Computer system is made of hardware and software .The hardware understands instructions in the form of electronic charge or binary language in Software programming. So the programs written in High Level Language are fed into a series of tools and OS components to get the desired machine language.This is known as Language Processing System.
The document discusses C programming language including its history, advantages, structure of C programs, and how to write and compile C programs. It notes C was created in the 1970s and influenced by other languages. Advantages include modularity, portability and speed. The structure includes preprocessor statements, global declarations, the main function. Compiling involves preprocessing, compiling to assembly code, assembling to object code, and linking to create an executable file. Examples of a sample program, compilation errors and successful compilation are provided.
This document describes implementing various attributes of lines, circles, and ellipses using the C programming language. It includes the following:
1. The aim is to implement different attributes of lines, circles, and ellipses using C.
2. The algorithm involves including necessary packages, declaring line and fill types as character variables, using setlinestyle and line functions to draw lines with different styles, and using ellipse functions to draw circles and ellipses with different fill styles.
3. The program implements the algorithm by initializing graphics, clearing the screen, outputting text to describe the attributes, using for loops to set line styles, colors, and draw lines/ellipses with varying attributes, and terminating the graphics window.
Translation of expression(copmiler construction)IrtazaAfzal3
This document discusses compiler construction and the translation of expressions and array references into three-address code. It covers translating expressions with multiple operators into single operator instructions, addressing array elements through calculating relative addresses based on widths and indices, and using an incremental approach to only recompile modified source code.
Irrespective of devices, C language is the best when it comes to Embedded Systems. This detailed course talks about various finer details of the language.
This document discusses graphics software and its functions. There are two types of graphics software: general programming packages that provide graphics functions for use in languages like C/FORTRAN, and special-purpose applications for non-programmers. General packages use Cartesian coordinates and provide functions for primitives, attributes, transformations, and input handling. Standards like GKS and PHIGS implement official specifications to promote portability.
This document contains information about Lex, Yacc, Flex, and Bison. It provides definitions and descriptions of each tool. Lex is a lexical analyzer generator that reads input specifying a lexical analyzer and outputs C code implementing a lexer. Yacc is a parser generator that takes a grammar description and snippets of C code as input and outputs a shift-reduce parser in C. Flex is a tool similar to Lex for generating scanners based on regular expressions. Bison is compatible with Yacc and can be used to develop language parsers.
Three-phase ac motors have been the workhorse of industry since the earliest days of electrical engineering. They are reliable, efficient, cost-effective and need little or no maintenance. In addition, ac motors such as induction and reluctance motors need no electrical connection to the rotor, so can easily be made flameproof for use in hazardous environments such as in mines.
In order to provide proper speed control of an ac motor, it is necessary to supply the motor with a three phase supply of which both the voltage and the frequency can be varied. Such a supply will create a variable speed rotating field in the stator that will allow the rotor to rotate at the required speed with low slip. This ac motor drive can efficiently provide full torque from zero speed to full speed, can overspeed if necessary, and can, by changing phase rotation, easily provide bi-directional operation of the motor. A drive with these characteristics is known as a PWM (Pulse Width Modulated) motor drive.
Drives and motors are an integral part of industrial equipment from packaging,robotics, computer numerical control (CNC), machine tools, industrial pumps,and fans. Designing next-generation drive systems to lower operating costs requires complex control algorithms at very low latencies as well as a flexibleplatform to support changing needs and the ability to design multiple-axis systems.
Traditional drive systems based on ASICs, digital signal processors (DSPs), and microcontroller units lack the performance and flexibility to address these needs. Altera’s family of FPGAs provides a scalable platform that can be used to offload control algorithm elements in hardware. You may also integrate the whole drive system with industry-proven processor architectures while supporting multipletypes of encoders and industrial Ethernet protocols. This “drive on a chip” system reduces cost and simplifies development.
The document discusses C programming language including its history, advantages, structure of C programs, and how to write and compile C programs. It notes C was created in the 1970s and influenced by other languages. Advantages include modularity, portability and speed. The structure includes preprocessor statements, global declarations, the main function. Compiling involves preprocessing, compiling to assembly code, assembling to object code, and linking to create an executable file. Examples of a sample program, compilation errors and successful compilation are provided.
This document describes implementing various attributes of lines, circles, and ellipses using the C programming language. It includes the following:
1. The aim is to implement different attributes of lines, circles, and ellipses using C.
2. The algorithm involves including necessary packages, declaring line and fill types as character variables, using setlinestyle and line functions to draw lines with different styles, and using ellipse functions to draw circles and ellipses with different fill styles.
3. The program implements the algorithm by initializing graphics, clearing the screen, outputting text to describe the attributes, using for loops to set line styles, colors, and draw lines/ellipses with varying attributes, and terminating the graphics window.
Translation of expression(copmiler construction)IrtazaAfzal3
This document discusses compiler construction and the translation of expressions and array references into three-address code. It covers translating expressions with multiple operators into single operator instructions, addressing array elements through calculating relative addresses based on widths and indices, and using an incremental approach to only recompile modified source code.
