The measurement of H2S/SO2 in Claus sulfur recovery unit (SRU) tail gas has been adequately addressed by UV spectroscopy for over 40 years. Reliability of the analytical principle was established in the first generation of analyzers and in the second generation sample handling was improved to the point where automatic control if not universal is at least considered the norm. With a deep understanding of the process and a population of 1,100 second generation analyzers it was possible in the third generation to address failure modes external to the analyzer. Reliability is not limited to the analyzer / sample system; it extends to the process and contains elements of health and safety. Analyzer professionals are compelled to look beyond what we consider our "deliverables", to address abnormal operations and bad piping design. The paper combines extensive feedback from analyzer professionals and a survey of sulfur recovery operators to address the external failure modes. Looking back on 100 million hours of operational time and one year of field testing the third generation analyzer the paper discusses reliability as viewed by the real end use customer; Operations.
The Claus process is the industry standard and so the most
significant gas desulfurizing process, recovering elemental sulfur
from gaseous hydrogen sulfide.
The process is commonly referred to as a sulfur recovery unit
(SRU) and is very widely used to produce sulfur from the
hydrogen sulfide found in raw natural gas and from the by-product
sour gases containing hydrogen sulfide derived from refining
petroleum crude oil and other industrial facilities.
There are many hundreds of Claus sulfur recovery units in
operation worldwide.
In fact, the vast majority of the 68,000,000 metric tons of sulfur
produced worldwide in one year is by-product sulfur from
petroleum refining and natural gas processing plants.
This document discusses process improvements in sulfur industries, specifically the Claus process used to convert hydrogen sulfide gas into elemental sulfur. It describes two main approaches to process improvement: process integration and process intensification. Examples of process intensification techniques discussed include using a superclaus catalyst, tail gas clean-up processes, and oxygen enrichment of sulfur recovery units. The benefits of these techniques include increased sulfur production capacity, reduced emissions, and lower operating costs compared to building new facilities.
Determination of Oxygen in Anhydrous Ammonia
SCOPE AND FIELD OF APPLICATION
This method is suitable for the determination of trace amounts of oxygen in Liquefied anhydrous ammonia.
The trace oxygen analyzer provides for trace oxygen analysis in decade steps ranging from 0 - 10 to 0 - 10,000 ppm v/v (full scale).
DEACTIVATION OF METHANOL SYNTHESIS CATALYSTS
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
2 THERMAL SINTERING
3 CATALYST POISONING
4 REACTANT INDUCED DEACTIVATION
5 SUMMARY
TABLES
1 DEACTIVATION PROCESSES ON METHANOL SYNTHESIS CATALYSTS
2 MELTING POINT, HUTTIG AND TAMMANN TEMPERATURES OF COPPER, IRON AND NICKEL
3 SINTERING RATE CONSTANTS CALCULATED INLET AND OUTLET SIDE STREAM UNIT FOR VULCAN VSG-M101
4 COMPARISON BETWEEN CALCULATED S∞ AND DISCHARGED MEASUREMENTS ON VULCAN VSG-M101
5 EFFECT OF POSSIBLE CONTAMINANTS AND POISONS ON CU/ZNO/AL2O3 CATALYSTS FOR METHANOL SYNTHESIS
6 GUARD SCREENING TEST RESULTS ON METHANOL MICRO-REACTOR. EFFECT OF DEPOSITED METALS ON METHANOL ACTIVITY
FIGURES
1 THE HΫTTIG AND TAMMANN TEMPERATURES OF THE COMPONENTS OF A SYNTHESIS CATALYST
2 A SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF TWO CATALYST SINTERING MECHANISMS
3 SIDE STREAM DATA FOR VULCAN VSG-M101. INLET TEMPERATURE 242 OC, PRESSURE 1500 PSI, GAS COMPOSITION 6% CO, 9.2% CO2, 66.9% H2, 2.5% N2 AND 15.4% CH4, SPACE VELOCITY 17,778 HR-1. MEAN OUTLET TEMPERATURE 280 OC
4 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF THE RATE OF SINTERING
5 MECHANISM OF SULFUR RETENTION
6 CORRELATION OF SULFUR CAPACITY WITH TOTAL SURFACE AREA
7 EFFECT OF DEPOSITED (NI+FE) PPM ON METHANOL SYNTHESIS CATALYST ACTIVITY
8 DISCHARGED (FE + NI) DEPOSITION LEVELS ON METHANOL SYNTHESIS PLANT SAMPLES
9 EPMA ANALYSIS OF DISCHARGED LABORATORY SAMPLE OF POISONED VULCAN VSG-M101
10 THE EFFECT OF CO2 ON SYNTHESIS CATALYST DEACTIVATION
REFERENCES
This document provides a nitrogen purging procedure for repairing a 16" gas pipeline between UTUE KP and UBIT PP in Nigeria. It outlines the objectives, scope of work, safety considerations, equipment needs, and step-by-step work procedures. The key steps include isolating and depressurizing the pipeline, installing nitrogen tie-in points, purging the line with nitrogen in cycles until gas concentration drops below 5% LEL, recording purge results, and demobilizing equipment. The procedure is intended to remove combustible gases and oxygen from the pipeline to allow for safe repair work.
Debottlenecking Claus Sulfur Recovery Units: An Investigation of the applicat...Gerard B. Hawkins
Debottlenecking Claus Sulfur Recovery Units: An Investigation of the application of Zinc Titanates
1 Executive Summary
2 Claus Process
2.1 Partial Combustion Claus
2.2 Split Flow Claus
2.3 Sulfur Recycle Claus
3 Zinc Titanates
4 Application of Zinc Titanate to Debottleneck Partial Combustion Claus by 10%
4.1 Process
4.2 ASPEN Modeling Results
4.3 Cost of Zinc Titanate Bed Installation
4.3.1 Basis of Costing
4.3.2 Zinc Titanate Beds
4.3.3 Regen Cooler
4.3.4 Blowers
4.3.5 Results
4.4 Alternative Debottlenecking Technology for Partial Combustion Claus
4.5 Cost of 10% Debottlenecking Using COPE Process
5 Debottlenecking Claus Split Flow System by 10% with Zinc Titanates
6 Debottlenecking Claus Sulfur Recycle System With Zinc Titanate
7 Effect of Zinc Titanate Debottlenecking on Existing Tail; Gas Treatment Systems
7.1 Selectox
7.2 SuperClaus99
7.3 Superclaus 99.5
7.4 SCOT Process
7.5 Zinc Titanate as a Claus Tail Gas Treatment
7.6 H2S Removal Efficiency With Zinc Titanate
8 Effects on COS and CS2 Formation
9 Questions for further Investigation
FIGURES
Figure 1 Claus Unit and TGCU
Figure 2 Claus Process
Figure 3 Typical Claus Sulfur Recovery Unit
Figure 4 Two-Stage Claus SRU
Figure 5 The Super Claus Process
Figure 6 SCOT
Figure 7 SCOT/BSR-MDEA (or clone) TGCU
REFERENCES: PATENTS
US4333855_PROMOTED_ZINC_TITANATE_CATALYTIC_AGENT
US4394297_ZINC_TITANATE_CATALYST
US6338794B1_DESULFURIZATION_ZINC_TITANATE_SORBENTS
Tube Wall Temperature Measurement On Steam Reformers - Best PracticesGerard B. Hawkins
GBH Enterprises provides guidance on best practices for measuring tube wall temperatures in steam reformers using optical pyrometers. It is important to measure temperatures accurately to prevent overheating tubes while maximizing plant efficiency. GBH recommends taking multiple temperature and background readings per tube using handheld pyrometers and an emissivity correction factor. Safety precautions like protective equipment are also advised. Detailed procedures are outlined for top-fired, side-fired and terrace wall furnace configurations.
Isothermal Methanol Converter (IMC) UA Distribution AnalysisGerard B. Hawkins
Isothermal Methanol Converter (IMC) UA Distribution Analysis - Case Study: #0630416GB/H; ACME Co. 9,000 MTD MeOH
This converter uses plates instead of tubes to remove the heat from the reaction gas. The use of the plates and the orientation allow the heat transfer within the converter to be more accurately controlled to follow the maximum rate line.
This case study examines the Radial Flow – Isothermal Methanol Converter (IMC) for ACME Co. 9,000 MTD, based on the Casale Isothermal Methanol Converter (IMC) design.
The Claus process is the industry standard and so the most
significant gas desulfurizing process, recovering elemental sulfur
from gaseous hydrogen sulfide.
The process is commonly referred to as a sulfur recovery unit
(SRU) and is very widely used to produce sulfur from the
hydrogen sulfide found in raw natural gas and from the by-product
sour gases containing hydrogen sulfide derived from refining
petroleum crude oil and other industrial facilities.
There are many hundreds of Claus sulfur recovery units in
operation worldwide.
In fact, the vast majority of the 68,000,000 metric tons of sulfur
produced worldwide in one year is by-product sulfur from
petroleum refining and natural gas processing plants.
This document discusses process improvements in sulfur industries, specifically the Claus process used to convert hydrogen sulfide gas into elemental sulfur. It describes two main approaches to process improvement: process integration and process intensification. Examples of process intensification techniques discussed include using a superclaus catalyst, tail gas clean-up processes, and oxygen enrichment of sulfur recovery units. The benefits of these techniques include increased sulfur production capacity, reduced emissions, and lower operating costs compared to building new facilities.
Determination of Oxygen in Anhydrous Ammonia
SCOPE AND FIELD OF APPLICATION
This method is suitable for the determination of trace amounts of oxygen in Liquefied anhydrous ammonia.
The trace oxygen analyzer provides for trace oxygen analysis in decade steps ranging from 0 - 10 to 0 - 10,000 ppm v/v (full scale).
