach
“Programs are an important part of a community; they not
only support and enrich the community but
also are aware of and take advantage of its
resources” (NAEYC, n.d., p. 9). There are a
number of ways that earlyeducation institutions
can work with the larger community.
Section 8.5 Teachers, Caregivers, and the Community
CHAPTER 8
Section 8.5 Teachers, Caregivers, and the Community
CHAPTER 8
Section 8.5 Teachers, Caregivers, and the Community
CHAPTER 8
As you read about them, imagine what your own
role as teacher or caregiver might be.
One Washington state earlycare and education center
has made extensive use of local agencies and
organizations as a way to maintain and expand
its building and playgrounds (Ekdahl, 2011).
Banks, for example, have been generous with both
time and money. Make a Difference Day in
2011 found Key Bankemployees building a
playhouse for the preschoolers. The Alcoa
Corporation had their own Day of Caring when

34. they redecorated the bathrooms. Four different
Rotary clubs have contributed carpets, blinds,
and computers. The Kiwanis replaced a
temporary wall between two classrooms with a
solid one. Karen Ekdahl, the center’s director
keeps a constant eye out for store displays
that might be useful when they are done.
“You have to let people know you have
needs,” she says. “It’s just talking and talking
and talking.” In turn, this center gives back to
the community when it can, as well, with
such activities as celebrations and open houses.
While resources may differ from place to
place, this director provides examples of the
kinds of opportunities that are in almost
any community.
In Florida, a Kiwanis club was responsible for a
totally different community activity (Drew,
2007).
Building relationships within the community sets a good
example for early learners, and can benefit your center or
school. Here, volunteers paint the pavement in a playground
improvement project.
Members of the local high school’s Key Club (sponsored
by Kiwanis), are trained to lead play sessions
for young children after school. Materials for
creative play are collected through a recycling
program. Cooperative learning skills are
emphasized. Many otherservice clubs can be
found in local high schools and colleges,
offering collaboration opportunities to centers
and schools.
A number of museums partner with earlyeducation,
sometimes as resources and at times by

35. housing learning centers or schools in their
own buildings. Their themes are as varied as
their neighborhoods and the themes of the
museums themselves. For example, the school
districts surrounding the LongIsland (New
York) Children’s Museum contains a high
percentage of children with limited English
proficiency. The program this museum has
established is designed to help thesechildren
make the transition from home to
kindergarten, help their parents see how to play a
key role in their children’s education, and
“encourage families to use the resources of
the museum for their children’s lifelong learning”
(Mangan, 2007, p. 38).
Another children’s museum, this one in Pittsburgh,
used funding from HeadStart and a state block
grantto create two earlychildhood classrooms
within the museum (BaroneMartin, 2007).
Although the children spend time in the
classrooms, the entire museum is considered
their educational environment.
Billy Hustace/Corbis
Museum programs for children are a great way to get students
and the community together. Exhibits like this one offer
opportunities for children to learn through sight and touch.
Photo Researchers/Getty Images
While a few museums will have their own classrooms
such as those just described,most will instead
have outreach programs available to educators.
Checking into such availability will no doubt
prove helpful.
It is, of course, possible that therewill be no
convenient museums available, but one organization

36. that will be therefor both you and your children’s
parents is the local Resource and Referral
Agency. This national agency has community-based
offices throughout the United States and its
central purpose is leading parents to quality
childcare sites. However, each community’s version
may be somewhat different dependingon local or
state needs. An agency may partner, not only
with childcare centers and preschools, but also
with health professionals, social workers, and
local business leaders.
One California Resource and Referral Agency (Simmons,
2007) created focus groups and took parent
and provider surveys to identify and respond to
local needs. The results included finding state and
county funds to recruit and train new childcare providers
when it was determined that thereweren’t
enough, and increasinghelp for children with special
needs who seemed to have no childcare centers
to attend.
One otheragency that is important to know about
is your community’s Child Protective Services.
This is the governmental agency that receives,
and acts on, reports of childabuse or neglect.
It is in true emergencies, of course, that a
school or child’s relative will use this
resource, and each center or school will have
policies in place that you should make
yourself aware of.
A number of national organizations for early
childhood professionals provide extensive and helpful
resources. You will learnabout thesein Chapter 9.
Teachers and Caregivers as Community Leaders
Haveyou thought of yourself yet as a potential

37. community education leader? For most beginning
teachers, it seems far too early, but your
community may well be counting on you. In a
2010 national ranking of careers that inspire
confidence in leadership, education placed in
the top 10, coming in seventh behind
military, medical, charity, Supreme Court, local
governments, and religion (Center for Public
Leadership, 2010).
In many fields today, leadershipstudies and
training courses are finding that the longheld
American vision of leadershipas the
individualistic, lone, brave cowboy is not the
most effective one. In actuality, the more effective
model is group- and relationshipbased.
Sometimes known as connected leadership,
“it’s about letting even people without
positions of authority assert themselves as
leaders when their skills . . . are
called for” (Moore, 2011, p. 25). This is
the kind of leadershipthat people in education,
particularly earlyeducation, seemwell suited
for, given the relationship-based institutions
they are attached to.
In the field of earlychildhood education, the
importance of leadershiphas been explained well in
this statement from a Missouri group promoting
such leadership:
Across our states a heightened interest in
children’s earlyexperiences is drawing more
scrutiny, demand for accountability, and expectations
that we will deliver promised results. Now more
than ever, our field must proclaim a clear message
about who we are, what we can offer, and
what the public can expect from us. This takes
leadership. (Abel, Mauzy, Thornburg, &