Irrespective of devices, C language is the best when it comes to Embedded Systems. This detailed course talks about various finer details of the language.
This document discusses graphics software and its functions. There are two types of graphics software: general programming packages that provide graphics functions for use in languages like C/FORTRAN, and special-purpose applications for non-programmers. General packages use Cartesian coordinates and provide functions for primitives, attributes, transformations, and input handling. Standards like GKS and PHIGS implement official specifications to promote portability.
This document contains information about Lex, Yacc, Flex, and Bison. It provides definitions and descriptions of each tool. Lex is a lexical analyzer generator that reads input specifying a lexical analyzer and outputs C code implementing a lexer. Yacc is a parser generator that takes a grammar description and snippets of C code as input and outputs a shift-reduce parser in C. Flex is a tool similar to Lex for generating scanners based on regular expressions. Bison is compatible with Yacc and can be used to develop language parsers.
Three-phase ac motors have been the workhorse of industry since the earliest days of electrical engineering. They are reliable, efficient, cost-effective and need little or no maintenance. In addition, ac motors such as induction and reluctance motors need no electrical connection to the rotor, so can easily be made flameproof for use in hazardous environments such as in mines.
In order to provide proper speed control of an ac motor, it is necessary to supply the motor with a three phase supply of which both the voltage and the frequency can be varied. Such a supply will create a variable speed rotating field in the stator that will allow the rotor to rotate at the required speed with low slip. This ac motor drive can efficiently provide full torque from zero speed to full speed, can overspeed if necessary, and can, by changing phase rotation, easily provide bi-directional operation of the motor. A drive with these characteristics is known as a PWM (Pulse Width Modulated) motor drive.
Drives and motors are an integral part of industrial equipment from packaging,robotics, computer numerical control (CNC), machine tools, industrial pumps,and fans. Designing next-generation drive systems to lower operating costs requires complex control algorithms at very low latencies as well as a flexibleplatform to support changing needs and the ability to design multiple-axis systems.
Traditional drive systems based on ASICs, digital signal processors (DSPs), and microcontroller units lack the performance and flexibility to address these needs. Altera’s family of FPGAs provides a scalable platform that can be used to offload control algorithm elements in hardware. You may also integrate the whole drive system with industry-proven processor architectures while supporting multipletypes of encoders and industrial Ethernet protocols. This “drive on a chip” system reduces cost and simplifies development.
The document discusses different types of video display devices including cathode ray tube (CRT) displays and flat panel displays. CRT displays use an electron gun to create images on a phosphorus screen but have disadvantages like large size, weight, and high power consumption. Flat panel displays like liquid crystal displays (LCDs) and plasma display panels are thinner, lighter, and use less power than CRTs. LCDs have advantages such as portability, reduced eyestrain, and thin panels but have limitations like dependence on viewing angle and slower response times. Plasma displays can be large, have good color rendering, and brightness but also have high costs and power consumption.
The document provides an introduction to compilers. It discusses that compilers are language translators that take source code as input and convert it to another language as output. The compilation process involves multiple phases including lexical analysis, syntax analysis, semantic analysis, code generation, and code optimization. It describes the different phases of compilation in detail and explains concepts like intermediate code representation, symbol tables, and grammars.
Este documento presenta una introducción al lenguaje de programación lógica Prolog. Explica brevemente el origen y desarrollo de Prolog, sus aplicaciones principales como la resolución de consultas en bases de datos y pruebas matemáticas, y conceptos básicos como datos, variables, operadores, predicados y estructuras. También resume la historia de Prolog y evalúa sus fortalezas y limitaciones como lenguaje lógico orientado a la resolución de problemas.
The document discusses structures and unions in C programming. It begins by explaining why structures are used to group logically related data items of different types. It then defines a structure as a collection of one or more variables of different types grouped under a single name. The key aspects covered include:
- How to create a structure using the struct keyword and define members
- Declaring structure variables and initializing structure members
- Accessing structure members using dot operator
- Nested structures and arrays of structures
- Memory organization and copying of structure variables
- Unions share the same memory location for members unlike structures
The document provides examples to demonstrate defining structures and unions, declaring variables, initializing and accessing members, and comparing structures and
The Triangle class lab involves creating a Triangle class that defines properties and methods for triangles. The Triangle class contains private data members for the three sides of the triangle. It includes public methods to calculate the area and perimeter of a triangle using the side lengths, get the side lengths, set the side lengths, determine the triangle type, and print triangle information. The main() function constructs a Triangle object and calls its methods to demonstrate the class functionality in 3 sentences or less.
The document provides an introduction to the C programming language. It discusses the structure of a C program including character set, tokens, identifiers, reserved words, comments, data types, constants, variables, operators, expressions, statements, functions, and how to convert an algorithm into a C program. It then discusses why C is commonly used, its features such as being robust, portable, supporting dynamic memory allocation, and being efficient and fast. The document outlines the advantages and disadvantages of C and valid steps in a C program. Finally, it provides details on the typical structure of a C program which includes documentation, linking, definitions, global declarations, the main function, and subprograms.