DEACTIVATION OF METHANOL SYNTHESIS CATALYSTS
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
2 THERMAL SINTERING
3 CATALYST POISONING
4 REACTANT INDUCED DEACTIVATION
5 SUMMARY
TABLES
1 DEACTIVATION PROCESSES ON METHANOL SYNTHESIS CATALYSTS
2 MELTING POINT, HUTTIG AND TAMMANN TEMPERATURES OF COPPER, IRON AND NICKEL
3 SINTERING RATE CONSTANTS CALCULATED INLET AND OUTLET SIDE STREAM UNIT FOR VULCAN VSG-M101
4 COMPARISON BETWEEN CALCULATED S∞ AND DISCHARGED MEASUREMENTS ON VULCAN VSG-M101
5 EFFECT OF POSSIBLE CONTAMINANTS AND POISONS ON CU/ZNO/AL2O3 CATALYSTS FOR METHANOL SYNTHESIS
6 GUARD SCREENING TEST RESULTS ON METHANOL MICRO-REACTOR. EFFECT OF DEPOSITED METALS ON METHANOL ACTIVITY
FIGURES
1 THE HΫTTIG AND TAMMANN TEMPERATURES OF THE COMPONENTS OF A SYNTHESIS CATALYST
2 A SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF TWO CATALYST SINTERING MECHANISMS
3 SIDE STREAM DATA FOR VULCAN VSG-M101. INLET TEMPERATURE 242 OC, PRESSURE 1500 PSI, GAS COMPOSITION 6% CO, 9.2% CO2, 66.9% H2, 2.5% N2 AND 15.4% CH4, SPACE VELOCITY 17,778 HR-1. MEAN OUTLET TEMPERATURE 280 OC
4 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF THE RATE OF SINTERING
5 MECHANISM OF SULFUR RETENTION
6 CORRELATION OF SULFUR CAPACITY WITH TOTAL SURFACE AREA
7 EFFECT OF DEPOSITED (NI+FE) PPM ON METHANOL SYNTHESIS CATALYST ACTIVITY
8 DISCHARGED (FE + NI) DEPOSITION LEVELS ON METHANOL SYNTHESIS PLANT SAMPLES
9 EPMA ANALYSIS OF DISCHARGED LABORATORY SAMPLE OF POISONED VULCAN VSG-M101
10 THE EFFECT OF CO2 ON SYNTHESIS CATALYST DEACTIVATION
REFERENCES
This document provides a nitrogen purging procedure for repairing a 16" gas pipeline between UTUE KP and UBIT PP in Nigeria. It outlines the objectives, scope of work, safety considerations, equipment needs, and step-by-step work procedures. The key steps include isolating and depressurizing the pipeline, installing nitrogen tie-in points, purging the line with nitrogen in cycles until gas concentration drops below 5% LEL, recording purge results, and demobilizing equipment. The procedure is intended to remove combustible gases and oxygen from the pipeline to allow for safe repair work.
Debottlenecking Claus Sulfur Recovery Units: An Investigation of the applicat...Gerard B. Hawkins
Debottlenecking Claus Sulfur Recovery Units: An Investigation of the application of Zinc Titanates
1 Executive Summary
2 Claus Process
2.1 Partial Combustion Claus
2.2 Split Flow Claus
2.3 Sulfur Recycle Claus
3 Zinc Titanates
4 Application of Zinc Titanate to Debottleneck Partial Combustion Claus by 10%
4.1 Process
4.2 ASPEN Modeling Results
4.3 Cost of Zinc Titanate Bed Installation
4.3.1 Basis of Costing
4.3.2 Zinc Titanate Beds
4.3.3 Regen Cooler
4.3.4 Blowers
4.3.5 Results
4.4 Alternative Debottlenecking Technology for Partial Combustion Claus
4.5 Cost of 10% Debottlenecking Using COPE Process
5 Debottlenecking Claus Split Flow System by 10% with Zinc Titanates
6 Debottlenecking Claus Sulfur Recycle System With Zinc Titanate
7 Effect of Zinc Titanate Debottlenecking on Existing Tail; Gas Treatment Systems
7.1 Selectox
7.2 SuperClaus99
7.3 Superclaus 99.5
7.4 SCOT Process
7.5 Zinc Titanate as a Claus Tail Gas Treatment
7.6 H2S Removal Efficiency With Zinc Titanate
8 Effects on COS and CS2 Formation
9 Questions for further Investigation
FIGURES
Figure 1 Claus Unit and TGCU
Figure 2 Claus Process
Figure 3 Typical Claus Sulfur Recovery Unit
Figure 4 Two-Stage Claus SRU
Figure 5 The Super Claus Process
Figure 6 SCOT
Figure 7 SCOT/BSR-MDEA (or clone) TGCU
REFERENCES: PATENTS
US4333855_PROMOTED_ZINC_TITANATE_CATALYTIC_AGENT
US4394297_ZINC_TITANATE_CATALYST
US6338794B1_DESULFURIZATION_ZINC_TITANATE_SORBENTS
Tube Wall Temperature Measurement On Steam Reformers - Best PracticesGerard B. Hawkins
GBH Enterprises provides guidance on best practices for measuring tube wall temperatures in steam reformers using optical pyrometers. It is important to measure temperatures accurately to prevent overheating tubes while maximizing plant efficiency. GBH recommends taking multiple temperature and background readings per tube using handheld pyrometers and an emissivity correction factor. Safety precautions like protective equipment are also advised. Detailed procedures are outlined for top-fired, side-fired and terrace wall furnace configurations.
Isothermal Methanol Converter (IMC) UA Distribution AnalysisGerard B. Hawkins
Isothermal Methanol Converter (IMC) UA Distribution Analysis - Case Study: #0630416GB/H; ACME Co. 9,000 MTD MeOH
This converter uses plates instead of tubes to remove the heat from the reaction gas. The use of the plates and the orientation allow the heat transfer within the converter to be more accurately controlled to follow the maximum rate line.
This case study examines the Radial Flow – Isothermal Methanol Converter (IMC) for ACME Co. 9,000 MTD, based on the Casale Isothermal Methanol Converter (IMC) design.
Calculation of an Ammonia Plant Energy Consumption: Gerard B. Hawkins
Calculation of an Ammonia Plant Energy Consumption:
Case Study: #06023300
Plant Note Book Series: PNBS-0602
CONTENTS
0 SCOPE
1 CALCULATION OF NATURAL GAS PROCESS FEED CONSUMPTION
2 CALCULATION OF NATURAL GAS PROCESS FUEL CONSUMPTION
3 CALCULATION OF NATURAL GAS CONSUMPTION FOR PILOT BURNERS OF FLARES
4 CALCULATION OF DEMIN. WATER FROM DEMIN. UNIT
5 CALCULATION OF DEMIN. WATER TO PACKAGE BOILERS
6 CALCULATION OF MP STEAM EXPORT
7 CALCULATION OF LP STEAM IMPORT
8 DETERMINATION OF ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION
9 DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE AMMONIA PLANT ISBL
10 ADJUSTMENT OF ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION FOR TEST RUN CONDITIONS
11 CALCULATION OF AMMONIA SHARE IN MP STEAM CONSUMPTION IN UTILITIES
12 CALCULATION OF AMMONIA SHARE IN ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION IN UTILITIES
13 DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE AMMONIA PLANT OSBL
14 DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE AMMONIA PLANT
Determination of Residue on Evaporation in Anhydrous AmmoniaGerard B. Hawkins
Determination of Residue on Evaporation in Anhydrous Ammonia
1 SCOPE AND FIELD OF APPLICATION
This method is suitable for the determination of the residue left after evaporation i.e., the non-volatile material in ammonia solution.
2 PRINCIPLE
A known weight of sample is evaporated to dryness in a platinum dish on a steam bath. The increase in mass of the dish is measured.
Ammonia Plant Technology
Pre-Commissioning Best Practices
Piping and Vessels Flushing and Cleaning Procedure
CONTENTS
1 Scope
2 Aim/purpose
3 Responsibilities
4 Procedure
4.1 Main cleaning methods
4.1.1 Mechanical cleaning
4.1.2 Cleaning with air
4.1.3 Cleaning with steam (for steam networks only)
4.1.4 Cleaning with water
4.2 Choice of the cleaning method
4.3 Cleaning preparation
4.4 Protection of the devices included in the network
4.5 Protection of devices in the vicinity of the network
4.6 Water flushing procedure
4.6.1 Specific problems of water flushing
4.6.2 Preparation for water flushing
4.6.3 Performing a water flush
4.6.4 Cleanliness criteria
4.7 Air blowing procedure
4.7.1 Specific problems of air blowing
4.7.2 Preparation for air blowing
4.7.3 Performing air blowing
4.7.4 Cleanliness checks
4.8 Steam blowing procedure
4.8.1 Specific problems of steam blowing
4.8.2 Preparation for steam blowing
4.8.3 Performing steam blowing
4.8.4 Cleanliness checks
4.9 Chemical cleaning procedure
4.9.1 Specific problems of cleaning with a chemical solution
4.9.2 Preparation for chemical cleaning
4.9.3 Performing a chemical cleaning
4.9.4 Cleanliness criteria
4.10 Re-assembly - general guideline
4.11 Preservation of flushed piping
"SEDIMENTATION"
INTRODUCTION - THE PHENOMENON OF SEDIMENTATION
Sedimentation is the physical process whereby solid particles, of greater density than their suspending medium, will tend to separate into regions of higher concentration under the influence of gravity. As a solids/liquids separation technique it therefore possesses the great advantage of utilizing a natural, and therefore costless, driving force. This section of the suspension processing Guide is Intended to provide an Introduction to the science of the subject, and the means to judge where and how best to exploit sedimentation as a separation (or other processing) technique.
As a scientific discipline the subject of sedimentation is vast with perspectives ranging from the field of chemical engineering through to theoretical physics being covered In the literature [1-11]. Good reviews of the subject, with a bias towards the engineering aspects, have been written by Fitch and Koz [12, 13]. A short summary of some of the more relevant contributions from the literature is also provided in GBHE-SPG-PEG-302 “Basic Principles & Test Methods”, of the Suspensions Processing Guides.
.
The sedimentation process is traditionally divided into ..."
STEAMING PROCEDURE FOR VULCAN STEAM REFORMING CATALYSTSGerard B. Hawkins
The document discusses procedures for steaming Vulcan steam reforming catalysts to recover from sulfur poisoning and carbon formation incidents. It describes maintaining steam flow at 30-40% of design levels and an outlet temperature above 780°C. Gas samples should be taken hourly to monitor CO2, CH4, H2S and SO2. Steaming is complete when CO2 levels stabilize over 2-3 samples after increasing the temperature. The process typically takes 12-24 hours to complete and closely monitors pressure drop and tube conditions. After steaming, the catalyst requires reduction before restarting hydrocarbon feed.
Introduction High temperature shift Catalysts
Low temperature shift catalysts
Catalyst storage, handling, charging and discharging
Health and safety precautions
Reduction and start-up of high temperature shift catalysts
Operation of high temperature shift catalysts
Reduction and start-up of low temperature shift catalysts
Operation of low temperature shift catalysts
Methanol Casale Advanced Reactor Concept (ARC) Converter Retrofit CASE STUDY #10231406
For older methanol plants, efficiency is worse than for a modern plant
• To maximize profit we must improve either
– Plant efficiency
– Plant production rate
This case study highlights the revamp of a Middle Eastern Methanol Plant ARC converter with part IMC internals, to improve efficiency and production; with no CO2 addition to the Synloop, and with CO2 addition to the Synloop.