38. Heger, 2008, p. 87)
Beginningteachers will most likely find themselves
part of leadershipteams rather than needing to
strike out on their own. Connecting with
organizations such as those described in this
chapter will offer opportunities to serve on
boards and committees or to work on
projects together. Bringing the community to
the school or, conversely, sharing the school
with the community is one way for the whole
institutionto take community leadership. One
writer suggests that, “schools can be very
appropriate centers for building community
spirit by offering . . . meeting space
and adulteducation classes, as well as other
personal and social development services.
Partnerships between schools and local [businesses]
also can be an important source of resources,
energy and good will”(Kelley-Laine, 2002, p.
112).
Personal Learning Insight 8.1: Leadership Dispositions
It may seem early to be thinking about it but, in the not too
distant future, you may be called upon to take a leadership
position in the early childhood field. One thing to do is to keep
alert to interesting ideas for community connections and
leadership possibilities. Another is to think about the
dispositions that are most important to possess. In this chapter,
we will next talk about collaboration and communication skills
and the qualities or dispositions that are important for your
work as an early educator. These same qualities are essential to
connected leadership. No doubt you will feel a response to some
of these ideas, mentally noting which ones you feel comfortable
with and which ones are in need of development.
After reading the upcoming sections, take some time to look
back at the dispositions you recorded as part of Chapter 2. Are

39. some of the dispositions the same? Do they advance your ideas
about what kind of leader you are or will be? Do they tell you
more about how you need to grow in order to be a leader?
Next, add any new dispositions spoken about in this leadership
section and in the sections on collaboration and communication
to their appropriate places in the Dispositions Target from
Chapter 2.
(continued)
Figure 8.4: My dispositions target
D
I
S
P
O
S
I
T
I
O
N
S
I
S
T
I
L
L
N
E
E
D

40. T
O
D
E
V
E
L
O
P
M
Y
S
T
R
O
N
G
D
I
S
P
O
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I
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I
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M
Y

41. E
M
E
R
G
I
N
G
D
I
S
P
O
S
I
T
I
O
N
S
Remember: The benefits for children and their families of your
willingness to be a leader are poten
-
tially great. It may take some courage and willingness to step
out of your comfort zone. Where do you
fit in that disposition? Add it to your Dispositions Target.
Personal Learning Insight 8.1:
Leadership Dispositions
(
continued
)
8.6 The Community Within School or Center
Section 8.6 The Community Within School or Center
CHAPTER 8
Section 8.6 The Community Within School or Center

42. CHAPTER 8
Section 8.6 The Community Within School or Center
CHAPTER 8
W
orking with otheradults at your own center or school
can be rewarding and helpful as well as, on
occasion, challenging. As an early childhood
professional you will find that the relationships you
buildwill be important to job satisfaction, to
your success with children, and as the basisof
your interactions with families and the outside
community. In this section are somesuggestions
to thinkabout as you embark on a career that
requires successful relationships with otheradults.
Collaboration
Skill in collaboration is a good place to start.Here are
the five
Instructors who teach specialized subjects, like art or music,
separate from the primary teacher must collaborate to make sure
that the students receive a well rounded and well transitioned
education.
Associated Press
qualities of people who are successfulat
collaboration, particularly in an educational
setting, adapted from Marleen Pugach and
Lawrence Johnson (2002). Good collaborators:
· accept the challenge of complex goals and joint
endeavors,
· appreciate the contributions of the people they
work with,
· actually enjoy the social process involved in
solving problems and negotiating disagreements,

43. · recognize and appreciatethe personal growth they
acquire from working with others,
· continually reflect on their professional practice
and on their experiences in collaboration.
See FieldNotes 8.3 as an example of how such
positive collaboration can work.
Field Notes 8.3: Good Collaborators at Work
Consider the experience of one kindergarten teacher who
absolutely did not want the school music teacher to “interfere”
with her program. She was a musician herself and played both
piano and guitar during much of the kindergarten day. The
music teacher, on the other hand, had a contractual
responsibility to provide a weekly experience in every class. It
was the music teacher who first came up with a solution. It was
almost time for the schoolwide winter program and he asked the
kindergarten teacher to be accompanist (although he was well
qualified to perform the job himself). The kindergarten teacher
accepted with some measure of delight (although she suspected
his motives). Fortunately, both teachers were by nature good
collaborators and they worked well together on the program,
resolving their differences harmoniously. Once it was over, the
music teacher said nothing more about coming to the
kindergarten teacher’s class, hoping to receive an invitation. He
did receive just such an invitation and, by spring, they had
collaborated enough to create a program just for the
kindergarten children to share with their families and the rest of
the school. It was well received by everyone and plans were
discussed for the upcoming year.
Personal Learning Insight 8.2: Collaboration Qualities and You
Look back now at the list of qualities suggested by Pugach and
Johnson. Which ones can obviously be attributed to the two
teachers in the Field Notes? Can you tell which qualities of
good collaboration might have been missing? What might have
been the important thought processes of each of the teachers?

