This document provides information on atoms, elements, compounds and chemical bonds. It explains that atoms contain protons, neutrons and electrons, and that elements are made of only one type of atom while compounds contain two or more different types of atoms bonded together. Electrons are arranged in shells around the nucleus, and the outer shell determines how an element reacts and bonds with other elements through ionic or covalent bonding. Chemical equations show the reactants and products of chemical reactions and must be balanced.
Slides for a college course based on "The Web Application Hacker's Handbook", 2nd Ed.
Teacher: Sam Bowne
Twitter: @sambowne
Website: https://samsclass.info/129S/129S_F16.shtml
Syllabus of jamia millia islamia; class 11 science 2021-22MD PERVEZ KHAN
This document provides the syllabus for the 11th grade entrance exam for the science stream at Jamia Millia Islamia. It outlines the subjects that will be covered on the exam, including English, General Knowledge, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, and Mathematics. For each subject, it lists the key topics that will be included, such as types of chemical reactions in Chemistry, life processes and reproduction in Biology, and reflection and refraction of light in Physics. It also provides details on the exam format, noting it will consist of 100 multiple choice questions testing knowledge of concepts from the NCERT syllabus for each class 11 subject.
Automate the organization’s workflow with Process Builder,the next generation workflow tool. Gain an overview of How to create a process using Process Builder.
This document covers several topics in biology including diet and exercise, pathogens, white blood cells, sense organs, the central nervous system, plant and animal hormones, testing medicines, adaptations, competition, environmental indicators, and genetic concepts like genes, chromosomes, DNA, variation, sexual and asexual reproduction, cloning, and genetic engineering. It provides information on these topics in a structured format with headings and subheadings.
The document summarizes several topics related to coordination and control in the human body and plants:
1) The nervous system allows humans to react to their surroundings through reflex actions and homeostasis. Reflex actions involve sensory and motor neurons creating automatic responses for survival. Hormones regulate homeostasis to maintain the internal environment.
2) The menstrual cycle and fertility in women is regulated by hormones like FSH, estrogen, and progesterone that control egg maturation and the thickening of the uterus lining. Contraception and fertility treatments also involve these hormones.
3) Plants use the hormone auxin to control their responses to light and gravity through phototropism and gravitropism, allowing shoots to grow towards light and roots
1. Theories of evolution progressed from Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's idea that acquired traits could be inherited, to Darwin's theory of natural selection and evolution of all life from simpler forms.
2. Darwin observed adaptations in animals on the Galapagos Islands, leading him to propose natural selection and survival of the fittest as mechanisms for evolution, though his ideas faced initial religious and evidentiary objections.
3. Evidence for evolution has accumulated from breeding experiments, fossil records, anatomical comparisons, and now DNA analysis, showing how species are related on an evolutionary tree and how traits have evolved over time through natural selection.
Slides for a college course based on "The Web Application Hacker's Handbook", 2nd Ed.
Teacher: Sam Bowne
Twitter: @sambowne
Website: https://samsclass.info/129S/129S_F16.shtml
Syllabus of jamia millia islamia; class 11 science 2021-22MD PERVEZ KHAN
This document provides the syllabus for the 11th grade entrance exam for the science stream at Jamia Millia Islamia. It outlines the subjects that will be covered on the exam, including English, General Knowledge, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, and Mathematics. For each subject, it lists the key topics that will be included, such as types of chemical reactions in Chemistry, life processes and reproduction in Biology, and reflection and refraction of light in Physics. It also provides details on the exam format, noting it will consist of 100 multiple choice questions testing knowledge of concepts from the NCERT syllabus for each class 11 subject.
Automate the organization’s workflow with Process Builder,the next generation workflow tool. Gain an overview of How to create a process using Process Builder.
This document covers several topics in biology including diet and exercise, pathogens, white blood cells, sense organs, the central nervous system, plant and animal hormones, testing medicines, adaptations, competition, environmental indicators, and genetic concepts like genes, chromosomes, DNA, variation, sexual and asexual reproduction, cloning, and genetic engineering. It provides information on these topics in a structured format with headings and subheadings.
The document summarizes several topics related to coordination and control in the human body and plants:
1) The nervous system allows humans to react to their surroundings through reflex actions and homeostasis. Reflex actions involve sensory and motor neurons creating automatic responses for survival. Hormones regulate homeostasis to maintain the internal environment.
2) The menstrual cycle and fertility in women is regulated by hormones like FSH, estrogen, and progesterone that control egg maturation and the thickening of the uterus lining. Contraception and fertility treatments also involve these hormones.
3) Plants use the hormone auxin to control their responses to light and gravity through phototropism and gravitropism, allowing shoots to grow towards light and roots
1. Theories of evolution progressed from Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's idea that acquired traits could be inherited, to Darwin's theory of natural selection and evolution of all life from simpler forms.
2. Darwin observed adaptations in animals on the Galapagos Islands, leading him to propose natural selection and survival of the fittest as mechanisms for evolution, though his ideas faced initial religious and evidentiary objections.
3. Evidence for evolution has accumulated from breeding experiments, fossil records, anatomical comparisons, and now DNA analysis, showing how species are related on an evolutionary tree and how traits have evolved over time through natural selection.
This document discusses various topics relating to health, including diet and exercise, weight problems, pathogens and disease, defence mechanisms, bacteria, immunity, and antibiotics.
It notes that diet should include carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, water and fiber. Exercise is also important, as it increases energy needs. Weight problems like obesity can develop if energy intake exceeds use and can lead to health issues. Pathogens like bacteria and viruses cause infectious diseases and the body has defence mechanisms like mucus, skin, stomach acid, and white blood cells. Antibiotics can treat bacterial infections but not viruses, and overuse contributes to antibiotic resistance. Immunity develops from vaccination or prior exposure, as white blood cells
This document discusses inheritance, types of reproduction, genetic and environmental variation, cloning plants and animals, and genetic engineering. It explains that genes are passed from parents to offspring and control proteins. Sexual reproduction provides variation through mixing genes but is riskier, while asexual reproduction replicates the parent. Plant cloning uses cuttings or tissue culture to duplicate plants identically. Animal cloning transfers embryos or adult cells to create clones. Genetic engineering modifies organisms by inserting genes from one into another, with potential applications like treating genetic diseases or producing insulin in plants.
The document provides information about biology topics including plant and animal cell structure, diffusion and osmosis, photosynthesis, respiration, enzymes, genetics, and homeostasis. A typical plant cell contains a cell wall, cell membrane, nucleus, vacuole, cytoplasm, and chloroplasts. A typical animal cell contains a nucleus, mitochondria, cell membrane, and cytoplasm. Diffusion is the passive movement of particles from an area of high concentration to low concentration, while osmosis is the diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane. Photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll, and sunlight to produce glucose and oxygen. Respiration uses glucose and oxygen to produce energy, water, and carbon dioxide. Enzymes are
This document discusses various ways that organisms adapt to survive in different environments. It provides several examples:
- Fig trees and wasps have adapted to each other through pollination, with each wasp type specially shaped to pollinate its matching fig tree.
- Star-nosed moles can react and eat prey within 230 milliseconds due to being blind and needing to consume prey quickly before it escapes.
- Venus fly traps attract insects using smell and color and digest them for nutrients to survive in nutrient-poor bogs.
- Extremophile bacteria can survive at very high or low temperatures because their enzymes do not denature under extreme conditions.