- 250 TPD CO2
- 500 TPD CO2
Other Separations Techniques for Suspensions
PRESSURE-DRIVEN MEMBRANE SEPARATION
PROCESSES
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 MEMBRANES
1.3 OPERATION
1.4 FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE
1.4.1 Polarization / Fouling
1.4.2 Pressure
1.4.3 Crossflow
1.4.4 Temperature
1.4.5 Concentration
1.4.6 Membrane Pore Size
1.4.7 Particle Size
1.4.8 Particle Charge
1.4.9 Other Factors
1.5 ADVANTAGES / LIMITATIONS
1.6 SUMMARY OF SYMBOLS USED
2 ELECTRO-DIALYSIS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 EQUIPMENT
2.3 IMPORTANT PARAMETERS IN ED
2.4 EXAMPLES
3 ELECTRODEWATERING AND ELECTRODECANTATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 PRINCIPLES AND OPERATION
3.3 EQUIPMENT AND OPERATING PARAMETERS
3.4 EXAMPLES
4 MAGNETIC SEPARATION METHODS
5 REFERENCES
FIGURES
1 APPLICATION RANGES FOR MEMBRANE SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
2 SIMPLE UF / CMF RIG
4 FLUX VERSUS PRESSURE
5 ELECTRODIALYSIS PROCESS
6 ELECTRODIALYSIS PLANT FOR BATCH PROCESS
7 DEPENDENCE OF MEMBRANE AREA AND ENERGY ON
CURRENT DENSITY
8 DIFFUSION ACROSS THE BOUNDARY LAYER
Practical Analytical Instrumentation in On-line ApplicationsLiving Online
At the end of this workshop participants will be able to:
Recognise and efficiently troubleshoot a wide variety of industrial analytical measuring instruments
Describe the construction and operation of the most important analytical instruments
Define and explain relevant chemical terminology
Identify sample chemical formulae and symbols
Implement procedures for testing and calibration of analytical instruments
WHO SHOULD ATTEND?
Technicians
Senior operators
Instrumentation and control engineers
Electrical engineers
Project engineers
Design engineers
Process control engineers
Instrumentation sales engineers
Consulting ingenious
Electricians
Maintenance engineers
Systems engineers
MORE INFORMATION: http://www.idc-online.com/content/practical-analytical-instrumentation-line-applications-3
1. The document provides an overview of a Steam and Water Analysis System (SWAS) designed to monitor key water chemistry parameters in power plant systems.
2. SWAS consists of two main sections - sample conditioning where the high temperature and pressure samples are cooled and depressurized, and sample analysis where the conditioned samples are tested for parameters like pH, conductivity, silica, dissolved oxygen, and hydrazine.
3. Accurate monitoring of these parameters is important for preventing corrosion and deposition in boilers and turbines that can reduce efficiency and cause damage. SWAS enables plants to maintain water chemistry within safe limits and protect critical equipment.
Steam and water analysis system is designed for corrosion control in boiler and turbine in power station. To protect equipment from corrosion SWAS work in stages like Sample Extracting, Sample Transport, Sample Conditioning, and sample Analysis.
IRJET - Minimizing Steam Loss through Steam Distribution Network using an Int...IRJET Journal
This document discusses minimizing steam loss through a steam distribution network in an oil refinery using an integrated methodology. It begins with background on steam usage in refineries and typical steam losses of 20% through leaking steam traps. The methodology presented consists of four phases: 1) surveying the network and traps to identify failures and root causes, 2) replacing defective traps with improved technologies, 3) standardizing the system, and 4) sustaining failure rates through ongoing monitoring and maintenance. The goal is to reduce energy losses and improve efficiency through a comprehensive approach compared to periodic replacement of faulty traps alone. Calculations of steam losses are done according to UNFCCC guidelines to evaluate performance.
Determination of Hydrogen Sulfide by Cadmium Sulfide PrecipitationGerard B. Hawkins
Plant Analytical Techniques
Gas Analysis: Determination of Hydrogen Sulfide by Cadmium Sulfide Precipitation
SCOPE AND FIELD OF APPLICATION
This method is suitable for the in situ determination of hydrogen sulfide in ammonia plant gas streams when testing is required during catalyst reduction.
PRINCIPLE
Hydrogen sulfide present in the gas precipitates cadmium sulfide from a cadmium solution. The precipitate is filtered then reacted with iodine; the excess iodine is then titrated with sodium thiosulfate.
High Temperature Shift Catalyst Reduction ProcedureGerard B. Hawkins
High Temperature Shift Catalyst Reduction Procedure
The catalyst, as supplied, is Fe2O3. This reduces to the active form, Fe3O4, in the presence of hydrogen when process gas is admitted to the reactor.
1. The mildly exothermic reactions are:
3 Fe2O3 + H2 ========= 2 Fe3O4 + H2O
3 Fe2O3 + CO ========= 2 Fe3O4 + CO2
SYNGAS CONDITIONING UNIT FEASIBILITY CASE STUDY: COAL-TO-LIQUIDSGerard B. Hawkins
SYNGAS CONDITIONING UNIT FEASIBILITY CASE STUDY: COAL-TO-LIQUIDS
Case Study: #0953616GB/H
HT SHIFT REACTOR CATALYST SPECIFICATION
Process Specification
This process duty specification refers to a Syngas Conditioning Unit which utilizes HT Shift reaction technology on a slip stream of raw gas to produce a recombined gas stream with a H2:CO ratio of 1.57:1. This is an important consideration as the Shift reactor is not required to minimize CO at outlet, and this specification refers to the expected performance that can be achieved in a single stage reactor scheme.
The Syngas Conditioning Unit is part of a proposed coal-to-liquids complex in which synthesis gas is produced by gasification of coal for downstream processing in a Fischer Tropsch reactor and Hydrocracker unit.
Biological Systems: A Special Case
Up till now we have discussed various aspects of the separation and processing of fine solids without too much reference (except in the examples) to the specifics of the properties of the materials concerned. Though the material properties are the dominant influence on efficient process design and operation, it has been postulated that the necessary characteristics for process selection and optimization can be found fairly readily using easily-applicable rheological and other techniques. This underlying assumption also seems to hold good for biological suspensions; however, certain aspects of the behavior of these systems are sufficiently specialized for them to merit a separate discussion viz:
1 TYPES OF BIOLOGICAL SEPARATION
1.1 Whole-Organism Case
1.2 Part-Cell Separations
1.3 Isolation of Individual Molecular Species
2 SETTING ABOUT DEVISING AN EFFECTIVE
PROCESS FOR SEPARATION OF A BIOLOGICAL MATERIAL
2.1 Whole-Organism Case
2.1.1 Characterization of Biopolymers in the Liquor
2.1.2 Release of Internal Water
2.2 Part -Cell Separations
2.2.1 Selectivity
2.2.2 Cost
2.3 Isolation of Individual Molecular Species
3 Examples
3.1 Effective Design and Operation of a Process for Harvesting of Single Cell Protein
3.2 Harvesting of Mycoprotein for Human Consumption
3.3 Thickening of a Filamentous Organism Suspension
3.4 Separation of Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate Polymer (PHB) from Alcaligenes Eutrophus Biomass
3.5 Isolation of Organic Acid Produced by an Enzymatic Process
4 REFERENCES
Table
Figures
Cement plants require continuous monitoring of the process and product.
From incoming ore to blending the clinker not only is the product being analyzed (CaO, SiO2, Al2O3, etc) but a series of analyzers are monitoring the gases created throughout the process. Coal bins & mills, pre-heat towers, and calciners are monitored for CO and O2, the kiln is monitored for a series of gases (CO, NO, O2, CH4, CO2, SO2), baghouses are monitored for dust and particulate and the CEMs equipment monitors (flow, particulate, CO, NOx, SO2, O2, H2O, HCl, HF, VOC, … ) for compliance and as a last look at the process.
Whether it is the ore or clinker you're looking to analyze, the gases created in your kiln, the emissions out your stack or any of the places in-between, CEMSI provides full-site knowledge of cement production and wisdom in maximizing your product, safety, process and emission monitoring equipment and service.
The CEMSI cement solutions guide gives an overview of where you can expect our experts to help reduce capital and operating costs. CEM Specialties Inc (CEMSI) has supported cement for over 25 years with sales, service, parts, and expertise and has expanded our offerings to provide cement plants with better technology, increased up-time and confidence in their equipment.
Gas - Liquid Reactors
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
4.1 Preliminary Equipment Selection
4.2 Equipment for Low Viscosity Liquids
4.3 Equipment for High Viscosity Liquids
5 REACTOR DESIGN
6 ESSENTIAL THEORY
6.1 Rate and Yield Determining Steps
6.2 Chemical and Physical Rates
6.3 Modification for Exothermic and Complex Reactions
6.4 Preliminary Selection of Reactor Type
7 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF REGIME
7.1 Direct Measurement of Reaction Kinetics
7.2 Laboratory Gas-Liquid Reactor Experiments
8 EQUILIBRIUM AND DIFFUSIVITY DATA SOURCES
9 OVERALL EFFECTS
9.1 Liquid Flow Patterns
9.2 Scale of Mixing
9.3 Gas Flow Pattern : Mean Driving Force for Mass Transfer
9.4 Gas-Liquid Reactor Modeling
9.5 Heat Transfer
9.6 Materials of Construction
9.7 Foaming
10 FINAL CHOICE OF REACTOR TYPE
11 SCALE-UP AND SPECIFICATION OF GAS-LIQUID
REACTORS
11.1 Bubble Columns
11.2 Packed Columns
11.3 Trickle Beds
11.4 Plate or Tray Columns
11.5 Spray Columns
11.6 Wiped Film
11.7 Spinning Film Reactors
11.8 Stirred Vessels
11.9 Plunging Jet
11.10 Surface Aerator
11.11 Static Mixers
11.12 Ejectors, Venturis and Orifice Plates
11.13 3-Phase Fluidized Bed
12 BIBLIOGRAPHY
TABLES
1 REGIMES OF GAS-LIQUID MASS TRANSFER WITH ISOTHERMAL CHEMICAL REACTION
2 REGIMES OF GAS-LIQUID MASS TRANSFER IGNORING LARGE EXOTHERMS OR OTHER COMPLICATIONS
3 COMPARATIVE MASS TRANSFER PERFORMANCE OF CONTACTING DEVICES
4 COMPARATIVE MASS TRANSFER DATA
5 CHOICE OF GAS-LIQUID REACTOR TYPE
FIGURES
1 RATE AND YIELD DETERMINING STEPS
2 ENHANCEMENT FACTOR vs HATTA NUMBER
3 ENHANCEMENT FACTOR vs HATTA NUMBER : EFFECT OF THERMAL & OTHER FACTORS
4 REACTORS FOR LIQUID-PHASE KINETICS
MEASUREMENT
5 EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE THE OPERATING
REGIME
6 EXPERIMENTS DETERMINE THE OPERATING REGIME WHERE A SOLID CATALYST IS INVOLVED
7 THE MIXED ZONES IN LOOPS' MODEL FOR STIRRED REACTORS
This document provides information on steam and water conditioning equipment, including sample coolers, cationic resin columns, back pressure relief valves, pressure reduced valves, and degassed cation conductivity equipment. It includes specifications, descriptions, diagrams, and spare parts for each type of equipment.
