Research on World Agricultural Economy | Vol.3,Iss.2 June 2022

Editor-in-Chief
Associate Editor
Cheng Sun
Jesus Simal-Gandara
Editorial Board Members
China branch of world productivity Federation of science and technology; Beijing world science and technology
research and Development Center for productivity, China
University of Vigo, Spain
Alberto J. Nunez-Selles Universidad Nacional Evangelica (UNEV), Dominican Republic
Jiban Shrestha National Plant Breeding and Genetics Research Centre, Nepal
Zhiguo Wang China Association for Science and Technology, China
Xiaoyong Huang International Energy Security Research Center, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, China
Geeth Gayesha Hewavitharana University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka
Alamgir Ahmad Dar Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology, India
Xiuju Zhang Hunan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China
Keshav D Singh Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC), Canada
K. Nirmal Ravi Kumar Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University, India
Lijian Zhang Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China
Zhengbin Zhang Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
Ruhong Mei China Agricultural University, China
Mingzao Liang Institute of Agricultural Resources and Agricultural Regional Planning, Chinese Academy of
Agricultural Sciences, China
Rishi Ram Kattel Agriculture and Forestry University, Nepal
Yunbiao Li Jilin University, China
Zhizhong Huang Shandong High-end Technology Engineering Research Institute, China
Jianping Zhang Chinese Academy of International Trade and Economic Cooperation, China
Lin Shen China Agricultural University, China
Juan Sebastián Castillo Valero Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Spain
Kassa Tarekegn Southern Agricultural Research Institute, Ethiopia
Shahbaz Khan National Agricultural Research Centre, Pakistan

Volume 3 Issue 2 • June 2022 • ISSN 2737-4777 (Print) 2737-4785 (Online)
Research on World
Agricultural Economy
Editor-in-Chief
Cheng Sun

Volume 3 ｜ Issue 2 ｜ June 2022 ｜ Page1-58
Research on World Agricultural Economy
Contents
Research Articles
25 Competitiveness of Indian Agricultural Exports: A Constant Market Share Analysis
K. Nirmal Ravi Kumar
48 Land Use, Productivity, and Profitability of Traditional Rice–Wheat System Could be Improved by
Conservation Agriculture
Mohammad Mobarak Hossain Mahfuza Begum Richard W Bell
Review Articles
1 Review of the Role of Orphan Crops in Food Security
Ashebir Seyoum Feyisa
15 Methods of Rice Technology Adoption Studies in the Philippines and Other Asian Countries:
A Systematic Review
Ryan Mark A. Ambong
39 Role of Agroforestry on Farmland Productivity in Semi-arid Farming Regions of Zimbabwe
Cosmas Parwada Justin Chipomho Nyamande Mapope Edmore Masama Kennedy Simango

1
https://ojs.nassg.org/index.php/rwae
Copyright © 2022 by the author(s). Published by NanYang Academy of Sciences Pte. Ltd. This is an open access article under the Creative
Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).
Research on World Agricultural Economy | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | June 2022
*Corresponding Author:
Ashebir Seyoum Feyisa,
Department of Plant Science, College of Agriculture and Natural Resource, Bonga University, Bonga, Ethiopia;
Email: ashebirseyoum20@gmail.com
Received: 6 March 2022; Received in revised form: 1 April 2022; Accepted: 12 April 2022; Published: 28 April 2022
Citation: Feyisa, A.S., 2022. Review of the Role of Orphan Crops in Food Security. Research on World Agricultural
Economy. 3(2), 501. http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v3i2.501
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v3i2.501
REVIEW ARTICLE
Review of the Role of Orphan Crops in Food Security
Ashebir Seyoum Feyisa*
Department of Plant Science, College of Agriculture and Natural Resource, Bonga University, Bonga, Ethiopia
Abstract: Ethiopia is one of the most populated countries in Africa. Agriculture employs over 70% of the population.
It is dominated by small-scale farmers who practice rain-fed mixed farming by using traditional technology, adopting
a low input and low output production system. As a result, it is vulnerable to adverse weather conditions. Cereal crops
provide food for the majority of Ethiopians, so most agricultural transformation plans prioritize increasing cereal
crop productivity. However, about five million people experience food insecurity each year and require support.