The document then examines environmental adaptations
Physics Unit 1 Revision Sheets GCSE AQA New Core ScienceSally
This document contains revision materials for a physics exam covering 6 chapters on energy and waves. It includes key terms, diagrams, questions to label or answer, and calculations. The topics covered are energy transfer through heating, different types of energy, electrical energy, generating electricity, waves, and electromagnetic waves. Students are asked to define terms, label parts of diagrams, explain concepts, and solve problems involving energy, power, efficiency and costs.
1) This document provides information on physics concepts related to distance, speed, time, velocity, acceleration, forces, momentum, and energy. It includes definitions of key terms, formulas, example problems, and explanations of concepts.
2) Multiple pages cover topics like the relationship between distance, speed, and time; creating and interpreting distance-time graphs; the difference between speed and velocity; calculating acceleration; and more.
3) Example problems are provided throughout to demonstrate how to apply the formulas and concepts to calculate values like speed, acceleration, work done, kinetic energy, momentum, and more. Key physics principles are explained, such as Newton's laws of motion, conservation of momentum, and different types of energy.
The document provides information about the structure of atoms and the periodic table. It discusses the subatomic particles that make up atoms, including electrons, protons, and neutrons. It then explains atomic structure and how elements are arranged on the periodic table according to their atomic number and properties. Various types of bonding between atoms are introduced, including ionic and covalent bonding. Bonding diagrams and examples of different compounds are provided.
This document contains summary notes on chemistry topics for a GCSE science course. It covers the fundamental ideas in chemistry including atoms, the periodic table, and chemical reactions. It also discusses specific topics like limestone and building materials, metals and their uses, crude oil and fuels, and plant oils. For each topic, it provides an overview and defines key terms and concepts.
This document provides information on the structure and function of various cell types including plant, animal, bacteria and human cells. It also summarizes cellular processes like photosynthesis, respiration, diffusion, genetics and inheritance. Some key points covered include:
- The main organelles in plant and animal cells and their functions.
- Differences in cell structure between plant (algal and yeast), bacteria and human cell types.
- The process of photosynthesis including the role of chloroplasts and limiting factors.
- Aerobic and anaerobic respiration and their roles in providing energy to cells.
- Cell division through mitosis and meiosis and their roles in asexual and sexual reproduction.
- Basic concepts of genetics including DNA
AQA B History GCSE Hitler's Foreign Policy RevisionGeorgie Pearson
Hitler took several steps between 1935 and 1939 to undermine the Treaty of Versailles and expand German territory, which ultimately led to the start of World War 2. These steps included reoccupying the Rhineland in 1936, annexing Austria in 1938, demanding the Sudetenland at Munich in 1938, occupying the rest of Czechoslovakia in 1939, signing a non-aggression pact with the USSR also in 1939, and finally invading Poland on September 1st, 1939, leading Britain and France to declare war on Germany.
Surgery has evolved greatly over thousands of years from early practices of wound treatment and basic procedures to become a complex medical specialty. The document traces the history of surgery from ancient civilizations like Egypt, India, Greece and Rome where the first depictions and medical texts of surgical practices emerged. It describes the developments during the Renaissance with anatomists like da Vinci and the advances made due to military and non-military surgeons. The modern concepts of antisepsis, anesthesia and hospitals are reviewed along with pioneering surgeons who contributed innovative procedures and improved outcomes. The scope of surgery continues to grow with new techniques and subspecialties arising to address various health issues effectively.
Lord of the flies - suggested watching. The 1963 film, despite being old fashioned, actually follows the book much more closely than the 1990 film. See the YouTube video here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FE2RL3fupms
Recommended for Core science students studying B1. NB: Only for the AQA exam board. For notes, look below:
B1.1 - Keeping Healthy: http://www.docbrown.info/page20/AQAscibio11.htm
B1.2 - Nerves and Hormones: http://www.docbrown.info/page20/AQAscibio12.htm
B1.3 - The use and abuse of drugs: http://www.docbrown.info/page20/AQAscibio13.htm
B1.4 - Interdependence and adaptation: http://www.docbrown.info/page20/AQAscibio14.htm
B1.5 - Energy and biomass in Food Chains: http://www.docbrown.info/page20/AQAscibio13.htm
B1.6 - Waste materials from plants and animals: http://www.docbrown.info/page20/AQAscibio16.htm
B1.7 - Genetic variation and its controls: http://www.docbrown.info/page20/AQAscibio17.htm
B1.8 - Evolution: http://www.docbrown.info/page20/AQAscibio18.htm
The document provides an overview of topics related to physics including infrared radiation, kinetic theory, energy transfer through heating, heating and insulating buildings, energy transfers and efficiency, transferring electrical energy, generating electricity, the national grid, waves, sound, and reflection. It includes definitions, explanations, diagrams, and example exam questions for each topic.
This document provides information about atoms, elements, compounds and their structures. It discusses how atoms are made up of protons, neutrons and electrons. Elements are made of only one type of atom, while compounds contain two or more different types of atoms. Electrons occupy different energy levels in shells around the nucleus. Atoms can bond through ionic bonding by transferring electrons or covalent bonding by sharing electrons. Chemical equations are used to represent chemical reactions and must be balanced.
The document provides context and summaries about William Golding's novel "Lord of the Flies". It describes the novel as exploring the idea of human evil through the story of English schoolboys marooned on a tropical island, where in the absence of civilization they descend into savagery. The document also analyzes important characters, symbols, themes, and allegorical elements in the novel.
AQA Biology B3, Unit 3, full Detailed Revision NotesSaqib Ali
This document provides an overview of various topics related to biology including:
- The process of gas exchange that occurs in the lungs, gut, and plants via diffusion, osmosis, and active transport.
- How the circulatory system transports blood to and from the heart and lungs via arteries, veins, and capillaries to supply oxygen and remove carbon dioxide from tissues.
- The role of microorganisms like yeast and bacteria in food production processes like fermentation and culturing.
- Methods for large scale production of microbes and antibiotics as well as renewable energy sources like biogas.
The document discusses atomic structure, ionic and covalent bonding, limestone and its uses in construction, extracting metals, crude oil and its fractional distillation, polymers, emulsions, and saturated and unsaturated fats. It explains that atoms contain protons, neutrons and electrons, and how ionic and covalent bonding occurs. It also describes how limestone is used to make cement, mortar and concrete, and the limestone cycle.
The document discusses the structure and function of DNA and cells. It explains that DNA is found in the nucleus and contains the genetic code. DNA is made up of a double helix structure held together by complementary base pairs that always pair up in the same way. The order of these base pairs forms the genetic code that cells use to make proteins.
The document outlines topics that will be covered on the Y10 End of Year Exam for different chapters.
For C1 Topics, Chapter 1 will cover fundamental ideas about atoms, elements, compounds and chemical bonding. Chapter 2 will discuss rocks and building materials like limestone and its uses. Chapter 3 will cover metals and their uses, including extracting metals like iron, aluminum and copper from ores.
For C2 Topics, Chapter 4 will focus on rates and energy.
For C3 Topics, Chapter 3 will cover energy calculations. Students can view a slideshow and click on topics to be directed to relevant sections of a PowerPoint presentation.
This document discusses various topics relating to health, including diet and exercise, weight problems, pathogens and disease, defence mechanisms, bacteria, immunity, and antibiotics.