This document discusses leak detection and repair for liquids and gases. It provides details on the types of equipment that can leak at facilities like refineries and chemical plants. It describes methods for identifying leaks using infrared cameras and measuring their size. The document also discusses implementing a leak detection and repair program to reduce pollution and costs from lost product. Regulated industries must inspect components like valves, pumps and compressors on a regular basis.
Tube bundle gas monitoring systems were introduced at Adriyala Longwall Project coal mine in India to continuously monitor for potentially explosive gases like methane and carbon monoxide. The 20-point system draws gas samples through food-grade polyethylene tubes running up to 6 km underground to a surface-based gas analyzer. Gas concentrations are monitored at locations like ventilation splits, gob areas, and conveyor belts to detect any increasing trends that could indicate a spontaneous combustion event or explosive atmosphere developing. Alarms are triggered if gas levels exceed pre-set thresholds, allowing early detection and response to potential mine safety issues.
Calculation of an Ammonia Plant Energy Consumption: Gerard B. Hawkins
Calculation of an Ammonia Plant Energy Consumption:
Case Study: #06023300
Plant Note Book Series: PNBS-0602
CONTENTS
0 SCOPE
1 CALCULATION OF NATURAL GAS PROCESS FEED CONSUMPTION
2 CALCULATION OF NATURAL GAS PROCESS FUEL CONSUMPTION
3 CALCULATION OF NATURAL GAS CONSUMPTION FOR PILOT BURNERS OF FLARES
4 CALCULATION OF DEMIN. WATER FROM DEMIN. UNIT
5 CALCULATION OF DEMIN. WATER TO PACKAGE BOILERS
6 CALCULATION OF MP STEAM EXPORT
7 CALCULATION OF LP STEAM IMPORT
8 DETERMINATION OF ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION
9 DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE AMMONIA PLANT ISBL
10 ADJUSTMENT OF ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION FOR TEST RUN CONDITIONS
11 CALCULATION OF AMMONIA SHARE IN MP STEAM CONSUMPTION IN UTILITIES
12 CALCULATION OF AMMONIA SHARE IN ELECTRIC POWER CONSUMPTION IN UTILITIES
13 DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE AMMONIA PLANT OSBL
14 DETERMINATION OF THE TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF THE AMMONIA PLANT
Determination of Residue on Evaporation in Anhydrous AmmoniaGerard B. Hawkins
Determination of Residue on Evaporation in Anhydrous Ammonia
1 SCOPE AND FIELD OF APPLICATION
This method is suitable for the determination of the residue left after evaporation i.e., the non-volatile material in ammonia solution.
2 PRINCIPLE
A known weight of sample is evaporated to dryness in a platinum dish on a steam bath. The increase in mass of the dish is measured.
Ammonia Plant Technology
Pre-Commissioning Best Practices
Piping and Vessels Flushing and Cleaning Procedure
CONTENTS
1 Scope
2 Aim/purpose
3 Responsibilities
4 Procedure
4.1 Main cleaning methods
4.1.1 Mechanical cleaning
4.1.2 Cleaning with air
4.1.3 Cleaning with steam (for steam networks only)
4.1.4 Cleaning with water
4.2 Choice of the cleaning method
4.3 Cleaning preparation
4.4 Protection of the devices included in the network
4.5 Protection of devices in the vicinity of the network
4.6 Water flushing procedure
4.6.1 Specific problems of water flushing
4.6.2 Preparation for water flushing
4.6.3 Performing a water flush
4.6.4 Cleanliness criteria
4.7 Air blowing procedure
4.7.1 Specific problems of air blowing
4.7.2 Preparation for air blowing
4.7.3 Performing air blowing
4.7.4 Cleanliness checks
4.8 Steam blowing procedure
4.8.1 Specific problems of steam blowing
4.8.2 Preparation for steam blowing
4.8.3 Performing steam blowing
4.8.4 Cleanliness checks
4.9 Chemical cleaning procedure
4.9.1 Specific problems of cleaning with a chemical solution
4.9.2 Preparation for chemical cleaning
4.9.3 Performing a chemical cleaning
4.9.4 Cleanliness criteria
4.10 Re-assembly - general guideline
4.11 Preservation of flushed piping
"SEDIMENTATION"
INTRODUCTION - THE PHENOMENON OF SEDIMENTATION
Sedimentation is the physical process whereby solid particles, of greater density than their suspending medium, will tend to separate into regions of higher concentration under the influence of gravity. As a solids/liquids separation technique it therefore possesses the great advantage of utilizing a natural, and therefore costless, driving force. This section of the suspension processing Guide is Intended to provide an Introduction to the science of the subject, and the means to judge where and how best to exploit sedimentation as a separation (or other processing) technique.
As a scientific discipline the subject of sedimentation is vast with perspectives ranging from the field of chemical engineering through to theoretical physics being covered In the literature [1-11]. Good reviews of the subject, with a bias towards the engineering aspects, have been written by Fitch and Koz [12, 13]. A short summary of some of the more relevant contributions from the literature is also provided in GBHE-SPG-PEG-302 “Basic Principles & Test Methods”, of the Suspensions Processing Guides.
.
The sedimentation process is traditionally divided into ..."
STEAMING PROCEDURE FOR VULCAN STEAM REFORMING CATALYSTSGerard B. Hawkins
The document discusses procedures for steaming Vulcan steam reforming catalysts to recover from sulfur poisoning and carbon formation incidents. It describes maintaining steam flow at 30-40% of design levels and an outlet temperature above 780°C. Gas samples should be taken hourly to monitor CO2, CH4, H2S and SO2. Steaming is complete when CO2 levels stabilize over 2-3 samples after increasing the temperature. The process typically takes 12-24 hours to complete and closely monitors pressure drop and tube conditions. After steaming, the catalyst requires reduction before restarting hydrocarbon feed.
Introduction High temperature shift Catalysts
Low temperature shift catalysts
Catalyst storage, handling, charging and discharging
Health and safety precautions
Reduction and start-up of high temperature shift catalysts
Operation of high temperature shift catalysts
Reduction and start-up of low temperature shift catalysts
Operation of low temperature shift catalysts
Methanol Casale Advanced Reactor Concept (ARC) Converter Retrofit CASE STUDY #10231406
For older methanol plants, efficiency is worse than for a modern plant
• To maximize profit we must improve either
– Plant efficiency
– Plant production rate
This case study highlights the revamp of a Middle Eastern Methanol Plant ARC converter with part IMC internals, to improve efficiency and production; with no CO2 addition to the Synloop, and with CO2 addition to the Synloop.
- 250 TPD CO2
- 500 TPD CO2
Other Separations Techniques for Suspensions
PRESSURE-DRIVEN MEMBRANE SEPARATION
PROCESSES
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 MEMBRANES
1.3 OPERATION
1.4 FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE
1.4.1 Polarization / Fouling
1.4.2 Pressure
1.4.3 Crossflow
1.4.4 Temperature
1.4.5 Concentration
1.4.6 Membrane Pore Size
1.4.7 Particle Size
1.4.8 Particle Charge
1.4.9 Other Factors
1.5 ADVANTAGES / LIMITATIONS
1.6 SUMMARY OF SYMBOLS USED
2 ELECTRO-DIALYSIS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 EQUIPMENT
2.3 IMPORTANT PARAMETERS IN ED
2.4 EXAMPLES
3 ELECTRODEWATERING AND ELECTRODECANTATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 PRINCIPLES AND OPERATION
3.3 EQUIPMENT AND OPERATING PARAMETERS
3.4 EXAMPLES
4 MAGNETIC SEPARATION METHODS
5 REFERENCES
FIGURES
1 APPLICATION RANGES FOR MEMBRANE SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
2 SIMPLE UF / CMF RIG
4 FLUX VERSUS PRESSURE
5 ELECTRODIALYSIS PROCESS
6 ELECTRODIALYSIS PLANT FOR BATCH PROCESS
7 DEPENDENCE OF MEMBRANE AREA AND ENERGY ON
CURRENT DENSITY
8 DIFFUSION ACROSS THE BOUNDARY LAYER
Practical Analytical Instrumentation in On-line ApplicationsLiving Online
At the end of this workshop participants will be able to:
Recognise and efficiently troubleshoot a wide variety of industrial analytical measuring instruments
Describe the construction and operation of the most important analytical instruments
Define and explain relevant chemical terminology
Identify sample chemical formulae and symbols
Implement procedures for testing and calibration of analytical instruments
WHO SHOULD ATTEND?
Technicians
Senior operators
Instrumentation and control engineers
Electrical engineers
Project engineers
Design engineers
Process control engineers
Instrumentation sales engineers
Consulting ingenious
Electricians
Maintenance engineers
Systems engineers
MORE INFORMATION: http://www.idc-online.com/content/practical-analytical-instrumentation-line-applications-3
1. The document provides an overview of a Steam and Water Analysis System (SWAS) designed to monitor key water chemistry parameters in power plant systems.
2. SWAS consists of two main sections - sample conditioning where the high temperature and pressure samples are cooled and depressurized, and sample analysis where the conditioned samples are tested for parameters like pH, conductivity, silica, dissolved oxygen, and hydrazine.
3. Accurate monitoring of these parameters is important for preventing corrosion and deposition in boilers and turbines that can reduce efficiency and cause damage. SWAS enables plants to maintain water chemistry within safe limits and protect critical equipment.
Steam and water analysis system is designed for corrosion control in boiler and turbine in power station. To protect equipment from corrosion SWAS work in stages like Sample Extracting, Sample Transport, Sample Conditioning, and sample Analysis.
IRJET - Minimizing Steam Loss through Steam Distribution Network using an Int...IRJET Journal
This document discusses minimizing steam loss through a steam distribution network in an oil refinery using an integrated methodology. It begins with background on steam usage in refineries and typical steam losses of 20% through leaking steam traps. The methodology presented consists of four phases: 1) surveying the network and traps to identify failures and root causes, 2) replacing defective traps with improved technologies, 3) standardizing the system, and 4) sustaining failure rates through ongoing monitoring and maintenance. The goal is to reduce energy losses and improve efficiency through a comprehensive approach compared to periodic replacement of faulty traps alone. Calculations of steam losses are done according to UNFCCC guidelines to evaluate performance.
Determination of Hydrogen Sulfide by Cadmium Sulfide PrecipitationGerard B. Hawkins
Plant Analytical Techniques
Gas Analysis: Determination of Hydrogen Sulfide by Cadmium Sulfide Precipitation
SCOPE AND FIELD OF APPLICATION
This method is suitable for the in situ determination of hydrogen sulfide in ammonia plant gas streams when testing is required during catalyst reduction.
PRINCIPLE
Hydrogen sulfide present in the gas precipitates cadmium sulfide from a cadmium solution. The precipitate is filtered then reacted with iodine; the excess iodine is then titrated with sodium thiosulfate.