44. Put yourself in the role of one of the two teachers. What might
you have done?
Pugach and Johnson (2002) have more to say about
collaboration that includes the different roles that
educators will, at different times, take. These, as
adapted, include:
· A supportive role. This might mean working with
someone else who is the leader, but can also
include the leader’s need to showpositive support
for the work of others.
· A facilitative role. Without sinking into bossiness, the
teacher or caregiver demonstrates a skill,team
teaches, or provides others with needed
resources.
· An informative role. When the teacher or
caregiver has knowledge that others need, it
is shared with appropriate attention to being
facilitative.
· A prescriptive role. At times it is essential
that the teacher or caregiver share information
or requirements in a directive fashion. This
can still be done positively in most cases.
There are many opportunities for teachers and
caregiversto engage in collaboration using
one or more of thesedesignated roles. For
example, in creating a new roomdesign, the
teacher might be supportive of the
teaching assistant who is experimenting with
different layouts and scavenging for free local
resources. The teacher might also be informative
if she knows of sources for the materials and shares
them.
Communication
Skill in communicationis important to good
collaboration, but is also essential on its own. At

45. its most basic, communication is simply giving
and receiving information. Skilled communication,
however, includes being able to say things
effectively, listen carefully, read body language
and tone of voice, respect diversities of
opinion, and understand that people from other
cultures and professions may have very different
ways of expressing themselves.
Listening is oftenthe most difficult skill for anyone to
achieve (McIntyre & O’Hair, 1995). However, it
is important for teachers and caregiversto learn.
Parents, for example, may feel the need to share
more than you need to know about not only
their children but about the rest of their lives as
well. It may be difficult to listen when
our day has been overwhelming or othercritical
issues need attending to. But, if we neglect to
listen we may miss somethingimportant in the
communication, somethingthat will actually help us
in our teaching or relationships with the
children. Thus, it is essential to focus
long enough to meet the parents’ needs and
understand what they need to say.
Attending to the speaker’s nonverbal communication, or
body language, is important to listening also,
particularly if he or she comes from a
culture unlike your own. Nonverbal
communication can include variations in eye contact,
posture, facial expression, repetitive behaviors
such as foot tapping or fidgeting, and tone of
voice or rate of speech (McIntyre & O’Hair,
1995). Some people will communicate within
a closepersonal space, while others prefer
to keep more distance. Some will gesture
emphatically along with animated facial
features, while others prefer a more

46. subdued set of gestures and expressions. If
listening to a colleague,theremay be roomfor a
negotiated sort of style. If attending to a
parent’s communication, however, it is the
professional’s responsibility to adapt to the
parent’s style, rather than the otherway around.
Good listening body language generally includes
leaning a bit forward with uncrossed arms and
legs, nodding the head occasionally, and avoiding
looking awayor into the distance as if
distracted.
There is also a form of listening that is
sometimes called verbal listening. It comes
into play when the listener wants the speaker
to clarify, to know that the topicis
interesting and important, or that the listener
understands what is being said. “Tellme more
about that” encourages the speaker to expand.
“If I’m hearing you correctly, you’re saying .
. . .” helps with clarification, as does
asking a question such as, “How did you
learnabout that?” Making occasional
summary statements also makes sure that the
speaker’s main points have been understood: “Okay,
that’s a lot of information. Let me just
see if I can summarize the things that
you thinkare important.”
For difficult situations, the Cleveland Schools Center
for Conflict Resolution (2012) suggests five
verbal listening skills:
· Acknowledging: Shaking your head, saying “uh
huh” or “please go on” will work.
· Paraphrasing: Repeating back what you’ve heard lets
the speaker know you are listening.
· Reflecting: After repeating back, ask the speaker
to explain how she feels about the situation.

47. · Questioning: If the speaker has a difficult time
explaining the problem or telling the story,
ask open-ended questions. Begin with the words
who, what, when, where, why, or how to
keep questions open rather than closed.
· Crediting: Thank the person for speaking and
sharing his side of the story.
Listening to others in the workplacewill possibly
include interactions with family members,
teachers, directors or principals, caregivers,
specialists, supervisors, volunteers, and
community organization representatives. For all
thesepeople, the suggestions above are
important to attend to. Of course, being
able to express yourself is a highly
important skill as well.
Expressing yourself when everything is going
well is generally easy for everyone but the most
shy. Thus, if beginning caregiversand teachers
take opportunities to interact positively with others
at their site, they will become known as
friendly, easy to get along with people. This
will, in turn, make it easier to cope with
more negative issues as they arise.
One effective way to communicate frustrations,
concerns, even anger, has been around sincethe
1970s. Called I-messages, they are the
creation of Thomas Gordon (1975) who first
introduced them as a method for parents to
use in communicating with their children. It soon
became apparent that I-messages are equally
effective with adults. They have become common
enough that you have no doubt heard them or
used them yourself. Whether that is the case or
not, it is good to review this approach to
communication.