It notes that diet should include carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, water and fiber. Exercise is also important, as it increases energy needs. Weight problems like obesity can develop if energy intake exceeds use and can lead to health issues. Pathogens like bacteria and viruses cause infectious diseases and the body has defence mechanisms like mucus, skin, stomach acid, and white blood cells. Antibiotics can treat bacterial infections but not viruses, and overuse contributes to antibiotic resistance. Immunity develops from vaccination or prior exposure, as white blood cells
This document discusses inheritance, types of reproduction, genetic and environmental variation, cloning plants and animals, and genetic engineering. It explains that genes are passed from parents to offspring and control proteins. Sexual reproduction provides variation through mixing genes but is riskier, while asexual reproduction replicates the parent. Plant cloning uses cuttings or tissue culture to duplicate plants identically. Animal cloning transfers embryos or adult cells to create clones. Genetic engineering modifies organisms by inserting genes from one into another, with potential applications like treating genetic diseases or producing insulin in plants.
The document provides information about biology topics including plant and animal cell structure, diffusion and osmosis, photosynthesis, respiration, enzymes, genetics, and homeostasis. A typical plant cell contains a cell wall, cell membrane, nucleus, vacuole, cytoplasm, and chloroplasts. A typical animal cell contains a nucleus, mitochondria, cell membrane, and cytoplasm. Diffusion is the passive movement of particles from an area of high concentration to low concentration, while osmosis is the diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane. Photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll, and sunlight to produce glucose and oxygen. Respiration uses glucose and oxygen to produce energy, water, and carbon dioxide. Enzymes are
This document discusses various ways that organisms adapt to survive in different environments. It provides several examples:
- Fig trees and wasps have adapted to each other through pollination, with each wasp type specially shaped to pollinate its matching fig tree.
- Star-nosed moles can react and eat prey within 230 milliseconds due to being blind and needing to consume prey quickly before it escapes.
- Venus fly traps attract insects using smell and color and digest them for nutrients to survive in nutrient-poor bogs.
- Extremophile bacteria can survive at very high or low temperatures because their enzymes do not denature under extreme conditions.
The document then examines environmental adaptations
Physics Unit 1 Revision Sheets GCSE AQA New Core ScienceSally
This document contains revision materials for a physics exam covering 6 chapters on energy and waves. It includes key terms, diagrams, questions to label or answer, and calculations. The topics covered are energy transfer through heating, different types of energy, electrical energy, generating electricity, waves, and electromagnetic waves. Students are asked to define terms, label parts of diagrams, explain concepts, and solve problems involving energy, power, efficiency and costs.
1) This document provides information on physics concepts related to distance, speed, time, velocity, acceleration, forces, momentum, and energy. It includes definitions of key terms, formulas, example problems, and explanations of concepts.
2) Multiple pages cover topics like the relationship between distance, speed, and time; creating and interpreting distance-time graphs; the difference between speed and velocity; calculating acceleration; and more.
3) Example problems are provided throughout to demonstrate how to apply the formulas and concepts to calculate values like speed, acceleration, work done, kinetic energy, momentum, and more. Key physics principles are explained, such as Newton's laws of motion, conservation of momentum, and different types of energy.
The document provides information about the structure of atoms and the periodic table. It discusses the subatomic particles that make up atoms, including electrons, protons, and neutrons. It then explains atomic structure and how elements are arranged on the periodic table according to their atomic number and properties. Various types of bonding between atoms are introduced, including ionic and covalent bonding. Bonding diagrams and examples of different compounds are provided.
This document contains summary notes on chemistry topics for a GCSE science course. It covers the fundamental ideas in chemistry including atoms, the periodic table, and chemical reactions. It also discusses specific topics like limestone and building materials, metals and their uses, crude oil and fuels, and plant oils. For each topic, it provides an overview and defines key terms and concepts.
This document provides information on the structure and function of various cell types including plant, animal, bacteria and human cells. It also summarizes cellular processes like photosynthesis, respiration, diffusion, genetics and inheritance. Some key points covered include:
- The main organelles in plant and animal cells and their functions.
- Differences in cell structure between plant (algal and yeast), bacteria and human cell types.
- The process of photosynthesis including the role of chloroplasts and limiting factors.
- Aerobic and anaerobic respiration and their roles in providing energy to cells.
- Cell division through mitosis and meiosis and their roles in asexual and sexual reproduction.
- Basic concepts of genetics including DNA
AQA B History GCSE Hitler's Foreign Policy RevisionGeorgie Pearson
Hitler took several steps between 1935 and 1939 to undermine the Treaty of Versailles and expand German territory, which ultimately led to the start of World War 2. These steps included reoccupying the Rhineland in 1936, annexing Austria in 1938, demanding the Sudetenland at Munich in 1938, occupying the rest of Czechoslovakia in 1939, signing a non-aggression pact with the USSR also in 1939, and finally invading Poland on September 1st, 1939, leading Britain and France to declare war on Germany.
Surgery has evolved greatly over thousands of years from early practices of wound treatment and basic procedures to become a complex medical specialty. The document traces the history of surgery from ancient civilizations like Egypt, India, Greece and Rome where the first depictions and medical texts of surgical practices emerged. It describes the developments during the Renaissance with anatomists like da Vinci and the advances made due to military and non-military surgeons. The modern concepts of antisepsis, anesthesia and hospitals are reviewed along with pioneering surgeons who contributed innovative procedures and improved outcomes. The scope of surgery continues to grow with new techniques and subspecialties arising to address various health issues effectively.
Lord of the flies - suggested watching. The 1963 film, despite being old fashioned, actually follows the book much more closely than the 1990 film. See the YouTube video here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FE2RL3fupms
Recommended for Core science students studying B1. NB: Only for the AQA exam board. For notes, look below:
B1.1 - Keeping Healthy: http://www.docbrown.info/page20/AQAscibio11.htm
B1.2 - Nerves and Hormones: http://www.docbrown.info/page20/AQAscibio12.htm
B1.3 - The use and abuse of drugs: http://www.docbrown.info/page20/AQAscibio13.htm
B1.4 - Interdependence and adaptation: http://www.docbrown.info/page20/AQAscibio14.htm
B1.5 - Energy and biomass in Food Chains: http://www.docbrown.info/page20/AQAscibio13.htm
B1.6 - Waste materials from plants and animals: http://www.docbrown.info/page20/AQAscibio16.htm
B1.7 - Genetic variation and its controls: http://www.docbrown.info/page20/AQAscibio17.htm
B1.8 - Evolution: http://www.docbrown.info/page20/AQAscibio18.htm
The document provides an overview of topics related to physics including infrared radiation, kinetic theory, energy transfer through heating, heating and insulating buildings, energy transfers and efficiency, transferring electrical energy, generating electricity, the national grid, waves, sound, and reflection. It includes definitions, explanations, diagrams, and example exam questions for each topic.
This document provides information about atoms, elements, compounds and their structures. It discusses how atoms are made up of protons, neutrons and electrons. Elements are made of only one type of atom, while compounds contain two or more different types of atoms. Electrons occupy different energy levels in shells around the nucleus. Atoms can bond through ionic bonding by transferring electrons or covalent bonding by sharing electrons. Chemical equations are used to represent chemical reactions and must be balanced.
The document provides context and summaries about William Golding's novel "Lord of the Flies". It describes the novel as exploring the idea of human evil through the story of English schoolboys marooned on a tropical island, where in the absence of civilization they descend into savagery. The document also analyzes important characters, symbols, themes, and allegorical elements in the novel.