The document provides an overview of the C programming language, including its history, features, basic structure, and how to compile a C program. C was developed in the 1970s and became widely popular due to its reliability, simplicity, and ability to create efficient and fast programs. It combines high-level and low-level language features. The basic structure of a C program includes documentation, include, define, and main sections along with function definitions. Compiling a C program generates machine-readable binary code from the source code using a compiler.
This document summarizes a presentation on digital image processing techniques. It discusses contrast-limited adaptive histogram equalization (CLAHE), histogram equalization, image intensity adjustment, adding noise, and median filtering. Methods like adapthisteq, histeq, imadjust, imnoise and medfilt2 are demonstrated to enhance contrast, adjust values, add noise and reduce salt and pepper noise through median filtering. Examples provided apply these techniques and compare results.
This PPT is for First year engineering student,It covered all about C Programming according to Rajastha Technical University Kota.
flowchart, pseudo code, Programming Languages and Language Translators, Identifiers, Constants, Variables, Basic Data Types, Operators, Expressions, type casting, Input / Output Statement, Scope Rules and Storage classes, Preprocessor and Macro Substitution.
This document discusses binding and scope in programming languages. It defines binding as the association between a name and the thing it names. Binding can occur at different times, such as language design time, implementation time, program writing time, compile time, link time, load time, and run time. The key concepts of static and dynamic scoping are introduced. Static scoping means bindings are determined by examining the program text, while dynamic scoping means bindings depend on runtime control flow. The document also discusses modules, classes, inheritance, polymorphism, operator overloading, and closures.
C was created in the 1970s by Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs to develop the UNIX operating system. Key features were added to its predecessor, the B language, including data types and structures. The C language became widely popular due to its inclusion in the UNIX kernel and the book "The C Programming Language". C++ was created in the 1980s by Bjarne Stroustrup as an object-oriented extension of C, adding classes, templates, and exceptions while maintaining compatibility with C. C++ has since become an ISO standard language widely used for system and application programming.
This document discusses algorithms and programming. It begins by defining an algorithm as a finite set of steps to solve a problem. It provides examples of algorithms to find the average of test scores and divide two numbers. The document discusses characteristics of algorithms like inputs, outputs, definiteness, finiteness, and effectiveness. It also covers tools for designing algorithms like flowcharts and pseudocode. The document then discusses programming, explaining how to analyze a problem, design a solution, code it, test it, and evaluate it. It provides tips for writing clear, well-structured programs.
Direct-view storage tubes store picture information directly behind the screen using an electron beam to write a charged pattern on a fine mesh grid coated with dielectric. A flood electron gun then emits a continuous flood of electrons that pass through the grid, attaching to positively charged portions and striking the phosphors. This stored charge pattern is what displays the image without needing refreshment like a standard CRT. Advantages are very high resolution images without flicker, while disadvantages are inability to display color and inability to fully erase selected areas.
This document provides an overview of Python programming concepts including what Python is, variables, data types, operators, conditional statements, loops, functions, exceptions, lists, dictionaries, tuples and more. Some key points covered include:
- Python is an interpreted, object-oriented programming language that can be used for many different application types.
- Variables, constants, operators, and control flow structures like conditionals and loops are introduced as the basic building blocks of Python programs.
- Common data types like strings, lists, dictionaries and tuples are described along with their characteristics and functions.
- Other concepts explained are functions, exceptions, formatting, modules and more.
This document provides an introduction and overview for a course on programming in C++. It discusses the goals of the course, which are to teach programming principles and the C++ language. Students will learn essential concepts like variables, data types, functions, and arrays. They will write increasingly complex programs and develop good programming style. The course will be assessed through quizzes, exams, and class projects. Topics to be covered include variables, input/output, control flow, arrays, pointers, strings, and file I/O. Good programming practices like readability, simplicity, and avoiding reinventing solutions are emphasized.
This document discusses the process of compiling programs from source code to executable code. It covers lexical analysis, parsing, semantic analysis, code optimization, and code generation. The overall compilation process involves breaking the source code into tokens, generating an abstract syntax tree, performing semantic checks, translating to intermediate representations, optimizing the code, and finally generating target machine code.
The document summarizes the key phases of a compiler:
1. The compiler takes source code as input and goes through several phases including lexical analysis, syntax analysis, semantic analysis, code optimization, and code generation to produce machine code as output.
2. Lexical analysis converts the source code into tokens, syntax analysis checks the grammar and produces a parse tree, and semantic analysis validates meanings.
3. Code optimization improves the intermediate code before code generation translates it into machine instructions.
The document provides an introduction to compiler design, including:
- A compiler converts a program written in a high-level language into machine code. It can run on a different machine than the target.
- Language processing systems like compilers transform high-level code into a form usable by machines through a series of translations.
- A compiler analyzes source code in two main phases - analysis and synthesis. The analysis phase creates an intermediate representation, and the synthesis phase generates target code from that.