High Temperature Shift Catalyst Reduction ProcedureGerard B. Hawkins
High Temperature Shift Catalyst Reduction Procedure
The catalyst, as supplied, is Fe2O3. This reduces to the active form, Fe3O4, in the presence of hydrogen when process gas is admitted to the reactor.
1. The mildly exothermic reactions are:
3 Fe2O3 + H2 ========= 2 Fe3O4 + H2O
3 Fe2O3 + CO ========= 2 Fe3O4 + CO2
SYNGAS CONDITIONING UNIT FEASIBILITY CASE STUDY: COAL-TO-LIQUIDSGerard B. Hawkins
SYNGAS CONDITIONING UNIT FEASIBILITY CASE STUDY: COAL-TO-LIQUIDS
Case Study: #0953616GB/H
HT SHIFT REACTOR CATALYST SPECIFICATION
Process Specification
This process duty specification refers to a Syngas Conditioning Unit which utilizes HT Shift reaction technology on a slip stream of raw gas to produce a recombined gas stream with a H2:CO ratio of 1.57:1. This is an important consideration as the Shift reactor is not required to minimize CO at outlet, and this specification refers to the expected performance that can be achieved in a single stage reactor scheme.
The Syngas Conditioning Unit is part of a proposed coal-to-liquids complex in which synthesis gas is produced by gasification of coal for downstream processing in a Fischer Tropsch reactor and Hydrocracker unit.
Biological Systems: A Special Case
Up till now we have discussed various aspects of the separation and processing of fine solids without too much reference (except in the examples) to the specifics of the properties of the materials concerned. Though the material properties are the dominant influence on efficient process design and operation, it has been postulated that the necessary characteristics for process selection and optimization can be found fairly readily using easily-applicable rheological and other techniques. This underlying assumption also seems to hold good for biological suspensions; however, certain aspects of the behavior of these systems are sufficiently specialized for them to merit a separate discussion viz:
1 TYPES OF BIOLOGICAL SEPARATION
1.1 Whole-Organism Case
1.2 Part-Cell Separations
1.3 Isolation of Individual Molecular Species
2 SETTING ABOUT DEVISING AN EFFECTIVE
PROCESS FOR SEPARATION OF A BIOLOGICAL MATERIAL
2.1 Whole-Organism Case
2.1.1 Characterization of Biopolymers in the Liquor
2.1.2 Release of Internal Water
2.2 Part -Cell Separations
2.2.1 Selectivity
2.2.2 Cost
2.3 Isolation of Individual Molecular Species
3 Examples
3.1 Effective Design and Operation of a Process for Harvesting of Single Cell Protein
3.2 Harvesting of Mycoprotein for Human Consumption
3.3 Thickening of a Filamentous Organism Suspension
3.4 Separation of Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate Polymer (PHB) from Alcaligenes Eutrophus Biomass
3.5 Isolation of Organic Acid Produced by an Enzymatic Process
4 REFERENCES
Table
Figures
Cement plants require continuous monitoring of the process and product.
From incoming ore to blending the clinker not only is the product being analyzed (CaO, SiO2, Al2O3, etc) but a series of analyzers are monitoring the gases created throughout the process. Coal bins & mills, pre-heat towers, and calciners are monitored for CO and O2, the kiln is monitored for a series of gases (CO, NO, O2, CH4, CO2, SO2), baghouses are monitored for dust and particulate and the CEMs equipment monitors (flow, particulate, CO, NOx, SO2, O2, H2O, HCl, HF, VOC, … ) for compliance and as a last look at the process.
Whether it is the ore or clinker you're looking to analyze, the gases created in your kiln, the emissions out your stack or any of the places in-between, CEMSI provides full-site knowledge of cement production and wisdom in maximizing your product, safety, process and emission monitoring equipment and service.
The CEMSI cement solutions guide gives an overview of where you can expect our experts to help reduce capital and operating costs. CEM Specialties Inc (CEMSI) has supported cement for over 25 years with sales, service, parts, and expertise and has expanded our offerings to provide cement plants with better technology, increased up-time and confidence in their equipment.
Gas - Liquid Reactors
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
4.1 Preliminary Equipment Selection
4.2 Equipment for Low Viscosity Liquids
4.3 Equipment for High Viscosity Liquids
5 REACTOR DESIGN
6 ESSENTIAL THEORY
6.1 Rate and Yield Determining Steps
6.2 Chemical and Physical Rates
6.3 Modification for Exothermic and Complex Reactions
6.4 Preliminary Selection of Reactor Type
7 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF REGIME
7.1 Direct Measurement of Reaction Kinetics
7.2 Laboratory Gas-Liquid Reactor Experiments
8 EQUILIBRIUM AND DIFFUSIVITY DATA SOURCES
9 OVERALL EFFECTS
9.1 Liquid Flow Patterns
9.2 Scale of Mixing
9.3 Gas Flow Pattern : Mean Driving Force for Mass Transfer
9.4 Gas-Liquid Reactor Modeling
9.5 Heat Transfer
9.6 Materials of Construction
9.7 Foaming
10 FINAL CHOICE OF REACTOR TYPE
11 SCALE-UP AND SPECIFICATION OF GAS-LIQUID
REACTORS
11.1 Bubble Columns
11.2 Packed Columns
11.3 Trickle Beds
11.4 Plate or Tray Columns
11.5 Spray Columns
11.6 Wiped Film
11.7 Spinning Film Reactors
11.8 Stirred Vessels
11.9 Plunging Jet
11.10 Surface Aerator
11.11 Static Mixers
11.12 Ejectors, Venturis and Orifice Plates
11.13 3-Phase Fluidized Bed
12 BIBLIOGRAPHY
TABLES
1 REGIMES OF GAS-LIQUID MASS TRANSFER WITH ISOTHERMAL CHEMICAL REACTION
2 REGIMES OF GAS-LIQUID MASS TRANSFER IGNORING LARGE EXOTHERMS OR OTHER COMPLICATIONS
3 COMPARATIVE MASS TRANSFER PERFORMANCE OF CONTACTING DEVICES
4 COMPARATIVE MASS TRANSFER DATA
5 CHOICE OF GAS-LIQUID REACTOR TYPE
FIGURES
1 RATE AND YIELD DETERMINING STEPS
2 ENHANCEMENT FACTOR vs HATTA NUMBER
3 ENHANCEMENT FACTOR vs HATTA NUMBER : EFFECT OF THERMAL & OTHER FACTORS
4 REACTORS FOR LIQUID-PHASE KINETICS
MEASUREMENT
5 EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE THE OPERATING
REGIME
6 EXPERIMENTS DETERMINE THE OPERATING REGIME WHERE A SOLID CATALYST IS INVOLVED
7 THE MIXED ZONES IN LOOPS' MODEL FOR STIRRED REACTORS
This document provides information on steam and water conditioning equipment, including sample coolers, cationic resin columns, back pressure relief valves, pressure reduced valves, and degassed cation conductivity equipment. It includes specifications, descriptions, diagrams, and spare parts for each type of equipment.
This document discusses leak detection and repair for liquids and gases. It provides details on the types of equipment that can leak at facilities like refineries and chemical plants. It describes methods for identifying leaks using infrared cameras and measuring their size. The document also discusses implementing a leak detection and repair program to reduce pollution and costs from lost product. Regulated industries must inspect components like valves, pumps and compressors on a regular basis.
Tube bundle gas monitoring systems were introduced at Adriyala Longwall Project coal mine in India to continuously monitor for potentially explosive gases like methane and carbon monoxide. The 20-point system draws gas samples through food-grade polyethylene tubes running up to 6 km underground to a surface-based gas analyzer. Gas concentrations are monitored at locations like ventilation splits, gob areas, and conveyor belts to detect any increasing trends that could indicate a spontaneous combustion event or explosive atmosphere developing. Alarms are triggered if gas levels exceed pre-set thresholds, allowing early detection and response to potential mine safety issues.
This document summarizes feasibility testing for an open-path cavity ring-down spectroscopy (CRDS) instrument to measure methane leaks from natural gas extraction and transportation. Several experiments were conducted: (1) comparing signal from ambient air vs. nitrogen gas, finding particulate scattering degraded the signal; (2) testing mirror cleanliness over time and with a purge system, finding cleanliness was maintained; (3) mobilizing the system and collecting data while driving, identifying challenges of vibrations, power needs, and ambient light shielding for mobile open-path CRDS. The research demonstrated open-path CRDS is feasible for methane leak detection despite influences of aerosols and pressure gradients, though particulate scattering and data recording during movement require
This document discusses methods for determining the remaining useful life of control valves used in production assets. Control valves are prone to fugitive emissions as their packing strength weakens over time. Smart instrumentation on control valves can monitor operational factors like valve modulation to predict potential leakage issues in advance. By continuously monitoring external, operational, and maintenance factors known to impact packing health and comparing them to thresholds, advanced diagnostics can detect potential fugitive emissions earlier than conventional preventive maintenance schedules. This helps reduce fugitive emissions and losses from control valves nearing the end of their useful life.
Advanced gas leakage detection using acoustic sensors newYatheesh Kaggere
The document discusses methods for detecting gas leaks in pipelines. It begins with an introduction to the importance and challenges of monitoring vast pipeline networks transporting oil and gas. It then reviews several existing approaches for continuous and non-continuous leak detection, including pressure analysis, mass balance, and acoustic sensors. The document proposes a new hybrid system using both gas sensors and ultrasonic sensors to quickly detect leaks and pinpoint their location. It concludes that while technologies are advancing, the proposed system offers a more accurate and cost-effective solution compared to other current methods.
2015-2016 Mechanical/Civil Undergraduate Senior Design
Water Treatment by Hydrodynamic Cavitation and Ultraviolet Radiation
NEED:
1. ADD DETAIL TO DISCUSSION
2. ADD TABLE FOR BUDGET SECTION
3. NAMES ON PAGES
4. Environmental Section
5. Add the solid works model
6. Cover page
7. Add decision matrices
Submitted by
Christopher Bitikofer
Sarah Ridha
Brandyn Krieger
Terran Engle
Project Mentor
Chikashi Sato, Ph.D
Draft 2 Submitted: 11/6/2015
Table of Contents
Introduction 2
Discussion 3
Detailed Engineering Specifications: 4
System Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) 5
Management 7
Budget 8
Appendices 9
Capability Statements 9
Gantt Chart 10
References 11
Introduction
Access to clean drinking water in underdeveloped areas of the world is a growing problem due to global increases in both population and pollution. Current methods of water treatment are impractical to apply in many parts of the world, as these technologies are expensive, require large facilities staffed by a litany of professionals, and the production/disposal of treatment chemicals that often have negative environmental impacts. The need to develop a method of water treatment that is less expensive, operates without the use of chemical treatments, and has relatively low electrical power usage is of profound importance. One of the most viable and promising optionsoptions is to make use both cavitation and ultraviolet light (UV). The purpose of this project is to develop a system for researching the combined effects of these two forms of water purification.