AQA Biology B3, Unit 3, full Detailed Revision NotesSaqib Ali
This document provides an overview of various topics related to biology including:
- The process of gas exchange that occurs in the lungs, gut, and plants via diffusion, osmosis, and active transport.
- How the circulatory system transports blood to and from the heart and lungs via arteries, veins, and capillaries to supply oxygen and remove carbon dioxide from tissues.
- The role of microorganisms like yeast and bacteria in food production processes like fermentation and culturing.
- Methods for large scale production of microbes and antibiotics as well as renewable energy sources like biogas.
The document discusses atomic structure, ionic and covalent bonding, limestone and its uses in construction, extracting metals, crude oil and its fractional distillation, polymers, emulsions, and saturated and unsaturated fats. It explains that atoms contain protons, neutrons and electrons, and how ionic and covalent bonding occurs. It also describes how limestone is used to make cement, mortar and concrete, and the limestone cycle.
The document discusses the structure and function of DNA and cells. It explains that DNA is found in the nucleus and contains the genetic code. DNA is made up of a double helix structure held together by complementary base pairs that always pair up in the same way. The order of these base pairs forms the genetic code that cells use to make proteins.
The document outlines topics that will be covered on the Y10 End of Year Exam for different chapters.
For C1 Topics, Chapter 1 will cover fundamental ideas about atoms, elements, compounds and chemical bonding. Chapter 2 will discuss rocks and building materials like limestone and its uses. Chapter 3 will cover metals and their uses, including extracting metals like iron, aluminum and copper from ores.
For C2 Topics, Chapter 4 will focus on rates and energy.
For C3 Topics, Chapter 3 will cover energy calculations. Students can view a slideshow and click on topics to be directed to relevant sections of a PowerPoint presentation.
1. The document discusses various properties and reactions involving metals and non-metals. It describes the structure of alloys and how they are stronger than pure metals.
2. Key extraction methods are related to a metal's position in the reactivity series, such as electrolysis of reactive metals and blast furnaces for less reactive metals.
3. Common uses of metals such as aluminum, zinc, and iron alloys are explained in terms of the metals' properties including strength, corrosion resistance, and galvanization.
The document provides an overview of metallurgy and metal extraction processes. It discusses:
1) Different methods of metal extraction including pyrometallurgy (using heat), hydrometallurgy (using water), and electrometallurgy (using electricity).
2) Properties and applications of cast iron, which has 2-4.5% carbon content and is strong in compression.
3) The process of extracting iron from iron ore in a blast furnace, producing pig iron which can then be further processed to make wrought iron or steel.
This document discusses the chemical composition of different parts of the natural environment including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. It explains that the atmosphere contains molecular elements like oxygen and compounds like carbon dioxide. The hydrosphere mainly contains water along with dissolved ionic compounds like sodium chloride. The lithosphere contains minerals composed of elements like silicon and oxygen. The biosphere contains large organic molecules like carbohydrates, proteins, and DNA composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. The document also discusses the properties of molecular and ionic compounds as well as extraction of metals from ores.
Steel is an alloy of iron with carbon and other elements like manganese, chromium, and vanadium. Small differences in composition can significantly change steel's properties. Steel is very versatile and its properties can be modified through changes in composition, heat treatment, and mechanical working. The most common way of producing steel is through the basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS) process, which uses molten iron from a blast furnace along with scrap steel and an oxygen blast to remove impurities and add desired elements. Proper control of temperature, carbon content, and elemental additions results in steel of a precise specification.
The document discusses the extraction of three important metals - iron, aluminum, and copper. It describes how these metals are commonly found as ores and the multi-step processes required to extract the pure metals. Iron is extracted from its ore, hematite, using a blast furnace. Aluminum is extracted via electrolysis of aluminum oxide in molten cryolite. Copper is extracted through concentration, roasting, smelting and refining processes including bessemerization to produce blister copper from chalcopyrite ore.
The document discusses the properties, extraction, and uses of metals such as iron and aluminum. It describes how iron is extracted through blast furnaces and converted to steel. Key steps include concentrating the ore, reducing iron oxides with carbon, and removing impurities. Aluminum extraction involves concentrating bauxite through the Bayer process, then electrolysis of aluminum oxide in cryolite. The environmental impacts of mining, processing, and transporting metals are also covered.
Products from rocks (summary of the AQA module)dhmcmillan
The document summarizes information about products made from rocks and extracting metals and fuels from raw materials. It discusses how limestone decomposes into quicklime and carbon dioxide when heated, and how quicklime forms calcium hydroxide when mixed with water. It also explains how crude oil is separated into fractions by fractional distillation, and how burning fuels produces gases like carbon dioxide, water vapor, carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide.
This document discusses the extraction of metals from ores. It begins by stating that most metals are found in nature combined with other elements in compounds like oxides, sulfides, and carbonates. It then explains different extraction methods including heating alone, heating with carbon or carbon monoxide, and electrolysis. As an example, it describes the extraction of iron from iron ore in a blast furnace. The document also briefly discusses alloys and their important uses.
This document discusses metallic elements and alloys. It notes that metals are found on the left side of the periodic table and have properties like conductivity, malleability, and reactivity. Common reactions of metals include reacting with water to form hydroxides, acids to form salts, and oxygen to form oxides. Alloys are mixtures of metals or metals with other elements designed to have specific properties. Examples given are brass, stainless steel, and aluminum alloys. Metals have many important uses due to their properties, like iron in construction, aluminum in aircraft, and copper in wiring.
The document discusses several topics related to chemistry and materials science:
1) It describes the extraction and purification of copper, including heating copper oxide with carbon to extract copper and purifying it via electrolysis.
2) It explains that an alloy is a mixture of two elements where one is a metal, and provides examples of common alloys like brass and their uses.
3) It discusses the structure of the Earth and its main layers from the crust to the inner core.
- Iron is extracted from its ore, haematite, in a blast furnace using coke, limestone, and hot air. The limestone removes impurities and produces slag.
- Iron rusts in the presence of oxygen and water to form iron(III) oxide. Rusting can be prevented by barriers like paint, grease, or sacrificial protection using more reactive metals like zinc.
- Recycling metals saves limited metal resources and reduces costs and pollution compared to extracting virgin metals. However, recycling has costs and challenges like obtaining scrap metals.
Metals and non-metals have unique properties. Sodium and potassium have low melting points while mercury is liquid. Most metals like gold and silver are malleable and ductile, allowing them to be formed into wires. Electric wires are coated in plastic to prevent electric shock from conduction. Non-metals like carbon exist in different allotropes with varying properties. Metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides, and react with water to form metal hydroxides and hydrogen gas. More reactive metals can displace less reactive metals from their salt solutions. Metals are extracted from ores through processes like enrichment, roasting, and electrolytic refining.
Non-ferrous metals like aluminum and its alloys are sometimes used as alternatives to steel in civil engineering construction, especially for bridges and roofs where high strength is not required, as they can reduce weight by about 50%. Copper and alloys of copper, nickel, chromium, and zinc are used where properties like high strength at high temperatures, ductility, heat resistance, or electrical conductivity are needed. Aluminum is extracted from bauxite ore via the Bayer process and Hall-Héroult electrolysis process. It is a light, corrosion-resistant metal used in aircraft, buildings, vehicles, and electrical transmission. Copper, zinc, and their alloys also have various applications due to combinations of
The document discusses the extraction of metals from their ores. It begins by describing where metals are found in nature based on their reactivity. Very reactive metals like calcium are found in the sea, while less reactive metals like aluminum and zinc are found as oxides and sulfides. The least reactive metals like gold and silver are found as free elements.