The document discusses different types of video display devices including cathode ray tube (CRT) displays and flat panel displays. CRT displays use an electron gun to create images on a phosphorus screen but have disadvantages like large size, weight, and high power consumption. Flat panel displays like liquid crystal displays (LCDs) and plasma display panels are thinner, lighter, and use less power than CRTs. LCDs have advantages such as portability, reduced eyestrain, and thin panels but have limitations like dependence on viewing angle and slower response times. Plasma displays can be large, have good color rendering, and brightness but also have high costs and power consumption.
The document provides an introduction to compilers. It discusses that compilers are language translators that take source code as input and convert it to another language as output. The compilation process involves multiple phases including lexical analysis, syntax analysis, semantic analysis, code generation, and code optimization. It describes the different phases of compilation in detail and explains concepts like intermediate code representation, symbol tables, and grammars.
Este documento presenta una introducción al lenguaje de programación lógica Prolog. Explica brevemente el origen y desarrollo de Prolog, sus aplicaciones principales como la resolución de consultas en bases de datos y pruebas matemáticas, y conceptos básicos como datos, variables, operadores, predicados y estructuras. También resume la historia de Prolog y evalúa sus fortalezas y limitaciones como lenguaje lógico orientado a la resolución de problemas.
The document discusses structures and unions in C programming. It begins by explaining why structures are used to group logically related data items of different types. It then defines a structure as a collection of one or more variables of different types grouped under a single name. The key aspects covered include:
- How to create a structure using the struct keyword and define members
- Declaring structure variables and initializing structure members
- Accessing structure members using dot operator
- Nested structures and arrays of structures
- Memory organization and copying of structure variables
- Unions share the same memory location for members unlike structures
The document provides examples to demonstrate defining structures and unions, declaring variables, initializing and accessing members, and comparing structures and
The Triangle class lab involves creating a Triangle class that defines properties and methods for triangles. The Triangle class contains private data members for the three sides of the triangle. It includes public methods to calculate the area and perimeter of a triangle using the side lengths, get the side lengths, set the side lengths, determine the triangle type, and print triangle information. The main() function constructs a Triangle object and calls its methods to demonstrate the class functionality in 3 sentences or less.
The document provides an introduction to the C programming language. It discusses the structure of a C program including character set, tokens, identifiers, reserved words, comments, data types, constants, variables, operators, expressions, statements, functions, and how to convert an algorithm into a C program. It then discusses why C is commonly used, its features such as being robust, portable, supporting dynamic memory allocation, and being efficient and fast. The document outlines the advantages and disadvantages of C and valid steps in a C program. Finally, it provides details on the typical structure of a C program which includes documentation, linking, definitions, global declarations, the main function, and subprograms.
The document provides an overview of the C programming language, including its history, features, basic structure, and how to compile a C program. C was developed in the 1970s and became widely popular due to its reliability, simplicity, and ability to create efficient and fast programs. It combines high-level and low-level language features. The basic structure of a C program includes documentation, include, define, and main sections along with function definitions. Compiling a C program generates machine-readable binary code from the source code using a compiler.
This document summarizes a presentation on digital image processing techniques. It discusses contrast-limited adaptive histogram equalization (CLAHE), histogram equalization, image intensity adjustment, adding noise, and median filtering. Methods like adapthisteq, histeq, imadjust, imnoise and medfilt2 are demonstrated to enhance contrast, adjust values, add noise and reduce salt and pepper noise through median filtering. Examples provided apply these techniques and compare results.
This PPT is for First year engineering student,It covered all about C Programming according to Rajastha Technical University Kota.
flowchart, pseudo code, Programming Languages and Language Translators, Identifiers, Constants, Variables, Basic Data Types, Operators, Expressions, type casting, Input / Output Statement, Scope Rules and Storage classes, Preprocessor and Macro Substitution.
This document discusses binding and scope in programming languages. It defines binding as the association between a name and the thing it names. Binding can occur at different times, such as language design time, implementation time, program writing time, compile time, link time, load time, and run time. The key concepts of static and dynamic scoping are introduced. Static scoping means bindings are determined by examining the program text, while dynamic scoping means bindings depend on runtime control flow. The document also discusses modules, classes, inheritance, polymorphism, operator overloading, and closures.
C was created in the 1970s by Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs to develop the UNIX operating system. Key features were added to its predecessor, the B language, including data types and structures. The C language became widely popular due to its inclusion in the UNIX kernel and the book "The C Programming Language". C++ was created in the 1980s by Bjarne Stroustrup as an object-oriented extension of C, adding classes, templates, and exceptions while maintaining compatibility with C. C++ has since become an ISO standard language widely used for system and application programming.
This document discusses algorithms and programming. It begins by defining an algorithm as a finite set of steps to solve a problem. It provides examples of algorithms to find the average of test scores and divide two numbers. The document discusses characteristics of algorithms like inputs, outputs, definiteness, finiteness, and effectiveness. It also covers tools for designing algorithms like flowcharts and pseudocode. The document then discusses programming, explaining how to analyze a problem, design a solution, code it, test it, and evaluate it. It provides tips for writing clear, well-structured programs.