Population growth, environmental degradation, conflict, and climate change are the most serious threats to the nation’s
food security. In a time when the food supply cannot keep up with population expansion, there is a need for holistic
solutions to development-related issues such as food insecurity, malnutrition, and poverty. Despite Ethiopia being a
center of origin and diversity for several food crops, the potential benefits of underutilized indigenous crops are yet not
exploited. However, they can play a significant part in human nutrition, income, and medicinal value. As a result, crop
diversification may be the best choice for achieving household food security. One way to help the nation’s food systems
diversify is to include more orphan crops. Even though a small portion of the country’s land is dedicated to underused
crops, more than 20% of the population relies on them for food. Orphan crops, such as inset, which can feed 100 million
people, can help to attain food security in Ethiopia. As a result, promoting and researching these crops is the most
sustainable strategy for lowering and managing poverty and food insecurity in Ethiopia.
Keywords: Agricultural policy; Cassava; Ensete; Food insecurity; Root crops
1. Introduction
Why did the country of human origin and ancient civi-
lization become a symbol of poverty and famine? How
can a nation where more than half of the population en-
gages in farming suffer from food insecurity? How did
poverty bring Ethiopia, the epitome of African independ-
ence, to its knees? These are the kinds of queries that
all citizens have. We need to illustrate each agricultural
growth barrier to provide accurate and practical solutions
to such challenges. To manage the existing obstacles: it is
necessary to look deep into the country’s agricultural sector.
Agriculture is the foundation of Ethiopia’s economy,
and 82 percent of the country’s population lives in rural
areas that depend solely on it [1]
. It is the economy’s back-
bone, accounting for approximately 32.7% of total GDP [2]
,

2
contributes 79 percent of foreign earnings, and is one of
the most important sources of raw materials and capital
for investment and market. It is also the most source of
employment, accounting for roughly 73 percent of total
jobs [1]
. The sector is dominated by small-scale farmers
who practice rain-fed mixed farming by employing tra-
ditional technology, adopting a low input and low output
production system [3]
. Despite various Ethiopian govern-
ments’ efforts over the last half-century or more to turn the
country from an agriculture-based economy to a manufac-
turing hub, agriculture continues to be the most key sector
in terms of employment, revenue, and food security [4]
.
However, it is renowned for the recurrent food shortages
caused by droughts, natural catastrophes, pests, a lack of
rainfall, and a lack of technical developments. In addition,
poor productivity resulted in an unbalance between popu-
lation and production, resulting in the extension of the
agricultural area through deforestation and rangelands.
The world’s population is anticipated to reach 9.8 bil-
lion by 2050 [5]
. According to Tilman et al. [6]
, to feed all
those people by 2050, the world would need to produce
70% more food than it does today. However, the circum-
stances do not favor completing such a massive assign-
ment. Currently, almost 800 million people are malnour-
ished, 2 billion are micronutrient-deficient, and another 2
billion are overweight or obese. More than 50% of the Af-
rican population is exposed to moderate or severe food in-
security. The highest level of food insecurity was recorded
in East Africa (63% of the population, or 272 million) [7]
.
In Ethiopia, food insecurity is a significant challenge. De-
spite various efforts by the government and non-govern-
mental organizations to support and improve the lives of
millions of poor farmers, the majority of the population is
food insecure, an estimated 20.4 million people currently
require food assistance [8]
. The nation’s food security situ-
ation is inextricably tied to severe, periodic food shortages
and famine caused by continuous drought. Ethiopia is
particularly vulnerable to severe seasonal droughts, which
have occurred every decade since 1953. The droughts
have resulted in widespread crop loss and livestock fatali-
ties. As a result, inflation and food prices have risen, in-
creasing displacement and soaring malnutrition rates.