It then provides examples of metal ores found in Tanzania like copper, tin, iron, gold and uranium. The extraction process involves purifying the ore through processes like dressing, calcination and roasting. Metals are then extracted through electrolysis or chemical reduction. Common extraction methods for sodium, aluminum and iron are described. Finally, the document outlines some physical and chemical
The document describes the key processes in manufacturing steel:
1) Coke is produced from coal and used in the blast furnace along with iron ore and limestone.
2) In the blast furnace, coke and air are blasted into the furnace, using carbon to displace iron from the iron ore to produce liquid iron.
3) The liquid iron is further refined through basic oxygen steelmaking or electric arc furnaces to reduce the carbon content and produce steel.
The document provides an overview of the extraction of metals. It discusses the extraction of iron through the blast furnace process using carbon reduction. Slag is produced to remove silica and waste gases can cause pollution. Steel is made from iron by removing excess carbon. The extraction of aluminium requires electrolysis due to its position in the reactivity series. Titanium extraction involves converting the oxide to the chloride then reducing with sodium.
This slide was prepared by me for I was given project on the course applied electro-chemistry. Am student at Addis Ababa university institute of technology , addis ababa Ethiopia
The document discusses metal reactivity and extraction methods. It provides a metal reactivity series from most reactive to least reactive. More reactive metals can displace hydrogen from acids and form hydroxides, while less reactive metals can only do so from acids or cannot displace hydrogen at all. Extraction methods include electrolysis of molten compounds, smelting, reduction, and physical extraction depending on the reactivity of the metal. Ores contain metal minerals mixed with impurities and most metals must be extracted from their ores through processes like concentration, roasting, calcination, and reduction.
Authoring a personal GPT for your research and practice: How we created the Q...Leonel Morgado
Thematic analysis in qualitative research is a time-consuming and systematic task, typically done using teams. Team members must ground their activities on common understandings of the major concepts underlying the thematic analysis, and define criteria for its development. However, conceptual misunderstandings, equivocations, and lack of adherence to criteria are challenges to the quality and speed of this process. Given the distributed and uncertain nature of this process, we wondered if the tasks in thematic analysis could be supported by readily available artificial intelligence chatbots. Our early efforts point to potential benefits: not just saving time in the coding process but better adherence to criteria and grounding, by increasing triangulation between humans and artificial intelligence. This tutorial will provide a description and demonstration of the process we followed, as two academic researchers, to develop a custom ChatGPT to assist with qualitative coding in the thematic data analysis process of immersive learning accounts in a survey of the academic literature: QUAL-E Immersive Learning Thematic Analysis Helper. In the hands-on time, participants will try out QUAL-E and develop their ideas for their own qualitative coding ChatGPT. Participants that have the paid ChatGPT Plus subscription can create a draft of their assistants. The organizers will provide course materials and slide deck that participants will be able to utilize to continue development of their custom GPT. The paid subscription to ChatGPT Plus is not required to participate in this workshop, just for trying out personal GPTs during it.
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
Current Ms word generated power point presentation covers major details about the micronuclei test. It's significance and assays to conduct it. It is used to detect the micronuclei formation inside the cells of nearly every multicellular organism. It's formation takes place during chromosomal sepration at metaphase.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...Leonel Morgado
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
ESA/ACT Science Coffee: Diego Blas - Gravitational wave detection with orbita...Advanced-Concepts-Team
Presentation in the Science Coffee of the Advanced Concepts Team of the European Space Agency on the 07.06.2024.
Speaker: Diego Blas (IFAE/ICREA)
Title: Gravitational wave detection with orbital motion of Moon and artificial
Abstract:
In this talk I will describe some recent ideas to find gravitational waves from supermassive black holes or of primordial origin by studying their secular effect on the orbital motion of the Moon or satellites that are laser ranged.
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...Sérgio Sacani
Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
represent the most massive star-forming environment that is dominated by the feedback from massive stars and gravitational interactions
among stars.
Aims. In this paper we present the Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) project, which aims to investigate
the influence of the starburst environment on the formation of stars and planets, and on the evolution of both low and high mass stars.
The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
Additionally, we included 8 archival Chandra/ACIS-S observations. This paper presents the resulting catalog of X-ray sources within
and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
Results. The EWOCS X-ray catalog comprises 5963 validated sources out of the 9420 initially provided to ACIS-Extract, reaching a
photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
with 1075 sources located within the central 1 arcmin. We have successfully detected X-ray emissions from 126 out of the 166 known
massive stars of the cluster, and we have collected over 71 000 photons from the magnetar CXO J164710.20-455217.
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...
C1 revision cards
1. C1 1.1 ATOMS, ELEMENTS & COMPOUNDS
• All substances are made of atoms
• Elements are made of only one type of atom
• Compounds contain more than one type of atom
• Compounds are held together by bonds
• Each element has its own
symbol in the periodic table
• Columns are called GROUPS.
• Elements in a group have
similar properties
• Rows are called PERIODS
• The red staircase splits
metals from non-metals
An atom is
made up of
a tiny
nucleus
with
electrons
around it
2. C1 1.2 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
• Atoms contain PROTONS, NEUTRONS & ELECTRONS
• Protons and Neutrons are found in the NUCLEUS
• Electrons orbit the nucleus
• ATOMIC NUMBER the number of protons in the nucleus
the periodic table is arranged in this order
• MASS NUMBER the number of protons plus neutrons
Number of neutrons = Mass Number – Atomic Number
Any atom contains equal numbers of
protons and electrons
PARTICLE RELATIVE
CHARGE
RELATIVE
MASS
Proton +1 (positive) 1
Neutron 0 (neutral) 1
Electron -1 (negative) 0
3. C1 1.3 ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT
• Electrons are arranged around the nucleus in SHELLS (or energy levels)
• The shell closest to the nucleus has the lowest energy
• Electrons occupy the lowest available energy level
• Atoms with the same number of electrons in the outer shell belong to the same GROUP in
the periodic table
• Number of outer electrons determine the way an element reacts
• Atoms of the last group (noble gases) have stable arrangements and are unreactive
This is how we draw atoms
and their electrons
Low energy shell
High energy shell
Sodium
4. C1 1.4 FORMING BONDS
• Atoms can react to form compounds in a number of ways:
i) Transferring electrons IONIC BONDING
ii) Sharing electrons COVALENT BONDING
IONIC BONDING
• When a metal and non-metal react
• Metals form positive ions
• Non-metals from negative ions
• Opposite charges attract
• A giant lattice is formed
COVALENT BONDING
• When 2 non-metals bond
• Outermost electrons are shared
• A pair of shared electrons forms a bond
CHEMICAL FORMULAE
• Tells us the ratio of each element in the
compound
• In ionic compounds the charges must cancel
out:
E.g. MgCl2
We have 2 chloride ions for every magnesium ion
5. H2 + O2 H2O
Add a 2 to the products side to make the oxygen
balance
H2 + O2 2H2O
This has changed the number of hydrogen atoms
so we must now adjust the reactant side:
2H2 + O2 2H2O
C1 1.5 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
• Chemical equations show the reactants (what we start with) and the products (what we
end up with)
• We often use symbol equations to make life easier
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
MAKING EQUATIONS BALANCE
Equations MUST balance
We can ONLY add BIG numbers to the front of
a substance
We can tell elements within a compound by BIG
letters
CaCO3 this is a compound made of 3 elements
(calcium, carbon and oxygen)
Ca = 1
C = 1
O = 3
Ca = 1
C = 1
O = 3
• This is balanced – same number of each type of
atom on both sides of the equation
• We can check this by counting the number of each
type on either side
H = 2
O = 2
H = 2
O = 1
H = 2
O = 2
H = 4
O = 2
6. C1 2.1 LIMESTONE & ITS USES
• Limestone is made mainly of Calcium Carbonate
• Calcium carbonate has the chemical formulae CaCO3
• Some types of limestone (e.g. chalk) were formed from the remains of animals and plants
that live millions of years ago
USE IN BUILDING
We use limestone in many buildings by cutting
it into blocks.