Direct-view storage tubes store picture information directly behind the screen using an electron beam to write a charged pattern on a fine mesh grid coated with dielectric. A flood electron gun then emits a continuous flood of electrons that pass through the grid, attaching to positively charged portions and striking the phosphors. This stored charge pattern is what displays the image without needing refreshment like a standard CRT. Advantages are very high resolution images without flicker, while disadvantages are inability to display color and inability to fully erase selected areas.
This document provides an overview of Python programming concepts including what Python is, variables, data types, operators, conditional statements, loops, functions, exceptions, lists, dictionaries, tuples and more. Some key points covered include:
- Python is an interpreted, object-oriented programming language that can be used for many different application types.
- Variables, constants, operators, and control flow structures like conditionals and loops are introduced as the basic building blocks of Python programs.
- Common data types like strings, lists, dictionaries and tuples are described along with their characteristics and functions.
- Other concepts explained are functions, exceptions, formatting, modules and more.
This document provides an introduction and overview for a course on programming in C++. It discusses the goals of the course, which are to teach programming principles and the C++ language. Students will learn essential concepts like variables, data types, functions, and arrays. They will write increasingly complex programs and develop good programming style. The course will be assessed through quizzes, exams, and class projects. Topics to be covered include variables, input/output, control flow, arrays, pointers, strings, and file I/O. Good programming practices like readability, simplicity, and avoiding reinventing solutions are emphasized.
This document discusses the process of compiling programs from source code to executable code. It covers lexical analysis, parsing, semantic analysis, code optimization, and code generation. The overall compilation process involves breaking the source code into tokens, generating an abstract syntax tree, performing semantic checks, translating to intermediate representations, optimizing the code, and finally generating target machine code.
The document summarizes the key phases of a compiler:
1. The compiler takes source code as input and goes through several phases including lexical analysis, syntax analysis, semantic analysis, code optimization, and code generation to produce machine code as output.
2. Lexical analysis converts the source code into tokens, syntax analysis checks the grammar and produces a parse tree, and semantic analysis validates meanings.
3. Code optimization improves the intermediate code before code generation translates it into machine instructions.
The document provides an introduction to compiler design, including:
- A compiler converts a program written in a high-level language into machine code. It can run on a different machine than the target.
- Language processing systems like compilers transform high-level code into a form usable by machines through a series of translations.
- A compiler analyzes source code in two main phases - analysis and synthesis. The analysis phase creates an intermediate representation, and the synthesis phase generates target code from that.
The document provides an overview of compilers by discussing:
1. Compilers translate source code into executable target code by going through several phases including lexical analysis, syntax analysis, semantic analysis, code optimization, and code generation.
2. An interpreter directly executes source code statement by statement while a compiler produces target code as translation. Compiled code generally runs faster than interpreted code.
3. The phases of a compiler include a front end that analyzes the source code and produces intermediate code, and a back end that optimizes and generates the target code.
This document provides an overview of the key components and phases of a compiler. It discusses that a compiler translates a program written in a source language into an equivalent program in a target language. The main phases of a compiler are lexical analysis, syntax analysis, semantic analysis, intermediate code generation, code optimization, code generation, and symbol table management. Each phase performs important processing that ultimately results in a program in the target language that is equivalent to the original source program.
This document provides an introduction to compilers. It discusses how compilers bridge the gap between high-level programming languages that are easier for humans to write in and machine languages that computers can actually execute. It describes the various phases of compilation like lexical analysis, syntax analysis, semantic analysis, code generation, and optimization. It also compares compilers to interpreters and discusses different types of translators like compilers, interpreters, and assemblers.
The document provides an introduction to compilers, including definitions of key terms like compiler, interpreter, assembler, translator, and phases of compilation like lexical analysis, syntax analysis, semantic analysis, code generation, and optimization. It also discusses compiler types like native compilers, cross compilers, source-to-source compilers, and just-in-time compilers. The phases of a compiler include breaking down a program, generating intermediate code, optimizing, and creating target code.
This document provides information about the phases and objectives of a compiler design course. It discusses the following key points:
- The course aims to teach students about the various phases of a compiler like parsing, code generation, and optimization techniques.
- The outcomes include explaining the compilation process and building tools like lexical analyzers and parsers. Students should also be able to develop semantic analysis and code generators.
- The document then covers the different phases of a compiler in detail, including lexical analysis, syntax analysis, semantic analysis, intermediate code generation, and code optimization. It provides examples to illustrate each phase.
This document provides an introduction to compilers, including definitions of key terms like translator, compiler, interpreter, and assembler. It describes the main phases of compilation as lexical analysis, syntax analysis, semantic analysis, intermediate code generation, code optimization, and code generation. It also discusses related concepts like the front-end and back-end of a compiler, multi-pass compilation, and different types of compilers.
The document provides an overview of the compilation process and the different phases involved in compiler construction. It can be summarized as follows:
1. A compiler translates a program written in a source language into an equivalent program in a target language. It performs analysis, synthesis and error checking during this translation process.
2. The major phases of a compiler include lexical analysis, syntax analysis, semantic analysis, intermediate code generation, code optimization, code generation and linking. Tools like Lex and Yacc are commonly used to generate lexical and syntax analyzers.