48. I-messages are simple statements designed to
take the accusatory, “you are wrong and I
am right” sentiment out of a difficult
communication. They are intended also to let
the speaker convey feelings and describe the
situation and its effects on either the speaker
or someone else. An I-message focuses on the
speaker’s experience and views rather than on
the listener’s, and has the effect of clarifying
both parties’ understanding. Here are a few
examples that could occur between adults in
a center or school:
· When I’m preparing a lesson and you keep talking,
it’s hard for me to concentrate.
· On my days to teach, if the roomis a mess,
I can’tfind the materials and I feel frustrated.
· I really want to listen to what you’re saying,
but the children have been waiting for me to
work with them.
· When you gossip about the otherteachers I
feel caught in the middle and don’t know
how to respond.
Chapter Summary
Personal Learning Insight 8.3: Practicing I-Messages
Write a short list of situations that you have found frustrating or
angering. Perhaps choose situations that you think, in
retrospect, you could have handled better. Then, for each one of
these, try writing an I-message to the person you would most
like to talk to. If a message is about a situation in the past, can
you see how the I-message might have led to a more productive
outcome? If the message is about a current situation, think
about what might come next in the conversation, and then
consider actually using the message!
Some Final Suggestions for Collaboration and Communication

49. Communication in any workplacecan be, at times,
a bit complicated, especially for the newest
arrivals, and even in the relatively benign setting
of center or school. Here are just a few
ideasfor your upcoming experiences:
· Volunteer for a committee or special project,
and use it to practice your best collaboration
skills.
· Practice using I-messages whenever issues arise
with others. Rehearsing them in advance, if
possible, helps make them more effective.
· Volunteer to organize a staff retreat or
workshop on a topicof everyone’s interest.
· Listen more than you talk in meetings and in the
teachers’ room.
· Reduce workplacegossip by avoiding participation as
a listener or speaker.Chapter Summary
he focus for Chapter 8 has been on interactions
between school or center and families and
communities. In addition, interactions between
teachers or caregiversand their colleagues have
been discussed.Following are important points to
remember.
T
· Families come in many configurations and
“parents” might be a variety of people,
not all of them related biologically.
· Families are children’s first teachers. Caregivers and
teachers can learnmuch from them and will do
well to treat their knowledge and concerns with
interest and respect.
· There are many sorts of diversity within
families. Caregivers and teachers should learnas
much as possible about the cultural
attributes of their site’s families.

50. · Childrenwith disabilities and challenges are
frequentlyincluded in earlychildhood settings.
Caregivers and teachers should learnwhat is
necessary to provide best services, encouragement,
and care.
· There are benefits to children, families, caregivers,
and teachers to good home– school relationships,
but especially to children.
· There are diverse reasons why parents don’t
come to centers or schools for conferences
or informal communication. This doesn’t mean
they don’t support their children’s learning and
education.
Concept Check
· There are mutual benefits when centers and
schools interact with community agencies and
organizations.
· The community within a school or center
is an important place to demonstrate good
collaboration skills, particularly for beginning
teachers.
· Communication, both listening and expressing oneself,
is an important skill to have in the
school/center community. More listening than
speaking is a good approach for beginning
teachers to take.
· Leadership is an important quality to develop
right from the start of a career in early
childhood care and education.
Concept Check
1. It is usually true that _________ are a child’s
first teachers.

51. A. preschool educators
B. siblings
C. classmates
D. parents
2. A 2009 study found that ___ percent of
American births were to unmarried women.
A. 41
B. 17
C. 27
D. 8
3. A 2010 statistic shows that about ___ percent of
children livedwith two parents, and that this
percentage was decreasing.
A. 83
B. 66
C. 54
D. 42
4. When having an informal, in-person discussion
with a parent, you should do all of the
following, EXCEPT
A. say at least one positive thing.
B. talk out of earshot of others, especially
children.
C. provide any information about otherparents.
D. be available for chatting, setting a good
foundation for later communication on difficult
subjects.
5. In reference to Pugach and Johnson’s types of
collaborative roles, if you provide colleagues
with helpful knowledge, you are acting in
a(n)
A. prescriptive role.
B. informative role.
C. supportive role.
D. facilitative role.
Key TermsAnswers

52. 1. D. Parents. The answer can be found in Chapter 8
Introduction.
2. A. 41. The answer can be found in Section 8.2.
3. B. 66. The answer can be found in Section 8.2.
4. C. Provide any information about otherparents.
The answer can be found in Section 8.4.
5. B. informative role. The answer can be found in Section
8.6.
CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER 8
Key Terms
bioecological systems model The revised version of
Bronfenbrenner’s ecologicalsystems model,
demonstrating the added importance of
biological development over time.
children with disabilities According to federal law, children
with impairments that are related to hearing,
speech, or sight, as well as those with
cognitive delays, traumatic braininjuries, or serious
emotional disturbance.
children with special needs Children who do not fit
the standard curriculum and/or teaching
methodology. They may have disabilities and/or
they may qualify for gifted education.
chronosystem The outermost ring of Bronfenbrenner’s
bioecological model, indicating the importance of
the nature of time and its effect on human
development.
communication Transmitting or exchanging information
through talk, gestures, or writing.
connected leadership Collaborative leadershipin which all
stakeholders are permitted to assert themselves.