Other ways limestone is used:
Cement = powdered limestone + powdered clay
Concrete = Cement + Sand + Water
HEATING LIMESTONE
Breaking down a chemical by heating is
called THERMAL DECOMPOSITION
Calcium Calcium + Carbon
Carbonate Oxide Dioxide
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
ROTARY LIME KILN
This is the furnace used to heat lots of calcium carbonate and turn it into calcium oxide
Calcium oxide is used in the building and agricultural industries
7. C1 2.2 REACTIONS OF CARBONATES
• Buildings made from limestone suffer from damage by acid rain
• This is because carbonates react with acid to form a salt, water and carbon dioxide
Calcium + Hydrochloric Calcium + Water + Carbon
Carbonate Acid Chloride Dioxide
CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
TESTING FOR CO2
• We use limewater to test for CO2
• Limewater turns cloudy
• A precipitate (tiny solid particles) of calcium
carbonate forms causing the cloudiness!
HEATING CARBONATES
Metal carbonates decompose on heating
to form the metal oxide and carbon
dioxide
MgCO3 MgO + CO2
8. C1 2.3 THE LIMESTONE REACTION CYCLE
• Limestone is used widely as a building material
• We can also use it to make other materials for the construction industry
Calcium Carbonate + Heat Calcium Oxide
Calcium Oxide + Water Calcium Hydroxide (Limewater)
Calcium Carbonate
Calcium Oxide
Calcium Hydroxide
Calcium Hydroxide
Solution
Step 1: Add Heat
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
Step 2: Add a bit of water
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2
Step 3: Add more water & filter
Ca(OH0)2 + H2O Ca(OH)2 (aq)
Step 4: Add CO2
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O
Limestone
9. C1 2.4 CEMENT & CONCRETE
CEMENT
Made by heating limestone with clay in a kiln
MORTAR
Made by mixing cement and sand with water
CONCRETE
Made by mixing crushed rocks or stones (called aggregate), cement and sand with water
C1 2.5 LIMESTONE ISSUES
BENEFITS
• Provide jobs
• Lead to improved roads
• Filled in to make fishing lakes or for
planting trees
• Can be used as landfill sites when finished
with
DRAWBACKS
• Destroys habitats
• Increased emissions
• Noisy & Dusty
• Dangerous areas for children
• Busier roads
• Ugly looking
10. C1 3.1 EXTRACTING METALS
• A metal compound within a rock is called an ORE
• The metal is often combined with oxygen
• Ores are mined from the ground and then
purified
Whether it’s worth extracting a particular metal
depends on:
How easy it is to extract
How much metal the ore contains
The reactivity series helps us decide the best way
to extract a metal:
Metals below carbon in the series can be
reduced by carbon to give the metal element
Metals more reactive than carbon cannot be
extracted using carbon. Instead other
methods like ELECTROLYSIS must be used
THE REACTIVITY SERIES
11. C1 3.2 IRON & STEELS
• Iron Ore contains iron combined with oxygen
• We use a blast furnace and carbon to extract it (as it’s less reactive than carbon)
• Carbon REDUCES the iron oxide;
Iron (III) Oxide + Carbon Iron + Carbon Dioxide
• Iron from the blast furnace contains impurities:
Makes it hard and brittle
Can be run into moulds to form cast iron
Used in stoves & man-hole covers
• Removing all the carbon impurities gives
us pure iron
Soft and easily shaped
Too soft for most uses
Need to combine it with other elements
• A metal mixed with other elements
is called an ALLOY
E.g. Steel Iron with carbon and/or
other elements
There are a number of types of steel
alloys:
Carbon steels
Low-alloy steels
High-alloy steels
Stainless steels
12. C1 3.3 ALUMINIUM & TITANIUM
Aluminium Titanium
Property • Shiny
• Light
• Low density
• Conducts electricity and energy
• Malleable – easily shaped
• Ductile – drawn into cables and wires
• Strong
• Resistant to corrosion
• High melting point – so can be used at
high temperatures
• Less dense than most metals
Use • Drinks cans
• Cooking foil
• Saucepans
• High-voltage electricity cables
• Bicycles
• Aeroplanes and space vehicles
• High-performance aircraft
• Racing bikes
• Jet engines
• Parts of nuclear reactors
• Replacement hip joints
Extraction Electrolysis
• Aluminium ore is mined and extracted.
• Alumminium oxide (the ore) is melted
• Electric current passed through at high
temperature
Expensive process – need lots of heat and
Displacement & Electrolysis
• Use sodium or potassium to displace
titanium from its ore
• Get sodium and magnesium from
electrolysis
Expensive – lots of steps involved, &
13. C1 3.4 EXTRACTING COPPER
COPPER-RICH ORES
These contain lots of copper. There are 2 ways to
consider:
1. Smelting
• 80% of copper is produced this way
• Heat copper ore strongly in a furnace with air
Copper + Oxygen Copper + Sulphur
Sulphide Dioxide
• Then use electrolysis to purify the copper
• Expensive as needs lots of heat and electricity
2. Copper Sulphate
• Add sulphuric acid to a copper ore
• Produces copper sulphate
• Extract copper using electrolysis or displacement
LOW GRADE COPPER ORES
These contain smaller amount of
copper. There are 2 main ways:
1. Phytomining
• Plants absorb copper ions from
low-grade ore
• Plants are burned
• Copper ions dissolved by adding
sulphuric acid
• Use displacement or electrolysis
to extract pure copper
2. Bioleaching
• Bacteria feed on low-grade ore
• These produce a waste product
that contains copper ions
• Use displacement or electrolysis to
extract pure copper
14. C1 3.5 USEFUL METALS
TRANSITION METALS
• Found in the central block of the periodic table
Properties:
• Good conductors of electricity and energy
• Strong
• Malleable – easily bent into shape
Uses:
• Buildings
• Transport (cars, trains etc)
• Heating systems
• Electrical wiring
Example: Copper
1. Water pipes – easily bent into shape, strong,
doesn’t react with water
2. Wires – ductile and conduct electricity
COPPER ALLOYS
Bronze – Copper + Tin
- Tough
- Resistant to corrosion
Brass – Copper + Zinc
- Harder but workable
ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
• Alloyed with a wide range of other
elements
• All have very different properties
• E.g. in aircraft or armour plating!