Cavitation occurs when the static pressure of water drops below vapor pressure. Small microbubbles form and slowly collapse in an energetic manner. As cavitation bubbles collapse, temperatures within the bubble can reach upwards of 5000 degrees Kelvin. Due to pyrolytic decomposition that takes place within the collapsing bubbles, the OH radicals and shock waves arecan be generated at the gas–liquid interface (A. Agarwal et al, 2011). These radicals degrade contaminants suspended within the water that would otherwise resist ultraviolet degradation. This makes cavitation a promising method of water treatment.
Ultra violet light is capable of killing bacteria and living contaminants in water. Short wavelength UV light, in the range of 10 nm to 400 nm, kills cells by interacting with their structures and disrupting DNA (NIOSH, 2008). UV light is capable of killing up to 99.99% of bacteria in clear water. This system of water purification is both cost effective and nontoxicchemical free but it cannot break down particle contaminants that bacteria tend to live in. However in combination with a particle filtration system, or in our case a cavitation system, UV reactors are simple to maintain, cost effective and chemical free.
The concise purpose of this team’s senior design project will be to develop a fluid flow test apparatus to demonstrate the degree of effectiveness of the combination of UV radi.
MASS MASTER METERING SOLUTION FOR USERS PAIN_ FCRI 2012 KS NR _2_Naimish Raval
1) The document discusses issues with traditional master metering technologies like turbine and positive displacement meters and how their performance can change over time or with different fluids.
2) It introduces Coriolis and ultrasonic metering technologies as alternatives for master metering that are more stable and accurate.
3) The inclusion of Coriolis meters in the API standards for master meter proving is a significant development that addresses users' needs for less costly and onerous proving methods.
Eric Katzen worked as an intern at NASA's Hazardous Gas Detection Laboratory (HGDL) under the mentorship of electrical engineer Reggie Martin. Some of his responsibilities included developing leak test equipment, procedures, and calibrating helium mass spectrometers. Specifically, he developed a Leak Tester Cart to test for leak rates, amended HGDL procedures to conform with industry standards, calibrated helium mass spectrometers, tested fittings for maximum leak rates, and created a webpage organizing leak detection specifications and standards. Through his work, he gained valuable experience in leak detection techniques and helping improve HGDL testing operations.
USING MINE SITE GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY FOR ACCURATE ANDScot D. Abbott
This document discusses the advantages of using on-site gas chromatography (GC) over handheld detectors for mine gas analysis. GC provides more accurate and reliable analysis of multiple gases compared to handheld detectors which can be influenced by mine conditions. While GC requires experienced personnel and investment, outsourcing GC services to a third party may reduce costs for mines while ensuring quality practices and timely results. Choosing a third party requires vetting their expertise in GC methodology, regulatory knowledge, troubleshooting, and quality control to properly administer a GC program for multiple mine sites.
The document discusses the development of ultrasonic gas flow meter technology by the company Ultimetr. It aims to solve the problem of replacing imported flow measurement devices with domestic alternatives. Ultimetr has developed three ultrasonic flow meter devices targeting the natural gas, oil & gas, and chemical industries. The technology offers advantages over competitors such as improved accuracy at low pressures. Further development and testing is needed before the products can be commercialized. Ultimetr requests 14 million rubles in capital to complete development and certification activities.
An optimised approach for the inspection of abovegroundPatrick Schüller
The document discusses a new approach for inspecting aboveground piping supports using electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT) technology. EMAT allows for the accurate inspection and evaluation of piping at support contact points, which are difficult to access visually and prone to damage. The approach uses two automated EMAT tools - the CIRC tool scans circumferentially while the AXUS tool scans axially, providing a comprehensive analysis. It can detect corrosion and other anomalies at supports rapidly and on piping up to 64 inches in diameter. The technique generates detailed inspection reports to assess piping integrity and mechanical health at critical support areas.
Pressure Loss Optimization of a Sprinkler ValveOmar Wannous
This document summarizes a bachelor's thesis on optimizing pressure loss in a sprinkler valve. The thesis involved researching fluid mechanics principles, high pressure water mist systems, and classification standards. It then conducted an extensive feasibility study and CFD simulations on the valve's design. This uncovered deviations from theoretical predictions due to simplifying assumptions. Several potential redesigned concepts were simulated, with the best concept upgraded and field tested. The final optimized design achieved the project's goal of reducing pressure loss through the valve, improving water mist system functionality for land and marine applications.
1. The document discusses standards for assessing cleanliness of components in automotive fluid systems like lubricants, fuels, and hydraulics. Small particles can cause failures, so cleanliness is important.
2. It describes methods for extracting particles from components for analysis according to ISO standards. These include agitation extraction for hollow components, pressure rinsing extraction, and ultrasonic extraction.
3. Extraction methods are discussed for assessing the cleanliness of the inner surfaces of cylindrical components like pipes and hoses used in hydraulic, lubrication, and fuel systems. Validation of the extraction process is also covered.
Dynamic Stand-Alone Gas Detection SystemIRJET Journal
This document summarizes a dynamic stand-alone gas detection system designed by R.G. Dhokte and Dr. M.H. Nerkar. The system aims to flexibly detect and monitor concentrations of toxic and combustible gases like carbon monoxide, LPG and methane using low-cost sensors. An AVR microcontroller and GSM module allow for control and communication. Compared to standard systems, the results from this system's sensors are approximately equal while being more cost-effective. The system requires 16-22 minutes to provide detection results.
This document provides details about various tests conducted as part of an internship project at Philips Lighting Limited, including surge testing, strife testing, thermal testing, and reliability testing. Surge testing detects insulation deterioration in motors to identify failures early. Strife testing subjects products to stresses beyond expected use conditions to find design weaknesses. Thermal testing uses infrared cameras to detect temperature differences that can indicate issues. Reliability testing calculates failure probability and mean time between failures to evaluate a software's ability to function over time. The document also explains flyback converter operation and limitations of continuous and discontinuous modes.
This document provides an overview of liquid penetrant testing (PT), including its basic principles and procedures. Some key points:
- PT involves applying a penetrant containing a dye to detect surface-breaking flaws via capillary action. Excess penetrant is removed and developer applied to reveal indications.
- PT can detect discontinuities open to the surface in many materials. It is often used when other NDT methods are not suitable due to part geometry, material properties, or test environment.
- The basic PT procedure involves pre-cleaning, applying penetrant, removing excess, applying developer, and inspecting for indications. Proper technique and clean surfaces are critical for success.
False air or excess air in sealed systems like boiler flue gas paths or ACC vacuum systems can cause issues like heat loss, fan inefficiency, and increased downtime. It is important to identify sources of false air, measure levels periodically, and implement remedial actions like sealing leaks. Key steps include dedicating teams to identify leak areas, take measurements, and make repairs during outages in a timely manner, as well as implementing design and fabrication best practices, online monitoring instruments, and preventative maintenance programs.
Study the effect of using ultrasonic membrane anaerobic system in treating su...eSAT Publishing House
1) The document describes a study that used an ultrasonic membrane anaerobic system (UMAS) to treat sugarcane mill effluent (SCME) and produce methane gas.
2) The UMAS combines anaerobic digestion with a membrane filtration system assisted by ultrasonic waves. This helps degrade organic matter in the SCME while enhancing treatment efficiency and reducing membrane fouling.
3) Results found that the UMAS achieved over 90% removal of biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, and total suspended solids from the SCME, outperforming a standard membrane anaerobic system. It also maintained high removal rates longer by reducing membrane fouling.
Study the effect of using ultrasonic membrane anaerobic system in treating su...eSAT Journals
Abstract
Sugarcane mill produces significant amount of wastes mainly in the form of liquid waste or also knows as sugarcane mill effluent (SCME). SCME can cause water pollution and need proper treatment before it can be discharge into water sources (river or lake). This is due to the high content of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Total Suspended Solid (TSS) and Volatile Suspended Solid (VSS).In present study, biological treatment (anaerobic system) and membrane filtration assisted with ultrasonic effect was carried out to treat the SCME. In anaerobic system, the decomposition of organic and inorganic substrate occurs without the presence of oxygen to treat high concentration of organic carbon waste such as SCME and methane gas (CH4) is produced as a by product in this process. Ultrasonic assisted membrane system is applied in the system in order to enhance the efficiency of the process in treating the SCME. Study was conducted by comparing the quality of the SCME after undergo the treatment process using membrane anaerobic system (MAS) and ultrasonic membrane anaerobic system (UMAS). From the study, it shows that more than 90% (>90%) percents of removal efficiency (BOD, COD, and TSS), and reduce flux decline is achieved by using UMAS
Keywords: Sugarcane waste water effluent, Ultrasonic, Anaerobic Digestion
Similar a Claus Sulfur Recovery Tail Gas Applying 100 Million Hours of Operational Time to the Next Generation Analyzer (20)
United Electric 2018 Short Form Product CatalogIves Equipment
United Electric Controls is a premier manufacturer of safety, alarm, and shutdown equipment, and is a a global supplier of pressure and temperature switches, transmitters, sensors, and controls for the process, discrete, semiconductor, aerospace, and defense industries.
Worcester Controls Industrial Valve and Actuator Catalog 2018Ives Equipment
Catalog for Flowserve Worcester Control industrial ball valves, pneumatic actuators and electric actuators, courtesy of Ives Equipment. Threaded, flanged, socket weld, cryogenic, Navy Approved,
Explosion Proof/Flame Proof (Ex D) Sensors for Hazardous Area Now Available i...Ives Equipment
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Claus Sulfur Recovery Tail Gas Applying 100 Million Hours of Operational Time to the Next Generation Analyzer
1. CLAUS SULFUR RECOVERY TAIL GAS
APPLYING 100 MILLION HOURS OF OPERATIONAL
TIME TO THE NEXT GENERATION ANALYZER
Randy Hauer, Stuart Simmonds, Ed Pavina / AMETEK Process Instruments
455 Corporate Blvd, Newark DE, 19702
Bob McCartney / PBF Energy Paulsboro Refinery
600 Billingsport Road, Paulsboro, NJ 08066
KEYWORDS
Sulfur Recovery, Modified Claus Process, H2S/SO2, Tail Gas Analyzer
ABSTRACT
The measurement of H2S/SO2 in Claus sulfur recovery unit (SRU) tail gas has been adequately
addressed by UV spectroscopy for over 40 years. Reliability of the analytical principle was
established in the first generation of analyzers and in the second generation sample handling was
improved to the point where automatic control if not universal is at least considered the norm.
With a deep understanding of the process and a population of 1,100 second generation analyzers
it was possible in the third generation to address failure modes external to the analyzer.
Reliability is not limited to the analyzer / sample system; it extends to the process and contains
elements of health and safety. Analyzer professionals are compelled to look beyond what we
consider our "deliverables", to address abnormal operations and bad piping design. The paper
combines extensive feedback from analyzer professionals and a survey of sulfur recovery
operators to address the external failure modes. Looking back on 100 million hours of
operational time and one year of field testing the third generation analyzer the paper discusses
reliability as viewed by the real end use customer; Operations.