3. Regular expressions are used to specify patterns for tokens during lexical analysis. A lexical analyzer reads the source program and generates a sequence of tokens by matching character sequences to patterns
This document provides an overview of compiler design and the phases of a compiler. It discusses how compilers translate programs written in high-level languages into machine-executable code. The main phases of a compiler are lexical analysis, syntax analysis, code generation, and optional optimization phases. Lexical analysis breaks the source code into tokens. Syntax analysis checks for errors and determines the program structure. Code generation translates the program into machine code. Optimization aims to improve efficiency. Interpreters execute programs line-by-line rather than generating machine code.
The compiler is software that converts source code written in a high-level language into machine code. It works in two major phases - analysis and synthesis. The analysis phase performs lexical analysis, syntax analysis, and semantic analysis to generate an intermediate representation from the source code. The synthesis phase performs code optimization and code generation to create the target machine code from the intermediate representation. The compiler uses various components like a symbol table, parser, and code generator to perform this translation.
We have learnt that any computer system is made of hardware and software.
The hardware understands a language, which humans cannot understand. So we write programs in high-level language, which is easier for us to understand and remember.
These programs are then fed into a series of tools and OS components to get the desired code that can be used by the machine.
This is known as Language Processing System.
The document provides an overview of compilers and their organization. It discusses how compilers translate human-oriented programming languages into machine languages. The main sections describe what compilers do, including the machine codes and target code formats they generate. It also distinguishes between compilers and interpreters. Other sections cover the syntax and semantics of languages, and the typical organization of a compiler into a front-end and back-end. The front-end performs analysis and the back-end performs code generation. Key compiler components like scanners, parsers, type checkers and code generators are also introduced.
Chapter 1
Introduction
Programming languages are notations for describing computations to people
and to machines. The world as we know it depends on programming languages,
because all the software running on all the computers was written in some
programming language. But, before a program can be run, it first must be
translated into a form in which it can be executed by a computer.
The software systems that do this translation are called compilers.
This book is about how to design and implement compilers. We shall discover that a few basic ideas can be used to construct translators for a wide
variety of languages and machines. Besides compilers, the principles and techniques for compiler design are applicable to so many other domains that they
are likely to be reused many times in the career of a computer scientist. The
study of compiler writing touches upon programming languages, machine architecture, language theory, algorithms, and software engineering.
In this preliminary chapter, we introduce the different forms of language
translators, give a high level overview of the structure of a typical compiler,
and discuss the trends in programming languages and machine architecture
that are shaping compilers. We include some observations on the relationship
between compiler design and computer-science theory and an outline of the
applications of compiler technology that go beyond compilation. We end with
a brief outline of key programming-language concepts that will be needed for
our study of compilers.
1.1 Language Processors
Simply stated, a compiler is a program that can read a program in one language - the source language - and translate it into an equivalent program in
another language - the target language; see Fig. 1.1. An important role of the
compiler is to report any errors in the source program that it detects during
the translation proc....
If the target program is an executable machine-language program, it can
then be called by the user to process inputs and produce outputs; see Fig. 1.2.
Target Program output tFigure 1.2: Running the target program
An interpreter is another common kind of language processor. Instead of
producing a target program as a translation, an interpreter appears to directly
execute the operations specified in the source program on inputs supplied by
the user, as shown in Fig. 1.3.
source program 1 Interpreter t- output input
Figure 1.3: An interpreter
The machine-language target program produced by a compiler is usually
much faster than an interpreter at mapping inputs to outputs . An interpreter,
however, can usually give better error diagnostics than a compiler, because it
executes the source program statement by statement.
Example 1.1 : Java language processors combine compilation and interpretation, as shown in Fig. 1.4. A Java source program may first be compiled into
an intermediate form called bytecodes. The bytecodes are tinto machine language
immediately be.
This document provides an overview of compilers, including their structure and purpose. It discusses:
- What a compiler is and its main functions of analysis and synthesis.
- The history and need for compilers, from early assembly languages to modern high-level languages.
- The structure of a compiler, including lexical analysis, syntax analysis, semantic analysis, code optimization, and code generation.
- Different types of translators like interpreters, assemblers, and linkers.
- Tools that help in compiler construction like scanner generators, parser generators, and code generators.
The document provides an introduction to compilers. It discusses that compilers translate high-level language instructions into machine language before execution. A compiler reads source code and translates it into an equivalent target program. The compilation process involves several phases including lexical analysis, syntax analysis, semantic analysis, code optimization, and code generation. The front end analyzes the source program and produces intermediate code, while the back end synthesizes the target program from the intermediate code.
The document describes the phases of a compiler. It discusses lexical analysis, syntax analysis, semantic analysis, intermediate code generation, code optimization and code generation.
Lexical analysis scans the source code and returns tokens. Syntax analysis builds an abstract syntax tree from tokens using a context-free grammar. Semantic analysis checks for semantic errors and annotates the tree with types. Intermediate code generation converts the syntax tree to an intermediate representation like 3-address code. Code generation outputs machine or assembly code from the intermediate code.
The document discusses the phases of compilation:
1. The front-end performs lexical, syntax and semantic analysis to generate an intermediate representation and includes error handling.