GOLD ALLOYS
• Usually add Copper to make
jewellery last longer
15. C1 3.6 METALLIC ISSUES
EXPLOITING ORES
Mining has many environmental consequences:
• Scar the landscape
• Noisy & Dusty
• Destroy animal habitats
• Large heaps of waste rock
• Make groundwater acidic
• Release gases that cause acid rain
RECYCLING METALS
• Recycling aluminium saves 95% of the energy
normally used to extract it!
• This saves money!
• Iron and steel are easily recycled. As they are
magnetic they are easily separated
• Copper can be recycled too – but it’s trickier as
it’s often alloyed with other elements
BUILDING WITH METALS
Benefits
• Steel is strong for girders
• Aluminium is corrosion resistant
• Many are malleable
• Copper is a good conductor and not
reactive
Drawbacks
• Iron & steel can rust
• Extraction causes pollution
• Metals are more expensive than
other materials like concrete
16. C1 4.1 FUELS FROM CRUDE OIL
CRUDE OIL
• A mixture of lots of different compounds
[A mixture is 2 or more elements or compounds that are not
chemically bonded together]
• We separate it into substances with similar boiling points
• These are called fractions
• This is done in a process called fractional distillation
HYDROCARBONS
Nearly all the compounds in crude oil are hydrocarbons
Most of these are saturated hydrocarbons called alkanes
Methane
CH4
Ethane
C2H6
Propane
C3H8
Butane
C4H10
General formula for
an alkane is CnH(2n+2)
17. C1 4.2 FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
This is the process by which crude oil is separated
into fractions
These are compounds with similar sized chains
Process relies on the boiling points of these
compounds
The properties a fraction has depend on the size
of their hydrocarbon chains
SHORT CHAINS ARE:
Very flammable
Have low boiling points
Highly volatile (tend to turn into gases)
Have low viscosity (they flow easily)
Long chains have the opposite of these!
Crude oil fed in at the bottom
Temperature decreases up the
column
Hydrocarbons with smaller chains
found nearer the top
18. C1 4.3 BURNING FUELS
COMPLETE COMBUSTION
Lighter fractions from crude oil make good fuels
They release energy when they are oxidised
burnt in oxygen:
propane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
POLLUTION
Fossil fuels also produce a number
of impurities when they are burnt
These have negative effects on the
environment
The main pollutants are summarised
below
Sulphur Dioxide
• Poisonous gas
• It’s acidic
• Causes acid rain
• Causes engine
corrosion
Carbon Monoxide
• Produced when not
enough oxygen
• Poisonous gas
• Prevents your blood
carrying oxygen
around your body
Nitrogen Oxide
• Poisonous
• Trigger asthma
attacks
• Can cause acid rain
Particulates
• Tiny solid particles
• Contain carbon and
unburnt hydrocarbon
• Carried in the air
• Damage cells in our
lungs
• Cause cancer
19. C1 4.4 CLEANER FUELS
Burning fuels releases pollutants that spread throughout the atmosphere:
CATALYTIC CONVERTERS
• Reduces the carbon monoxide
and nitrogen oxide produced
• They are expensive
• They don’t reduce the amount of
CO2
GLOBAL DIMMING
• Caused by particulates
• Reflect sunlight back into space
• Not as much light gets through to the
Earth
CARBON MONOXIDE
Formed by incomplete combustion
GLOBAL WARMING
• Caused by carbon dioxide
• Causing the average global temperature to
increase
SULPHUR DIOXIDE
• Caused by impurities in the fuel
• Affect asthma sufferers
• Cause acid rain damages plants & buildings
Carbon + Nitrogen Carbon + Nitrogen
Monoxide Oxide Dioxide
20. C1 4.5 ALTERNATIVE FUELS
These are renewable fuels sources of energy that could replace fossil fuels (coal, oil &
gas)
BIODIESEL ETHANOL HYDROGEN
+ • Less harmful to animals
• Breaks down 5 × quicker
• Reduces particulates
• Making it produces other useful
products
•‘CO2 neutral’ – plants grown to
create it absorb the same amount
of CO2 generated when it’s burnt
• Easily made by
fermenting sugar cane
• Gives off CO2 but the
sugar cane it comes
from absorbs CO2 when
growing
• Very clean – no
CO2
• Water is the only
product
- • Large areas of farmland required
• Less food produced Famine
• Destruction of habitats
• Freezes at low temps
• Large areas of
farmland required
• Less food produced as
people use it for fuel
instead!
• Hydrogen is
explosive
• Takes up a large
volume storage
becomes an issue
21. C1 5.1 CRACKING HYDROCARBONS
CRACKING Breaking down large hydrocarbon chains into smaller, more useful ones
SATURATED OR UNSATURATED?
We can react products with bromine water
to test for saturation:
Positive Test:
Unsaturated + Bromine COLOURLESS
hydrocarbon Water
= ALKENES
Negative Test:
Saturated + Bromine NO RECTION
Hydrocarbon Water (orange)
= ALKANES
CRACKING PROCESS
1. Heat hydrocarbons to a high temp;
then either:
2. Mix them with steam; OR
3. Pass the over a hot catalyst
EXAMPLE OF CRACKING
Cracking is a thermal decomposition reaction:
C10H22 C5H12 + C3H6 + C2H4
ALKENES
• These are unsaturated hydrocarbons
• They contain a double bond
• Have the general formula CnH2n
Decane Pentane Propene Ethene
800o
C
22. C1 5.2 POLYMERS FROM ALKENES
PLASTICS Are made from lots of monomers joined together to make a polymer
HOW DO MONOMERS JOIN TOGETHER?
• Double bond between carbons ‘opens up’
• Replaced by single bonds as thousands of monomers join up
• It is called POLYMERISATION
MONOMERS POLYMER
Ethene
Poly(ethene)
n
Simplified way
of writing it:
‘n’ represent a large
repeating number
23. C1 5.3 NEW & USEFUL POLYMERS
DESIGNER POLYMER Polymer made to do a specific job
Examples of uses for them:
• Dental fillings
• Linings for false teeth
• Packaging material
• Implants that release drugs slowly
Light-Sensitive Plasters
• Top layer of plaster
peeled back
• Lower layer now exposed
to light
• Adhesive loses stickiness
• Peels easily off the skin
SMART POLYMERS Have their properties changed by light, temperature or other
changes in their surroundings
Hydrogels
• Have cross-linking chains
• Makes a matrix that
traps water
• Act as wound dressings
• Let body heal in moist,
sterile conditions
• Good for burns
Shape memory polymers
• Wound is stitched loosely
• Temperature of the body
makes the thread tighten
• Closes the wound up with
the right amount of force
24. C1 5.4 PLASTIC WASTE
NON-BIODEGRADABLE
• Don’t break down
• Litter the streets and
shores
• Harm wildlife
RECYCLING
• Sort plastics into different types
• Melted down and made into new
products
• Saves energy and resources…BUT
• Hard to transport and
• Need to be sorted into specific
types
DISADVANTAGES OF
BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS
• Farmers sell crops like corn to
make plastics
• Demand for food goes up
• Food prices go up less can
afford it STARVATION
• Animal habitats destroyed to
make new farmland
• Unsightly
• Last 100’s of years
• Fill up landfill sites
BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS
• Plastics that break down easily
• Granules of
cornstarch are
built into the
plastic
• Microorganisms
in soil feed on
cornstarch
• This breaks the
plastic down
25. C1 5.5 ETHANOL
There are 2 main ways to make ethanol
2) ETHENE
Hydration reaction water is added
Ethene + Steam Ethanol
C2H4 + H2O C2H5OH
+ Continuous process – lots made!