The FAO [9]
highlighted three significant factors for the
growth of food insecurity in East Africa: violent conflicts,
climatic adversity, and the global economic environ-
ment. Climate change is making the world less suited
for agriculture. A 2 °C increase in average temperatures
is projected to create dramatic alterations in seasons and
agricultural production [10]
. Drought devastated 363 mil-
lion people in Sub-Saharan Africa alone between 1980
and 2014 [11]
. According to Pacillo et al. [12]
, climate also
exacerbates existing household risks and vulnerabilities,
increasing the likelihood and intensity of the conflict.
Conflicts in Northern Ethiopia have made plowing ex-
tremely difficult since oxen needed to till farmlands have
been looted and deliberately slaughtered. Furthermore, ag-
ricultural supplies such as seeds and fertilizer were scarce.
Moreover, the conflict between Russia and Ukraine has
already harmed global wheat prices. Ethiopia, which re-
lies on wheat imports, is especially vulnerable to possible
wheat price shocks since it is already suffering from in-
ternal socioeconomic and climatic shocks, both of which
have resulted in high food prices.
To reduce the impact of climate change and increase/
maintain world food production. There two potential ap-
proaches can be pursued. The first involves increasing
yield per unit area of crops through genetic enhancement
and improved agronomic practices [13]
. Second, there
should be breeding activities for stress tolerance and re-
source efficiency in marginal areas, and more research
must work toward the introduction, assessment, and ad-
aptation of underutilized crops for nutritional diversifica-
tion. For example, Demeke [14]
claims that 60 mature enset
plants (Orphan crop) may offer adequate food for a house-
hold of five to six people over the course of a year when
consumed with other dietary components.
Ethiopia is rich in biological resources. It had men-
tioned by several scientists that the country exhibit
extraordinary genetic diversity in crops such as barley
(Hordeum Vulgare), Wheat (Triticum spp.), sorghum
(Sorghum bicolor), teff (Eragrostis tef), sesame (Sesame
Indicum), Enset, Anchote, and other lesser-known but po-
tential species of plants. Ethiopia is the center of diversity
for eleven cultivated crop species that have been identi-
fied [15]
. Despite being a center of food crop diversity and
domestication, Ethiopia has been the largest receiver of
targeted food aid [16]
. It is ranked 174 out of 188 nations in
the 2015 UN Human Development Index, and 104 out of
119 in the Global Hunger Index [17]
. Rural poverty is also
prevalent, with 30.4 percent of rural households living in
poverty. According to the FAO [18]
, both chronic and tran-
sitory food insecurity persist at the family level, and mil-
lions of people remain susceptible as a result of various
shocks and pressures. On average, 32% and 40% of Ethio-
pia’s population are malnourished, and they consume less
than the required daily calorie intake [19]
.
The country’s rapidly growing population, low agri-
cultural production, food insecurity, and reliance on food
imports all highlight the importance of a comprehensive
agricultural policy. Agricultural policies, in general, are
the laws that govern agricultural activity as a whole and
play a significant role in agricultural economic growth [20]
.

3
According to a large body of literature, governments de-
fine and decide on policies, commonly to achieve specific
goals. Agricultural policy, for example, could be described
as the maximization of agricultural output following con-
sumer demand. Agricultural policy is critical for countries,
particularly Ethiopia because it affects food security, wa-
ter, the environment, jobs, and the economy. Since 1991,
Ethiopia’s government has implemented a variety of agri-
cultural policies to eradicate poverty. The most visible and
long-lasting economy-wide strategy to guide development
efforts has been agricultural development-led industriali-
zation [21]
.
According to some reports, food insecurity is a struc-
tural problem in many rural parts of Ethiopia. Even in
years with abundant rainfall and pleasant weather, mil-
lions of Ethiopians have always been at risk of starvation.
Approximately 10% of Ethiopians are chronically food
insecure, 2.7 million people required emergency food as-
sistance in 2014, and 238,761 children require treatment
for severe and acute malnutrition [22]
. As a result, short-
term crisis response solutions cannot address the underly-
ing source of the problem. It necessitates looking beyond
the immediate stimuli, such as extreme weather events. As
a result, an alternative food crop that can help to reduce
climate change while also producing a reasonable yield
in unpredictable weather should be available. Given the
country’s current food crop deficit, crop diversification
can be a critical option. One opportunity to support food
system diversification in Ethiopia is through the greater
inclusion of orphan crops.