53. ecological systems model A view of development,
proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner, that emphasizes
the influencesof the environment, ranging from
the immediate to the far away.
exosystem The system immediately outside the
microsystem and the mesosystem, containing
institutions and experiences that directly, or
indirectly, influence an individual’s
development.
I-messages A method of communicating designed to
avoid conflict by stating the speaker’s
feelings and understanding of the situation. As
opposed to you-messages that begin with
blaming the listener.
inclusion As used in special education, inclusion
refers to placing a child in the least restrictiveenvironment
for his or her best developmental possibilities.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) A U.S.
law requiring that states provide earlyintervention,
special education, and otherservices to
children with disabilities. In September 2011,
new requirements for birth-to-age-three
interventions were added.
macrosystem The system immediately outside the
exosystem, containing institutions at a
public level that directly, or indirectly,
influence an individual’s development.
mesosystem The interaction of microsystems with
each otherin such a way that human development
is influenced.
microsystem The closest setting in which an
individual functions. Its elements influence the
individual’s development.Recommendations for Your
Professional Bookshelf
nonverbal communication Communicating through body
language, including tone of voice, rather than

54. through words.
parent A biological, or adoptive, mother or father.
In home–school relationships, it can also mean
the primary home caregiver of a child,
related or not related.
verbal listening Attentive listening to what someone else is
saying, while adding occasional questions or
clarifying statements.
Reflection and Critical Thinking Questions
1. Consider the types of families that are quite
different than your own. Differences might include
culture (foreign or another part of your own
country), socioeconomic status (higher or lower
than your own), heterosexual or homosexual
pairing, or married or unmarried. Are there
any of thesethat you find difficult to accept or
that make you uncomfortable? What should
teachers do about their feelings and biases so
that all children, as well as their family
members, receive a positive attitude and fair
treatment?
2. Related to the first question: If any of thesegroups
are special favorites of a teacher, how can he
or she ensure equitable treatment for everyone?
3. Refer back to the important qualities teachers need to
have to be good collaborators and communicators.
Which ones do you thinkwill be easiest to
demonstrate? Which will be more difficult? Explain
why.
4. Return to either Joseph’s or Kristen’s story.
What could teachers or administrators have
done to make either experience more

55. positive?
Recommendations for Your Professional Bookshelf
From Parents to Partners by JanisKeyser
and
Parent-Friendly Early Learning by Julie Powers
Both thesebooks contain good ideasfor caregiversand
teachers. They are full of scenarios with tips,
strategies,and discussions that provide solutions
for your every concern and question. Although
their topics are closeto the same and both books
are practical and user-friendly, Powers’ book focuses
a bit more on listing specific tips and
strategies,while Keyser’s book is more
conversational. Thus, the reader can choose
whicheverstyle is preferable and, either way, find
many helpful ideas.
Full citations:
Keyser, J. (2006). From parents to partners. St. Paul,
MN: Redleaf Press.
Powers, J. (2005). Parent-friendly early learning. St.
Paul,MN: Redleaf Press.Web Watch
Web Watch
The National Association of Child Care Resource
and Referral Agencies. The stated intention of
the national association is that it “aims to
ensure that families in every community
have access to high-quality, affordablechildcare
and to support state childcare resources and the
people and programs that care for children.”
Although the website is primarily intended for

56. parents, it also offers much good information
for caregiversand teachers. Developmental expectations
for different ages are provided, as well as
everything from recipes to crafts to “free
stuff.” http://www.naccrra.org
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
This site is about much more than disease
control and prevention. As such, it has
information that can be useful to caregivers
and teachers, as well as to parents who wonder
about their children’s development. The CDC states
that, “Much of our work focuses on protecting
people who are especially vulnerable to health
risks—babies, children. . . .” There are
links to information about birth defects, child
development, expected milestones, developmental
disabilities, autism, and ADHD. Often,
teachers and caregiversare faced with situations
they know little about and this site can be
helpful in educating them, thus making
interactions with families more productive.
http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd
5The Image Bank/Getty Images
Supporting Play and Learning During Early Childhood
Chapter Learning Outcomes

57. After reading this chapter you should be able to
· Differentiate play from otheractivities and explain why it
is a natural, essential element of childhood
· Define classical theories and research related to
play
· Define contemporary theories and research related to
play
· Identify various characteristics, benefits, and types of
play
· Describe the teacher’s role in supporting
children’s play
Introduction: Play—Its Purpose and Importance
lay, the cherished pastime of childhood, is more
than a pleasant way to while awaythe hours
when we are young. Play is an integral
part of growth and development
P
(Elkind, 2004). Play provides children with thousands of
naturally occurring opportunities to stretch their
minds and their bodies. Each playful moment
allows children’s brains to make essential
connections among their experiences, thoughts,
and feelings. It adds to their general
understanding of themselves and the world
around them. Through play, children learnat
their own pace—taking in and processing just
the right amount of sensory information they
can handle at that pointin their development.
And, “Research shows the links between play and
foundational capacities such as memory, self-
regulation, oral language abilities, social skills,
and success in school” (Copple & Bredekamp,
2009, p. 14). This chapter will discuss and

58. demonstrate theseclaims and showhow to apply
them in center and classroom.
Because of its enduring presence over time and across
cultures, arriving at a broadly accepted
definition of play is a challenge.It may be that
play is so diverse and dynamic that no one
definition can capture its true nature (Brown,
2009). For the purposes of discussion, we
will employ the definition offered by Joan Brooks
McLane (2003): “. . . freely chosen,
engaging, pleasurable activities, which may or
may not include elements of pretend” (p. 2). In
addition, the term unstructured play will be used to
represent play that is child-directed without
demands from others.5.1 Characteristics of Play
Section 5.1 Characteristics of Play CHAPTER 5
Section 5.1 Characteristics of Play CHAPTER 5
N
umerous specialists
from the fields of education, psychology, soci-
ology, anthropology, and even zoology have written
about the characteristics of play. Mostconcur
that childplay, in its purest form, is freely
chosen, pleasurable, and intrinsically motivated
(Isenberg & Quisenberry, 2002).
Because play is a voluntary act, children have the
freedom to momentarily create and selfdirect
their own flexible realities that are not bound by the
realities of the physical world. As such, play is
non-literal and oftenincludes elements of make-
believe or fantasy (Vygotsky, 1978).
Children of all ages use sticks in both solitary and group play,
where they represent endless possibilities of objects during
make-believe play.