2. The back-end performs code optimization and generation to produce efficient machine-specific code from the intermediate representation.
3. Key phases include lexical and syntax analysis, semantic analysis, intermediate code generation, code optimization, and code generation.
This document provides an overview of compiler design and the different phases involved in compiling a program. It begins with defining a compiler as a program that translates code written in one programming language into another target language to be executed by a computer. The major phases of a compiler are then described as the analysis phase (front-end) which breaks down and analyzes the source code, and the synthesis phase (back-end) which generates the target code. Key phases in the front-end include lexical analysis, syntax analysis, and semantic analysis, while the back-end includes code optimization and code generation. Different types of compilers such as single-pass, two-pass, and multi-pass compilers are also introduced based on how many times
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2. AGENDA
● LANGUAGE PROCESSING SYSTEM
● WHAT IS A COMPILER ?
● WHY USE A COMPILER ?
● TYPES OF A COMPILER
● COMPILER DESIGN
● PROS AND CONS
3. LANGUAGE PROCESSING SYSTEM :
⮚ Computer system is made of hardware and software .
⮚ The hardware understands instructions in the form of electronic charge or
binary language in Software programming.
⮚ So the programs written in High Level Language are fed into a series of
tools and OS components to get the desired machine language.
⮚ This is known as Language Processing System.
4.
5. PRE-PROCESSOR
● A special system software
● Performs preprocessing of High level language
● First step in language processing system
● Preprocessor mainly performs these tasks
i) Removing comments
ii) File inclusion
iii) Macro expansion.
6. ASSEMBLER
● Assembly language neither in binary form nor high level. It is an intermediate
state that is a combination of machine instructions and some other useful
data needed for execution.
● Assembler is a program that converts assembly language into machine code.
● Output of an assembler is an object file.
● Object file is a combination of machine instructions and the data required to
place these instructions in memory.
● Relocatable machine code can be loaded at any point and can be run. The
address within the program will be in such a way that it will cooperate for the
program movement.
7. LINKER
● Linker is a computer utility program that takes one or more object files
generated by the compiler and combines them into an single executable
object file.
● Linking is performed at both compile time and load time.
● It is performed at last step in compiling a program.
● Linking is of two types:
i) Static Linking
ii) Dynamic Linking
8. LOADER
● Loader is a part of a OS responsible for loading executable files into memory
and executes them by calculating the size of the program and creates
memory space for it.
● It initializes various registers to initiate execution.
● It converts the relocatable code into absolute code and tries to run the
program resulting in a running program or an error message (or sometimes
both can happen).
9. WHAT IS A COMPILER
● A compiler is a software program that transforms high-level source code that
is written by a developer in a high-level programming language into a low
level object code (binary code) in machine language, which is understood by
the processor.
● The process of converting high-level programming into machine language is
known as compilation.
● A compiler operates as a sequence of phases each of which transforms the
source program from one intermediate representation to another.
10. WHY USE A COMPILER?
● Verifies the entire program, so there are no syntax or semantic errors.
● The executable file is optimized by compiler, so it executes faster.
● Allows us to create an internal structure in memory.
● Allows the program to be machine independent if required(ie : no need to
execute the program on the same machine it was built).
● Helps in better understanding of language semantics and to handle language
performance issues.
● Translates entire program in other language and helps in checking for syntax
errors and data types .
11. Compiler Interpreter
Compiler generates an Intermediate Code. Interpreter generates Machine Code.
Compiler reads entire program for compilation.
Interpreter reads single statement at a time for
interpretation.
Compiler displays all errors and warning at time and
without fixing all errors program cannot be executed.
Since Interpreter reads single statement so an
interpreter display one error at a time and you have to
fix the error to interpret next statement.
Compiler needs more memory because of object (an
intermediate code) generation, every time when
program is being compiled an intermediate code
(object code) will be generated.
An Interpreter needs less memory to interpret the
program as interpreter does not generate any
intermediate code, it direct generates machine code.
Programming language like C, C++ use compilers.
Programming language like Python, Ruby use
interpreters.
12. Types of Compiler
• Native code compiler
• Cross compiler
• Source to source compiler
• One pass compiler
• Threaded code compiler
• Incremental compiler
• Source compiler
13. • Native code compiler:
• The compiler used to compile a source code for same type of platform only.
• The output generated by this type of compiler can only be run on the same type
of computer system and OS that the compiler itself runs on.
• Cross compiler:
• The compiler used to compile a source code for different kinds platform.
• Used in making software’s for embedded systems that can be used on multiple
platforms.
• Source to source compiler:
• Transcompiler or Transpier is a type of compiler that takes the source code of a
program written in one programming language as its input and produces the
equivalent source code in another programming language.
14. • One pass compiler:
• It is a type of compiler that compiles the whole process in only
one-pass.
• Threaded code compiler
• The compiler which simply replace a string by an appropriate binary
code.
• Incremental compiler:
• The compiler which compiles only the changed lines from the source
code and update the object code.
• Source compiler:
• The compiler which converts the source code high level language
code in to assembly language only.