As a result, this review had been conducted to analyze
the potential of some selected orphan or underutilized
crops for enhanced food and nutrition security in Ethiopia,
emphasizing the beneficial aspects of these crops as well
as their relevance in Ethiopia’s socioeconomics. Finally,
it seeks to demonstrate how orphan crops might become
a game-changer in Ethiopia’s food crisis issue if govern-
ment policies encourage the agricultural community to
embrace these crops on a large scale.
2. Impediments to Ethiopian Agriculture Growth
and Development
In Ethiopia, food security is the great challenge and
most crucial constraint to further growth and develop-
ment concerning agriculture. This condition has arisen a
strong dependence on rain-fed agriculture. Ethiopian ag-
riculture had characterized by cereal crop production, but
productivity remains poor. A significant amount of money
is invested in agricultural extension programs to boost ce-
real crop production and productivity. However, domestic
demand for cereal crops is increasing, and the government
has been importing cereal crops, especially wheat, to bal-
ance the domestic market for the past ten years. Despite
the government’s efforts to ensure the nation’s food secu-
rity, poverty affects a large population. According to De-
gefa and Anbessa [23]
, food insecurity is on the rise, with
55 percent of farmers unable to feed their families for
more than six months. Every year, at least seven million
people require food assistance because efforts to address
the problem through grain-led approaches have failed to
keep up with population growth. Furthermore, Ethiopian
trade statistics show that the country imports nearly $2
billion in food products each year. In line with this, the
additional impact of conflict, climate variability, and eco-
nomic slowdowns and downturns raise the effect of food
insecurity and threaten food safety.
Ethiopia’s agricultural output is complex, with significant
variation in crop types grown across various regions and
ecosystems. Teff (local small grain), wheat, barley, corn,
sorghum, and millet are the significant grain crops grown in
the country. These crops are primarily rainfed and produced
throughout the country. Despite the increased area of cereal
crops production, most cereal crops in the country have seen
an increase in demand and price. For instance, according to
Anteneh & Asrat [24]
, wheat demand will increase by 90%,
while supply will grow by 73%, implying that there will be
a supply deficit in the future. This predicament has arisen
in population growth, urbanization, and food habit changes.
Maize production in Ethiopia is estimated to reach 8.63 mil-
lion tonnes in 2021/2022. This increase in production was
caused by the use of improved hybrid seed and increased
demand as feed for both humans and livestock. Despite the
production rise, the country expected to import 35,000 tonnes
for food aid.
Ethiopia is currently dealing with a difficult situation
in terms of foreign exchange earnings. It is due to unbal-
anced trade between foreign countries. Thus, the bor-
rowing required to finance this trade deficit has resulted
in a high foreign exchange shortage and debt burden.
Ethiopia’s public debt was 53,667 million dollars in 2020,
a decrease of 29 million dollars since 2019. This amount
means that the debt in 2020 will be 55.43 percent of Ethi-
opia’s GDP, a 2.49 percentage point decrease from 2019
when it was 57.92 percent of GDP (ICIS, 2020). The cur-
rent conflict in the country’s north will exacerbate the situ-
ation. Aside from the population that requires annual food
aid assistance due to natural disasters, millions more peo-
ple have joined the food aid support list. Aside from the
humanitarian crisis, the conflict has impacted agricultural
production because it began during the cropping season.
Moreover, the military expenses related to the conflict and
the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in pro-

4
duction and export contractions, with an ensuing further
degradation of the economic environment. The conflict
also reduced sesame production, as 40 percent of produc-
tion was in the conflict zone. The one thing we should
remember is that oil crops are the country’s second-largest
export earner after coffee. As a result, the country’s ex-
port earnings will be under pressure. It indicated that the
country had in the wrong direction in terms of strategy.
Thus, new developmental strategies are needed to restore
economic growth and mitigate the consequence of human-
made famine which, starts to knock on the country’s door.