THE PROCESS, DEVELOPMENT OF THE TAIL GAS ANALYZER
Sulfur recovery is the unit operation of converting hydrogen sulfide (H2S) to elemental sulfur
and is an essential block in an integrated refinery complex or sour gas processing plant. Referred
to as the Modified Claus process; in a sub stoichiometric first step 1/3rd
of the H2S undergoes
combustion to SO2 in a reaction furnace then passes through two or three catalytic converters to
2. produce elemental sulfur. The Modified Claus process is capable of ~97-98% recovery
efficiency(1)
. The primary consideration for high efficiency is control of the (feed forward)
air:gas ratio by trim (feedback) control using the H2S/SO2 tail gas analyzer.
FIGURE 1. MODIFIED CLAUS SRU PROCESS & INSTRUMENT DRAWING
Sulfur is primarily used for the production of sulphuric acid which is the largest traded chemical
commodity in the world. While sulfur does have a commodity value in most cases the driving
force for process measurement and control is largely an environmental concern. The US EPA
Clean Air Act of 1970 and the ground-breaking study by Alberta Environment on The Capability
of the Modified-Claus Process(1)
coincided with the first attempts to control the Modified-Claus
process using an on-line analyzer and closed loop control.
The first report of an on-line tail gas analyzer was a technical paper presented at the 1970
Analysis Division Symposium based on a gas chromatograph installed at the Dow Chemical
Freeport TX (USA) facility(2)
. Amoco Oil and DuPont Process Instruments published a paper at
the 1972 Analysis Division Symposium on an Ultraviolet (UV) based tail gas analyzer installed
at the Amoco Whiting IN (USA) refinery(3)
. Shortly after this in 1974 Western Research
participated in a pilot study using a prototype UV-based tail gas analyzer at the Shell Waterton
AB (Canada) gas plant.
It was already noted in the 1972 paper that “the non-continuous response of a process GC is
often inadequate to provide the close control”. Given the process dead time of 30 seconds (to 2
minutes or more at turndown) and the requirement of a continuous sampling subsequent
developments by various manufacturers were all based on UV spectroscopy with extractive
sampling techniques which remains the case today.
There is a collective experience from ~2,700 tail gas analyzers (DuPont, Western Research and
the amalgamation of these two; AMETEK Process Instruments); five models; two full
generations; and now moving into a 3rd
generation tail gas analyzer. The 3rd
generation analyzer
is the evolution of the close coupled 880 NSL (no sample line) analyzer with 1,100 units in
service and ~100 million hours of operational time.
3. It has been noted by experienced analyzer engineers that certain process analyzer applications
are much more difficult, among these being crude tower feed/bottoms and Claus tail gas (4)
.
Further to this point it has been estimated that something less than half of all process analyzers
are placed in control. Analyzers placed in control get a great deal of scrutiny from Operations.
Failure due to adverse conditions and unexpected (abnormal) results are not differentiated from
analyzer failure. Having a large population of analyzers dedicated to one process gave insight
beyond just the analyzer. A critical mass of information was acquired to look beyond the
“deliverables” to address failure modes that are external to the analyzer and sample handling.
TWO INDUSTRY SURVEYS
Looking back on 40 years of experience the 1st
generation (~1972-1997) proved UV worked, the
weak link was sample handling, steam jacketed pipe and a large volume of sample gas. The 2nd
generation and the application of a packed reflux type demister improved sample handling
reliability but closed loop control was still not universal with process problems blamed on the
analyzer. For the 3rd
generation the focus was on what could be addressed in the way of failure
modes external to the analyzer. With the aid of two industry surveys, a close study of the 2nd
generation analyzer was undertaken.
For feedback from hands on professionals a voice of customer (VOC) survey polled analyzer
technicians for their views. The 2nd
generation top of the pipe analyzer has a strong following
and many said “change nothing” in relation to the sample handling and “don’t change the size”
(meaning do not shrink it down and make the oven hard to access with gloves on). In terms of
desired new features the list included double block from the process (safety), a single steam
pressure, automatic flow control, over range measurement and improved digital communications.
The paper will expand on these aspects in detail.
A second survey was conducted to obtain valuable end user experience in addition to analyzer
professionals. Three distinct stakeholder groups in sulphur recovery were polled;
Front end engineering design (FEED) and start up engineers
SRU Operations
End user analyzer specialists (engineers and technicians)
It was deemed important while measuring reliability not to restrict feedback to just the analyzer
profession, recognizing that on many occasions Operations has a different opinion as to “the
analyzer is working”. The survey was extended to Operations, start up engineers and process
design specialists for their perspective. The spread in the response was suitable with all three
individual groups representing between 20-40% of the responses. To the question of reliability
~90% rated tail gas analyzers “reliable most of the time / all of the time”. This response was
gratifying based on a comparison question asked when conducting process training for Operators
over the past 15 years; “Is the analyzer in control mode?” for which ~25% say “No”. The take
away being that even when the analyzer is considered reliable Operations decides to use it in
manual control.
4. FIGURE 2. SRU INDUSTRY SURVEY
ADDRESSING EXTERNAL MODES OF FAILURE, PREDICTING
ADVERSE PROCESS CONDITIONS
Risk can be managed and reduced by understanding the potential failure modes of an analyzer,
its sample conditioning system and the process. The first step in the process is to define all of the
critical conditions needed to make a valid measurement. The second step is to determine which
diagnostic methods can be used to evaluate each of the conditions. Diagnostic methods require
the collection or generation of data which is then evaluated against the conditional requirements
and to provide either a direct or indirect indication of the potential failure modes. There are three
types of diagnostics that are implemented in the analyzer. They are observational, model-based,
and functional. These three diagnostic types are differentiated by the means through which the
evaluated data is collected. This data is used to predict failure and manage reliability aspects
internal to the analyzer / sample handling system and was covered in a previous paper (5).
The following expands on the methods applied to predicting and reacting to failure modes which
are external to the analyzer and sample handling system. Having a long history in sulfur recovery
there was strong confidence to enter into the process world and address problems that were
previously beyond our control. Carefully considering feedback from the process stakeholders’
attention was placed on the three main external failure modes; one is process based, one is utility
based and one is environment based.
1. Failure Mode (Process): Entrained liquid sulfur (sulfur fog, sulfur mist)
SRUs are designed to operate at a certain capacity and refinery SRUs in particular go
through a wide range of turn down according to crude slate. When a SRU goes below
half load a phenomena occurs where the over cooling of the gas stream causes sulfur to
form a fog, small sub-micron drops of sulfur that defy agglomeration in the process
demister pads (6)
. The fog can then collect on the analyzer optics. Further complicating
this is the attendant increase in process pressure (from ~1 to ~2 psig) causing unintended
increase in the flow rate of the analyzer, drawing up more entrained sulfur.
5. FIGURE 3. SULFUR ENTRAINMENT – FOG AND MIST
The remedy is to adjust the sample flow rate relative to the process pressure. Simply
measuring the flow is not sufficient and placing a flow sensor in direct contact with SRU
process gas is not good practice. The 3rd
generation analyzer monitors the pressure
differential between the process and the sample aspiration and automatically adjusts the
flow rate relative to the process pressure during the zero cycle (every 90 minutes). During
start up, shut down, turn down, plugged rundowns and any time there is entrained sulfur
leaving the final condenser the flow rate can be minimized to reduce sulfur mist take up.
2. Failure Mode (Utilities): Poor quality steam, bad steam traps
Steam traps are known to commonly fail, at any given time 20 to 30% of steam traps are
defunct. The process connection point for a tail gas analyzer depends must be maintained
at 300F (sulfur freezes at 246F). To maintain the heat integrity a custom steam jacketed
ball valve is used. The problem of wet steam or a plugged steam trap is not usually a
sudden failure. Most often it is intermittent it can come and go with wet weather or from
night to day or result in “choking” which gives the appearance of slow response. The
remedy is an embedded RTD in the process connection flange which provides an alarm.
This advanced warning is unequivocal it indicates compromised heat integrity, calling
attention to and eliminates a problem that can be the cause of intermittent failure.
3. Failure Mode (Environment): Solar gain, latent heat, internal heat release
The 2nd
generation tail gas analyzer was the first to be close-coupled to the pipe. Placing
the entire analyzer on the pipe eliminated the need for a shelter but also exposed the
analyzer to solar gain and latent process heat. On a SRU the analyzer location is, as often
or not is temperature compromised and engineering procurement Contractors (EPCs)
rarely take care to add a sunshield to the analyzer.
6. While the existing analyzer is rated to 122o
F (50o
C) there is empirical evidence in the
form of premature component failures that the internal temperature was far beyond the
50o
C rating. Solar gain is the principal cause and in some cases latent process heat but
also the internal heat release from the oven was a contributing factor.
The effect of temperature on analyzer electronics was very well covered in a paper from
ISA-AD 2012 precisely quantifying how the life of electronic semiconductor circuits is
affected adversely by temperature as indicated by the Arrhenius Equation. The equation
predicts that for approximately each 10°C increase in operating temperature mean
electronic component operating life is reduced by 50% (7)
.
One of the objectives for the 3rd
generation analyzer was to increase the temperature
rating to 60o
C without the aid of any external cooling device (Vortec cooler, Peltier
device, air conditioning). Given that the oven must be capable of 315o
F (~160o
C)
operation it was somewhat in question if the heat release from the sample side onto the
electronics side could be mitigated while also overcoming solar gain. A highly effective
thermal insulating barrier was developed early in the design phase as well as a custom
extruded aluminum convection heater replacing the off shelf oven heater. Advanced
thermal management algorithms resulted in a net reduction of the internal temperature of
the electronics enclosure by 15°C (27°F). The outcome is an industry first 60°C
specification for ambient temperature and a 75% improvement in electronics life(7)
. The
analyzer is suitable for installation in hot climates with a sunshade being recommended.
EVOLUTIONARY IMPROVEMENTS
Digital communications and the HMI (human machine interface) were obviously due for
updating, benefiting from improvements in electronics over the intervening eighteen years. For
the sample handling and photometry great care was taken not to compromise the elements that
worked well, avoid change for the sake of change. The following describes both categories.
IMPROVING ON WHAT ALREADY WORKED WELL
Photometer: For this application the measurement of H2S/SO2 does not require a high degree of
precision or accuracy. Control is a simple binary action and too much can be made of comparing
different methods of UV spectroscopy. The final control element is typically a butter fly valve
sized to control 10% of the process air in the form as a trim air control loop which is manipulated
its full range by the tail gas analyzer (8)
. In steady state full load conditions the trim air (“air
demand”) is moving inside a peak to peak band of +/- 1% which results in a +/- 10% valve
movement. Because of process dead time the peak to peak period is ~30 seconds (at full load)
and the controller proportional gain is set low. The result is the time domain resolution of a
photo-diode UV analyzer is 10x the resolution of the valve (9)
. Add to this that the control
function is binary (“add air, cut air”, it never dwells at set point). The result is accuracy is not
paramount; simplicity, support, reliability are the prime requirements.