+ Produces no waste products
- Requires lots of heat and energy
- Relies on a non-renewable resource
1) FERMENTATION
Sugar from plants is broken down by
enzymes in yeast
Sugar + Yeast Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide
80% of ethanol is made this way
+ Uses renewable resources
-Takes longer to produce
- CO2 is given off
A molecule of ethanol
HH-C-C-O
H
H
H
H
USES FOR ETHANOL
• Alcohol
• Perfume
• Rocket Fuel
• Solvents
• Antiseptic wipes
26. C1 6.1 EXTRACTING VEGETABLE OIL
There are 2 ways to extract vegetable oils from plants:
2) DISTILLATION
1. Plants are put into water and boiled
2. Oil and water evaporate together
3. Oil is collected by condensing (cooling
the gas vapours)
Lavender oil is one oil extracted this way
1) PRESSING
1. Farmers collect seeds from plants
2. Seeds are crushed and pressed
3. This extracts oil from them
4. Impurities are removed
5. Oil is processed to make it into a
useful product
FOOD AND FUEL
Vegetable oils are important foods:
• Provide important nutrients (e.g. vitamin E)
• Contain lots of energy so can also be used
as fuels
• Unsaturated oils contain double bonds (C=C)
they decolourise Bromine water
Food Energy
(kJ)
Veg Oil 3900
Sugar 1700
Meat 1100
Table for info only – don’t
memorise it!
27. C1 6.2 COOKING WITH VEGETABLE OILS
COOKING IN OIL
• Food cooks quicker
• Outside becomes crispier
• Inside becomes softer
• Food absorbs some of the oil
• Higher energy content
• Too much is unhealthy
HARDENING VEGETABLE OILS
• Reacting vegetable oils with HYDROGEN
hardens them increases melting points
• Makes them solid at room temperature
makes them into spreads!
• Double bonds converted to single bonds
C=C C-C
• Now called a HYDROGENATED OIL
• Reaction occurs at 60o
C with a nickel
catalyst
+
60o
C + Nickel catalyst
Double bonds converted to
single bonds
Margarine
28. C1 6.3 EVERYDAY EMULSIONS
Oils do not dissolve in water
Emulsion Where oil and water are
dispersed (spread out) in each
other
These often have special
properties
EMULSION EXAMPLES
1. Mayonnaise
2. Milk
3. Ice cream
4. Cosmetics – face cream, lipstick etc
5. Paint
EMULSIFIERS
• Stop water and oil separating out
into layers
• Emulsifiers have 2 parts that make
them work:
1.Hydrophobic tail – is attracted
to oil
2.Hydrophilic head – is attracted
to water. It has a negative
charge
Oil
droplet
Emulsifier
molecule
Water
-
29. C1 6.4 FOOD ISSUES
E NUMBER
Additives approved for use in Europe
EMULSIFIERS
• Improve texture and taste of foods
containing fats and oils
• Makes them more palatable (tasty)
and tempting to eat!
FOOD ADDITIVES
Substance added to food to:
• Preserve it
• Improve its taste
• Improve its texture
• Improve its appearance
VEG OILS
Unsaturated Fats:
• Source of nutrients like vitamin E
• Keep arteries clear
• Reduce heart disease
• Lower cholesterol levels
ANIMAL FATS
Saturated Fats:
• Are not good for us
• Increase risk of heart disease
• Increase cholesterol
E.g. chocolate!
30. C1 7.1 STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
Atmosphere:
Most lies within 10km of the
surface
Rest is within 100km but it’s hard
to judge!
Crust:
Solid
6km beneath
oceans
35km beneath land
Core:
Made of nickel and iron
Outer core is liquid
Inner core is solid
Radius is 3500km
Mantle
Behaves like a solid
Can flow very slowly
Is about 3000km deep!
31. C1 7.2 THE RESTLESS EARTH
MOVING CONTINENTS
The Earth’s crust and upper mantle are cracked into a number of
pieces TECTONIC PLATES
These are constantly moving - just very slowly
Motion is caused by CONVECTION CURRENTS in the mantle,
due to radioactive decay
PANGAEA
If you look at the continents they roughly fit together
Scientists think they were once one large land mass called
pangaea, which then broke off into smaller chunks
PLATE BOUNDARIES
Earthquakes and volcanoes
happen when tectonic plates
meet
These are very difficult to
predict
32. C1 7.3 THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE IN THE PAST
PHASE 1:PHASE 1:
Volcanoes = Steam & CO2
• Volcanoes kept eruptingVolcanoes kept erupting
giving outgiving out Steam andand CO2
• The early atmosphere wasThe early atmosphere was
nearly all COnearly all CO22
• TheThe earth cooledearth cooled andand
water vapourwater vapour condensedcondensed
to form theto form the oceansoceans
Like
this for
a billion
years!
PHASE 2:PHASE 2:
Green Plants, Bacteria
& Algae = Oxygen
• Green plants, bacteriaGreen plants, bacteria
and algae ran riot in theand algae ran riot in the
oceans!oceans!
• Green plants steadilysteadily
converted CO2 into O2
by the process ofby the process of
photosynthesis
• Nitrogen released byreleased by
denitrifying bacteria
• Plants colonise the land.
Oxygen levels steadily
increase
PHASE 3:PHASE 3:
Ozone Layer = Animals
& Us
• TheThe build up of Obuild up of O22
killed off earlykilled off early
organisms - allowingorganisms - allowing
evolution of complexevolution of complex
organismsorganisms
• TheThe O2 created thecreated the
Ozone layer (O3) whichwhich
blocks harmfulblocks harmful UV rays
from the sunfrom the sun
• Virtually no COVirtually no CO22 leftleft
33. C1 7.4 LIFE ON EARTH
No one can be sure how life on Earth first
started. There are many different theories:
MILLER-UREY EXPERIMENT
• Compounds for life on Earth came from
reactions involving hydrocarbons (e.g.
methane) and ammonia
• The energy for this could have been
provided by lightning
OTHER THEORIES
1. Molecules for life (amino acids) came on
meteorites from out of space
2. Actual living organisms themselves arrived
on meteorites
3. Biological molecules were released from
deep ocean vents
The experiment completed
by Miller and Urey
34. C1 7.5 GASES IN THE ATMOSPHERE
THE ATMOSPHERE TODAY:
The main gases in the atmosphere today are:
1. Nitrogen 78%
2. Oxygen 21%
3. Argon 0.9%
4. Carbon Dioxide 0.04%
CARBON DIOXIDE:
• Taken in by plants during photosynthesis
• When plants and animals die carbon is
transferred to rocks
• Some forms fossil fuels which are
released into the atmosphere when burnt
The main gases in air
can be separated out
by fractional
distillation.
These gases are
useful in industry
35. C1 7.6 CARBON DIOXIDE IN THE ATMOSPHERE
The stages in the cycle are shown below: Carbon moves into and out
of the atmosphere due to
• Plants – photosynthesis &
decay
• Animals – respiration &
decay
• Oceans – store CO2
• Rocks – store CO2 and
release it when burnt
CO2 LEVELS
Have increased in the
atmosphere recently
largely due to the
amount of fossil fuels
we now burn