59. Design Pics /SuperStock
Whether or not play includes make-believe elements, it
can be undertaken as a solitary or social
activity. As a solitary activity, play allows
children to experiment, imagine, and reflect
within the moment (Saskatchewan Online
Curriculum, 2010). When playing alone,
children are able to indulge their own impulses
and fantasies without fear of censure or
disapproval from others.
As a social activity, groups of children
engaged in play sustain a mutually agreeable
scenario through communication, invention, and
negotiation. Within the play scenario, a social
dynamic evolves that allows participants to
sustain their activity for a time,making
adaptations along the way (Lester &
Russell, 2010). Play disbands naturally as
children lose interest or no longer find the
activity pleasurable or satisfying. Table
5.1 provides a summary of the general
characteristics of play.
Table 5.1: Characteristics of play
Play is. . .
Play is not. . .
Freely chosen
Forced
Pleasurable or satisfying
Unpleasant
Intrinsically motivated
Extrinsically motivated
Process-oriented

60. Product-oriented
Self-directed
Directed by others
Non-literal
Literal
Dynamic and flexible
Static and inflexible
Open-ended
Closed-ended
Free from stress
Stressful
Interesting
Uninteresting
Although there are many types of play, all play shares some of
the same characteristics.
Differentiating Play From Other Child Activities
Professional organizations for educators,as well as
the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), have
for sometime made public position statements
about the importance of play in the lives of
children (Isenberg & Quisenberry, 2002). In
response, high- quality programs for young
children have instituted a healthy balance of
child-directed and teacher-directed activities.
However, differentiating between play and other
activities can sometimes be tricky.
Consider, for example, the case of three-year-old Barney,
who is sitting at a small round table
pounding a mound of yellow modeling dough
repeatedly with a small wooden mallet. Is
Barney playing? Or is he practicing his fine
motor skills and eye-hand coordination at
the teacher’s request? Let’sobserve Barney’s
situation more thoroughly and see what we can
determine based on someguidance from Bodrova

61. and Leong (2003). Try asking yourself their
following guiding questions.
Who is in control of the situation? Did the child make a choice
to engage? First, Barney chose the Art Area over all
others. Oncethere, he chose the modeling
dough table over painting easels, puppet
making, and drawing. Taking a closer look at
Barney’s table, we see various modeling dough
tools such as cookie cutters, carving sticks,
cutting wheels, and at least threeothertypes of
wooden mallets. We also see othertubs of
modeling dough. So, Barney definitely chose to
pound yellow modeling dough with the small,
flat mallet.
Why is the child engaged? Is the child playing for the sake of
play or for external reward? Is Barney expecting a
“sticker” or someotherreward? No, Barney just
really likes the “whackwhack” sound the mallet
makes on the dough and he also likes to
watch the fat mound of dough become
flatter and flatter as a result of his
efforts.
Is the child getting pleasure or satisfaction from participating?
From the look on his face and his cheerful
sound effects, you can see that he is getting
a lot of satisfaction from his actions and
accomplishment. In fact, as soon as the dough
is really flat, he peelsit off the table,
wads it back into a lumpy mound of dough
and repeats the process again.
Are restraints imposed by adults and the environment intruding
on the situation? There is a time restraint. Self-
selected center time lasts about 45 minutes to an
hour. However, children can stay with the same
activity or change activities as they choose. So
far, Barney has been engaged in the same activity

62. about eightminutes. Barney smiles at the
teacher as she walks by and says, “I am
making this dough flat, flat like Flat Stanley!”
The teacher smiles back and says, “You
certainly are,” and tells him he can bring the
Flat Stanley book to afternoon storycircle if he
likes.
Personal Learning Insight 5.1: Differentiating Play From Other
Activities
Based on the details provided, would you consider what Barney
is doing child-directed play or teacherdirected activity? Verify
your answer by referring back to the basic definitions of play or
by reviewing Table 5.1: Characteristics of play. What answers
would confirm the child’s activity as play? What responses
would be indicative of activity that is not play? Next time you
are in an early childhood classroom, use Bodrova and Leong’s
four guiding questions to differentiate play from other types of
activities.
Now that we have considered what people in our
era define as play, we will take a look at
the ways in which theorists and researchers
have theorized about the topic, starting with
the so-called classical theories, those that have
provided the historical foundation for today’s
thinking.
Section 5.2 Classical Theories About Play 5.2 Classical
Theories About Play
ecause childplay is a universal phenomenon across
all cultures of the world, past and present,
many individuals have theorized about the
nature of play (Carlson,
B
2011a). See, for example, what somenotable figures