15. STRUCTURE OF A COMPLIER
Two Phrase Complier
• Earlier, we depicted a compiler as a simple box that translates a source program into a target
program
• As the single-box model suggests, a compiler must both understand the source program that it
takes as input and map its functionality to the target machine.
• A design that decomposes compilation into two major pieces: a front end and a back end.
• The front end focuses on understanding the source-language program. The back end focuses on
mapping programs to the target machine.
• Intermediate representation (IR) becomes the compiler’s definitive representation for the code it
is translating
16. Three Phrase Complier
• The compiler writer can insert a third phase between the front end and the back end
• This middle section, or optimizer, takes an IR program as its input and produces a
semantically equivalent IR program as its output.
• This leads to the following compiler structure, termed a three-phase compiler.
• The optimizer may rewrite the IR in a way that is likely to produce a faster target program
from the back end or a smaller target program from the back end
• It may have other objectives, such as a program that produces fewer page faults or uses less
energy.
17. PHASES OF A COMPILER
• Any compiler must perform two major tasks
• Analysis of the source program
An intermediate representation is created from the give source code
• Synthesis of a machine-language program
Equivalent target program is created from the intermediate
representation.
18.
19. • Lexical analysis is the first phase of compiler which is also termed as
scanning. This phase scans the source code as a stream of characters and
converts it into lexes or tokens
• Each token will have <token-name, attribute values>
• It deletes the blank spaces and comments. Once a token is generated the
corresponding entry is made in the symbol table.
• Input: stream of characters
• Output: Token
• Example:
c=a+b*5;
<id, 1> <=> < id, 2> < +> <id, 3 > < * > < 5>
Lexical Analysis
20. Syntax Analysis
• Syntax analysis is the second phase of compiler which is also called as parsing.
• Parser converts the tokens produced by lexical analyser into a tree like
representation called parse tree.
• A parse tree describes the syntactic structure of the input.
• It follows operator precedence. The root node will have the operators and the
child nodes will have operands.
• Input: Tokens
• Output: Syntax tree
21. Semantic Analysis
• It checks for the semantic consistency.
• Type information is gathered and stored in symbol table or in syntax
tree.
• Performs type checking.
22. Intermediate Code Generation
• Compiler generates an intermediate code of the source code for the
target machine.
• It generates abstract code. It is in between the high-level language and
the machine language.
• This intermediate code should be generated in such a way that it makes it
easier to be translated into the target machine code.
• It uses three address code and used some temporary variables.
t1 = int to float <5>
t2 = <id,3>* t1
t3 = <id,2> + t2
<id,1> = t3
23. Code Optimization
• Code optimization phase produces optimized intermediate code as output. It results in
faster running machine code.
• It can be done by reducing the number of lines of code for a program.
• During the code optimization, the result of the program is not affected.
• To improve the code generation, the optimization involves
⮚ Deduction and removal of dead code (unreachable code).
⮚ Calculation of constants in expressions and terms.
⮚ Collapsing of repeated expression into temporary string.
⮚ Moving code outside the loop.
⮚ Removal of unwanted temporary variables.
t1 = <id,3>* <5.0>
<id,1>= <id,2> + t1
24. Code Generation
• It gets input from code optimization phase and produces the target code or object code as result.
• Intermediate instructions are translated into a sequence of machine instructions that perform
the same task.
• The code generation involves
o Allocation of register and memory.
o Generation of correct references.
o Generation of correct data type.
o Generation of missing code.
MOV R1,<id,3>
MUL R1, #5.0
MOV R2<id,2>
ADD R1,R2
MOV <id,1>,R
25. Symbol Table Management
• The symbol table is a data structure containing a record of each variable name with fields
for the attributes of the name.
• The data structure should be designed to allow the complier to find the record for each
name quickly and to store or retrieve data from that record quickly.
• It is built in lexical and syntax analysis phases.
• The information is collected by the analysis phases of compiler and is used by synthesis
phases of compiler to generate code.
• It is used by compiler to achieve compile time efficiency.
31. Pros and Cons of C for compiler
development
• Compiler uses methods like lexical analyzer which converts parsed
data into an executable binary code which when developed C could
construct a specialized and potentially more efficient processor for
the task.
• But additional runtime overhead is required to generate and debug
lexer table ,tokens.
• Many lexical tool applications are developed using C language.
Ex:lex
32. • In syntax analysis all types of syntax errors and position at which it
has occurred will be found
• The main feature of C is a simple set of keywords ,syntax and a clean
style which makes it suitable for this phase.
• The main drawback in syntax analysis phase is cannot determine
whether a token is valid or not.
• Code optimization is an approach for enhancing the performance of
the code when developed using C the compiler optimizes the code
for faster execution.
• C compiler produces the machine code very fast compared to other
language compilers.
33. • C compiler can compile around 1000 lines of code in a second or two.
• Low level access to memory.
• Tail call optimization is not supported.It is a method to avoid new
stack frame for a function because the calling function will simply
return a value that it gets from the called function.
• C language does not have an automatic garbage collection so code
optimization may have a little lack due to this.
• Efficient exception handling is not possible in C.