7. The photometer for the 3rd
generation retains the 2nd
generation Xenon flash lamp and improves
upon the photometer validation algorithms. The light from the sample cell is divided into four
separate channels using partially reflective and partially transmitting beam splitters. The UV
photometer uses four separate detectors each measuring a different narrow range of UV
wavelengths. The intensity information from each of the four detectors is used to calculate the
H2S and SO2 concentrations using a factory established calibration. The temperature of the
photometer is carefully controlled to optimize the accuracy and precision of the reported
concentrations. During the zero and span cycle an automatic multi-point photometric span
calibration is performed on each of the four channels. The source pulse sequencing is
automatically varied to create an intensity calibration for each detector channel. It is uniquely
capable of automatic intensity calibration but calibration with a (manual) removable filter was
retained as customer feedback indicated this was a widely accepted method for Operations to be
assured the analyzer is working.
The dynamic range was improved to the extent the analyzer can measure 100% over range while
maintaining linearity specifications. This is especially useful during an upset giving Operations a
widow beyond the normal air control parameter. Tail Gas is one of those applications where the
instrument data sheet stays slavishly attached to the standard range, not acknowledging the
ability of a next generation analyzer to provide this valuable information. It is up to the analyzer
profession to communicate improvements such as over-range to front end engineering (FEED)
designers and instrument engineers who stay rooted to past history and dated data sheets.
FIGURE 4. PHOTOMETER
Demister: What was well proven in the 2nd
generation design was the veracity of using
demisting pads to coalesce sulfur drops. Straight gravity drainage using an unpacked column
(“cold finger” probe) works well enough when there is minimal entrained sulfur or when the
drops are large and easily agglomerate. Adverse process conditions (plugged run down, failure of
the process demister pad, sulfur fog at turndown) require a packed column and reflux action. The
sulfur demister borrows heavily from the experience of dynamic reflux (pyrolysis) gas sampling.
The subject has been extensively covered at previous symposia with reference made to the ability
to prevent clouding of optical windows (10)
. The hallmarks of a reflux sampler are surface area,
vertical mounting and being close coupled but external to the process (11)
. One of the 3rd
generation improvements borrowed from the reflux sampler was mounting the demister pads on
8. a shaft with retention rings (11)
which in the case of the tail gas demister keeps the mesh pads in
firmly in place during the hot condensate steam blow back for ammonia salts.
FIGURE 5. DEMISTER
Incomplete combustion of ammonia in the SRU process reacts with sulfur compounds to form
ammonia salts, which can plug the demister. These salts are not removed by air blow-back but
are water soluble. Hot condensate steam blow-back provides a steam propelled blast of hot water
to dissolve any salts that have accumulated within the demister. An example of what these salts
look like in the process and propensity to cause pressure drop is shown in the following figure.
FIGURE 6. AMMONIA SALTS ON CONDENSER TUBE SHEET
9. The analyzer is also equipped with anti-clogging hot air blowback feature that is automatically
initiated if plugging is detected by the smart diagnostics. The 3rd
generation demister retains the
double demister pads (316 SS top and PTFE bottom). A change was made to connect up with
vacuum compression o-ring (VCO) fittings in place of tube fittings making it easy to access and
requiring minutes to disassemble. While not yet common in the process world VCO fittings have
a place as they allow technicians easy access components inside a confined space like an oven.
NEW IMPROVEMENTS
Digital Interface: In our industry fifteen years is a typical life span of an analyzer while
graphical interface and digital communications goes through several incarnations in the same
period. The challenge is to stay up to date while at the same time finding commonality across a
range of products for human engineering as well as cost of manufacturing and ongoing support.
The next generation tail gas analyzer followed closely behind the 5th
generation WDG oxygen
analyzers and the same local HMI was implemented. AMEVision is an icon driven graphical
interface with a color display for local communication with the analyzer. It provides screens
showing trending functions, predictive maintenance indicators, analog output verification, and
time stamped alarm/event log.
Remote communication is via a standard PC web browser enabled interface (no software need be
installed) over TCP/IP Ethernet. This point raises an anomaly that is perhaps unique to sulfur
recovery but in any case is worth revisiting on every new project. Remote digital communication
has been available on 2nd
generation tail gas analyzers (two models, ~1,800 units) for the past 17
years. Of that total fewer than 10% are tied into remote digital communications. At least half
have been new SRUs, grass roots project. The question to ask of EPCs (and end users) why they
deem it acceptable to go on to the sulfur unit when it could all be done from the safety of the
analyzer shop using a remote digital connection. This has hazardous operation implications and
should be on top of the list for any analyzer engineer on a project to say “and why not?”
UTILITIES
There was opportunity to reduce the utilities. The Division 2/Zone 2 analyzer does not require an
EExP purge, this reduces the instrument air volume and eliminates damage from wet instrument
air. Steam as a utility is reduced to a single pressure. The demister pads held firm in place on a
shaft can now withstand medium pressure (MP) steam and can utilize the same MP steam
required for the process connection valve to maintain 300o
F (150o
C).
SAFETY
Hazardous Operation (“HazOp”) review is becoming more prevalent in the world of process
analyzers. It has been said that sulfur recovery is not as well understood because it is a chemical
plant in a refinery world and that is largely true. Sulfur recovery while not any more inherently
10. dangerous than other refinery unit operations has the stigma of H2S. With that in mind safety
features were added for with future requirements in mind.
Three major refining companies in the USA often require double block isolation at their sites.
This was not entirely possible in the 2nd
generation analyzer but has been implemented in the 3rd
generation analyzer with two isolation valves at the process access valve on both the sample and
the vent. The sample conditioning components are external to the process and it is possible to
remove the probe from the process under live conditions with zero egress through the ConaxTM
fitting. The sample handling components are a safe distance from the process (500 mm/18”,
which is considered the boundary for “safe distance”)
To close this subject it is worthwhile to look at the safety implications of having to work with a
compromised sample point. A modern SRU and tail gas treating unit when built as a single
project is typically conjoined with a short vertical section of pipe. When analyzer professionals
get zero input into at the piping design stage they are tied into a situation that can compromise
both function and safety. For SRU-TGTUs the problems are confined quarters (egress), access,
and process heat amongst others (9)
. It is incumbent on our profession to interject ourselves at an
early stage of a project to take a leading role in sample point selection and to take advantage of
the available knowledge base
FIGURE 7. COMPROMISED SAMPLE POINT LOCATION
FIELD TRIAL OF 3rd
GENERATION ANALYZER
A search for a suitable site to conduct field trials commenced in late 2013; the prime requirement
being close proximity to the factory located in Newark DE. There are a number of refineries in
the area but SRUs are normally only in turn around every 4 years and a pool of suitable sites is
therefore quite limited. The PBF Paulsboro NJ refinery had an available sample point location
11. and consented to installing the new analyzer by hot-tapping a process connection valve. Like the
2nd
generation analyzer the 3rd generation analyzer can be installed while the process is hot (i.e.
ingress and egress of the probe via a Conax ™ gland) as long as a one inch full port ball valve is
in place as the process connection.
The hot tap was made and the model 888 analyzer installed at PBF Paulsboro in April 2014.
Operations considered keeping the other analyzer in service in case the new analyzer required
intervention. This would have added considerable cable and utility work. Given the additional
cost, the confidence in the new analyzer was high and the opinion of analyzer professionals that
“two watches” is never good the decision was made to go solo with the new analyzer. The cut
over was made in one day and the new analyzer was placed in control by Operations same day.
During the first 4 months of the trial there were no major outages for the analyzer. There was
concern that the process connection valve used for the hot-tap was not steam jacketed but as it
was close coupled there were no immediate problems. Later in July during a cold rain there was
intermittent plugging and this was remedied with an off the shelf piece of Contra-Trace ™ from
Controls Southeast Inc (CSI) to match this specific valve body. CSI specializes in sulfur
recovery applications but the product is well applied to any analyzer heat tracing requirement
and is much preferable to wrapping in SS tubing which in this service serves no useful purpose.
There was only minimum intervention in the first seven months, modifications were restricted to
software changes, availability was >99%. Operating conditions went through the normal range of
events and the sample handling system performed to expectations with zero complaints from
operations. Given the anomalies and the degree of difficulty associated with this type of process
analyzer application the testing program allowed for up to 12 months of evaluation to observe
long term effects on the components.
In early November a heater fuse failed, it was deemed to be under rated and a larger fuse
installed. In late November/early December condensed water was discovered in the sealed
photometer box as well as on the detector board and the mystery as to how water was getting in.
Wet instrument air was quickly eliminated. After some investigation a leaking check valve from
a well known supplier was determined to be the root cause, it was intermittently failing and
allowing small amounts of wet process gas to find a pathway into the photometer. The check
valve was replaced with one from another supplier.
In late early January there was observation of something off-gassing on the optics causing a slow
decay of the measured light (compensated for but eventually causing low light level alarms). The
photometer mirrors were replaced so the material could be extracted and analyzed. The root
cause was a small silicon based seal which was replaced with another material. At the time of
writing there were no other problems. The evaluation will run until March at which time the
analyzer design will be turned over to production and manufacturing will commence.
12. FIGURE 8. FIELD TRIAL PBF PAULSBORO REFINERY
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Process analytics is a young industry (approximately 50-60 years) with a product life cycle that
can be relatively long. Most vendors think in terms of 15-20 year operation before considering
replacement. Reviewing an application with a known degree of difficulty such as sulfur
recovery is not complete without addressing the external failure modes that potentially occur
within the process. As the analyzer results are the point of contact between the process and
operations, these external failure modes are more often ascribed as “analyzer failures” and in all
cases Operations will always have the last word; “we trust it/we don’t trust it”.
First and 2nd generation tail gas analyzers have successfully concluded the measurement
technique and closed loop control respectively. Now approaching the third generation of tail gas
analyzers affords the opportunity to move beyond the borders of the analyzer itself and step into
the process world, evaluating the process and responding to external failure modes. It takes a
step further by educating the operators on the analytical technique, the sample system as well as
the anomalies of the process to arrive at a holistic concept of reliability.
Finally, it is imperative when approaching the process industry with a 3rd generation of tail gas
analyzer that a long term field trial (minimum of 12 months) has been concluded. Even with
many years of experience it takes time for hidden flaws to be revealed. Only after a successful
field trial can an analyzer be introduced with confidence to an industry that expects a high level
of reliability.
13. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank the PBF Energy Paulsboro refinery for installing the analyzer for the
field trial. In addition, to thank Bob McCartney and Ed Pavina for their support in the field
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