63. throughout time,such as Froebel, Dewey,
Einstein, and Vygotsky,have said about play in
Table 5.2.
Table 5.2: Quotations about play
427–347 BC
Plato
Greek Philosopher
You can discover more about a person in an hour of play than in
a year of conversation.
1782–1852
Friedrich Froebel
German Educator
The most natural child activity is play.
1859–1952
John Dewey
American Educator
Play is a form of thought for children, which then becomes
internalized.
1879–1955
Albert Einstein
American Physicist
Play is the highest form of research.
1896–1934
Lev Vygotsky
Russian Psychologist
In play, a child always behaves beyond his average age, above
his daily behavior. In play, it is as though he were a head taller
than himself.
1903–1990
Bruno Bettelheim
American Child Psychologist
It [play] is also his [the child’s] most significant tool for
preparing himself for the future and its tasks.
1924–

64. Brian Sutton-Smith
American Play Theorist
The opposite of play is not work. It’s depression.
1931–
David Elkind
American Psychologist
Play is not only our creative drive; it’s a fundamental mode of
learning.
1944–
Joan Almon
American Educator
Creative play is like a spring that bubbles up from deep within a
child.
2003–
Amelia
American Third Grader
Play is fun, fun, fun for me!
Describing play has been a pastime for many great thinkers over
the centuries.
Although today none of the classical theories of play is
regarded as sufficient to define what play is and can
do, they all have offered somebasisfor more modern
ideas.
German playwright and philosopher, Friedrich von
Schiller (1759–1805) speculated that play exists
because it allows children to rid themselves
of excess energy, which frees their artistic,
creative, and spiritual natures (Frost, Wortham, &
Reifel, 2012).
To this, Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) added that,
long ago, humans expended most of their energy to
acquire food and shelter. However, life in the
modern world does not require the
CHAPTER 5
Section 5.3 Contemporary Theories About Play CHAPTER 5
Section 5.3 Contemporary Theories About Play CHAPTER 5

65. same level of action; therefore, play allows us to
rid ourselves of the surplus energy once needed for
survival (Elkind, 2004).
German philosopher Moritz Lazarus (1824–1903)
suggested play as recreation or relaxation that
invigorates or restores energy expended through
work (1883).
G. Stanley Hall, founder of the Child Study
Movement, suggested that, by engaging in
activities no longer necessary for survival, or
“recapitulating” them, play provides individuals
with opportunities to rid themselves of such
skills.
Playing “chef” in toy kitchens is popular with children as an
activity that mimics adult behavior.
Marka /SuperStock
Zoologist Karl Groos (1861–1946) concluded that play among
young animals and humans is preparation
for adulthood with its imitations of adultbehavior
(Elkind, 2004).5.3 Contemporary Theories About Play
oth classical and modern theories of play tend to
view it as a naturally occurring behavior, but
modern explanations are more pragmatic (Elkind,
2007). Many contemporary theorists suggest
that play provides children with multiple
opportunities for growth and development across
all domains. Play affects the whole child by
providing avenues through which they:
B
· develop their body and brain,
· express their feelings and desires,

66. · use their imagination to create, and
· learn about themselves and make sense of
the world.
Because play represents such a broad arrayof
behaviors, contemporary research usually focuses
on one or more specific aspects. Each of the
studies provides valuable information about
someaspect of play, but none provides a
comprehensive explanation of play. Thus,
individuals who work with children need to keep
the holistic nature of play in mind as they
use research-based findings to add to their
understanding of childdevelopment.
Theories Related to the Stages of Play Piaget’s Stages of Play
Although Piaget is most well-known for his theory
about the stages of cognitive development,
which were discussed in Chapter 3, he also
investigated the development of children’s play
behaviors. Piaget stated, “Practically every
form of psychological activity is initially enacted
in play” (1967, p. 23). Piaget described
threestages of play, each coinciding with a
cognitive stage(Piaget, 1962; Piaget, 1967).
During the sensorimotor stage, infants and
toddlers engage in practice or functional play
consisting of repetitive movements and exploratory
actions and frequentlyinvolving play with objects.
Children in the preoperational stage engage in symbolic play.
During symbolic play, children use actions and
objects to represent their personal ideasor mental
images. As children have increasingexperiences in
the real world, they construct robust schemas
that fuel their imaginations and enhance their
abilities to symbolically represent their ideas. As
children engage in symbolic play, they feel a

67. sense of control over their experiences because
they are able to represent reality from their
egocentric perspectives (Piaget, 1962).
The last stageof play identified by Piaget is the
games with rules stage, which begins during
the latter part of the preoperational stageor
earlyin the concrete operational stage. During
games with rules, children play with others
and in rule-governed games and learnto
regulate their behaviors to comply with the rules
and to share mutual obligations for their
play (Piaget, 1967). You will learnmore about
games with rules later in the chapter.
Sara Smilansky (1968), an Israeli psychologist
best known for her pioneering work in aiding
disadvantaged children to learnto play more
effectively, expanded on Piaget’s observations of
earlyfunctional play. Like Piaget, Smilansky
noted that this type of play emerges during
infancy and occurs when infants use their
senses and muscle movements to observe
and manipulate objects. Functional play is
essentially physical exercise, which then
influencescognitive development. Initially, play
behaviors are unintentional but become repeated
patterns of behavior as infants gain enjoyment
from their own physical actions. For example, four-
month-oldAlyssa may reflexively grasp a rattle
that has been placed within her reach. She
will stare at the novel sight and, in so doing,
move her arm toward her face to get a
closer look at it. As she moves her arm
she hears an intriguing sound and turnsher
head toward it. Eventually, she figures out
that the sound happens whenever she moves
her arm. If Alyssa likes the auditory sensation,

68. she attempts repetitions of the behavior,
enjoying both the muscle movementand the sensory
result.Parten’s Categories of Social Play
As a sociologist, Mildred Parten (1932)
believed that through playful social interactions
children learn“. . . norms, rules, and
cultural patterns” (p. 137). Based on her
observations of preschool free play, she sorted
children’s behaviors into six categories of social
involvement:
· unoccupied behavior,
· solitary play,
· onlooker behavior,
· parallel play, • associative play, and
· cooperative play.
According to Parten (1932), infants and preschoolers
sometimes demonstrate unoccupied behavior when
they are not involved in play or any other
activity. At othertimes, infants and very young
children engage in solitary play, when they
play alone without involving others. Parten
also identified a non-play behavior that approaches
social involvement. Onlooker behavior occurs
when a childwatches others play but remains
uninvolved for the most part. The next level
identified by Parten is parallel play, which
occurs when two or more children play beside
or near each otherbut remain individually
directed. Around age three, children begin to
engage in associative play in which two or
more children interact or converse while
playing, but not inside the same play scenario.
For example, two children might be playing
near each otherin the block area, but their
socialization occurs due to their proximity to the
blocks and not because they have shared play

69. goals or scenarios. The most advanced social
category identi-
Clapping games are an example of cooperative play because
children need to agree upon the rules for it to be successful. Can
you think of other examples of cooperative play?
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fied by Parten (1933) is cooperative play in
which two or more children engage together in a
shared play scenario with mutually decided rules.
Based on her research, Parten noted that
children, despite their age or capabilities,
frequentlyelect to play at lower levels of
social participation. She also noted that as
children get older, their tendency to play in
larger groups increases (1932). Early
childhood teachers can use their awareness of the
social categories of play not only to observe
and assess children’s social competence, but
also to incorporate indoor and outdoor play
opportunities that promote socialization.
In the following sections, we look at theories
pertaining to specific domains of development
and include the benefits of play to each.
Theories That Focus on Physical Development
Physical play primarily involves the senses and motor
skills and is for the sake of activity and
movement(Trawick-Smith, 2010). One subcategory
is object play, involving sensory observations
and manipulation of objects using fine motor
skills. A second subcategory is motor play,
which involves use of the largemuscles of
the arms, legs, and torso.Play With Objects
According to Piaget (1967), play with objects
helps young children extend their physical

70. knowledge of the world. He observed that,
from infancy, children actively engage with objects
out of innate curiosity and with minimal adult
guidance. Their learning results primarily through
direct experience, trial-and-error, and practice. As
children gain further understanding of objects
through sensory exploration and physical
manipulation, they develop abilities to differentiate
objects by sorting, sequencing, and classifying.
Children also learnto recognize and produce
patterns of objects.Motor Play
Motor play provides children with experience in
using and gaining control over their bodies
(Carlson, 2011a) and a means of expending
energy stored up from long periods of
inactivity.During earlychildhood, children
typically engage in two types of motor
play— structured and unstructured. Structured motor
play is generally more teacher-directed with group
games or physical education classes, whereas
unstructured motor play would be more spontaneous
and natural such as a spur-of-the-moment game
of chase. Carlson (2011a) suggests that “big
body play” provides a kinesthetic means of
learning, especially critical during earlychildhood.
Through motor play, children gain practice with
locomotor skills such as walking, running,
jumping, hopping, leaping, galloping, and skipping.
They also have opportunities to use the large
muscles of the torsos and arms, which
prepares them for motor skills such as
throwing, catching, and batting. Additionally, active
play helps children buildstamina and endurance,
strength, coordination, balance, and flexibility
(Trawick-Smith, 2010).
The National Association for Sport and Physical

71. Education (NASPE, 2009) offers guidelinesfor
physical activity for children from birth to age
five through its Active Start program. Guidelines
for infants and toddlers include dailyplayful
physical interactions with caregiversin both
structured and unstructured environments. These
physical interactions are important for typically
developing children as well as young
children with special needs. NASPE guidelines
are also available for children from ages 5 to 12
years.
Rough-and-Tumble Play
Rough-and-tumble play generally refers to motor
play that may have the appearance of aggression
to outside observers while the children are
aware they are engaged playfully. Mostforms of
active motor play require close and nearly constant
supervision, and this is particularly true for rough-
andtumble play (Carlson, 2011a; Carlson, 2011b).
Stuart Brown, founder of the National
Institute for Play,worries that “In preschool,
the natural mayhem that 3-5 year olds engage in
(normal rough and tumble play)
Rough-and-tumble play—when properly monitored—can be a
healthy and fun part of young children’s physical development.
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is usually suppressed by a well meaning
preschool teacher and parents who prefer quiet
and order to the seeming chaos that is
typical of free childhood play. . . . When
thereare smiles and continuing friendships,
rambunctious play is healthy” (Adelsick, 2010,
p. 2).Physical Benefits Provided by Play