Various findings indicate that emphasizing agriculture in
Ethiopia necessitates political and economic commitment
from all parties involved [25]
.
2.1 Agricultural Policy
The Ethiopian economy is heavily reliant on agriculture
as the primary source of employment, foreign exchange
earnings, and food security for the vast majority of the
country’s population. However, agricultural performance
was unsatisfactory, as poverty remained a significant fea-
ture of the country in the world. In this regard, the lack of
appropriate policies and strategies had viewed as the root
cause of the sector’s previous stagnation. As a result, to
address this issue and promote agricultural growth as an
engine for the industry and the overall economy, the gov-
ernment devised the Agricultural Development Led Indus-
trialization national development strategy (ADLI) [26]
. The
policy prioritizes modernizing smallholder agriculture and
increasing yield productivity through appropriate technol-
ogy, certified seeds, fertilizers, rural credit facilities, and
technical assistance. The policy made changes, particularly
in the area of chronic poverty alleviation. It had, however,
failed to fulfill its primary goal of expanding the indus-
try’s contribution to national GDP. Furthermore, the poli-
cy provided little attainment for pastoral development [27]
.
As a result, domestic supply shortages of agricultural and
manufacturing commodities are significant causes of Ethi-
opia’s current inflation, high food prices, which primarily
affect the welfare of low-income households [20]
.
Despite the government’s commitment and an admira-
ble strong reputation of agricultural support, the sector has
underperformed. Several findings suggest that to transform
the nation’s agricultural strategy, there must be a clear un-
derstanding of the complex issues involved, evidence-based
analysis and policy recommendations, and consideration of
alternative options [28]
. In addition, the agricultural transfor-
mation is required to facilitate the transition of an economy
from natural-based activities to manufacturing and services.
Because as agricultural productivity increases to its full po-
tential, it will be able to provide affordable food and other
raw materials to support structural change while also allocat-
ing labor and capital for other sectors. However, Ethiopia’s
agricultural sector performs poorly. As a result, the govern-
ment must commit to improving the performance of this
critical sector of the economy.
2.2 Commitment and Prioritization
The government played a critical role in educating peo-
ple about the importance of rural development and ensur-
ing a stable rural economy. Governments must begin by
establishing rural development as a national mission, and
they must do so in consultation with the people. Farmers
no longer had to be concerned about who would buy their
products. They could concentrate their efforts on growing
them as much as possible. The farmer was not in charge
of the entire supply chain. However, in Ethiopia, the value
chain of the majority of stable crops was semi-structured,
and the government placed a special emphasis on cash
crops such as coffee and sesame, which are the country’s
main export commodities. Maize is one of the most sig-
nificant contributors to Ethiopia’s economic and social
development. In Ethiopia, maize is grown by more than 9
million smallholder households, more than any other crop.
Maize productivity and output have more than doubled in
the last two decades. The yield, 4.3 tons/ha in 2020, is the
second-highest in Sub-Saharan Africa [29]
. Several stud-
ies have found that if yield potentials are realized, maize
can help to improve food security. However, several con-
straints exist throughout the maize value chain, including
drawbacks in production, aggregation, and trading, as well
as demand sinks or end markets [30]
.
Wheat is a significant stable and cash crop in Ethiopia,
contributing to increased income, food security, employ-
ment, and national GDP growth [31]
. Even though wheat
productivity showed an increasing trend in the past two
decades, there is still a 20% deficit that must be met
through imports. When compared to maize, the wheat
value chain is semi-structured and superior. However, a
lack of market information leads to uncontrollable price
increases [32]
. As a result, the government took on signifi-
cant responsibility in developing policies and programs
to ensure that farmers received all of the assistance they
required to succeed.
The government must also play a critical role in prior-
itizing the allocation of limited resources. It should con-
sult with stakeholders over which crop products to invest
in. Furthermore, crop selection should take into account
both food security and imports. According to Yigezu [25]
,
Ethiopia has a diverse range of climates and soil types,
allowing it to cultivate a diverse range of horticultural
crops. Furthermore, the country has a sizable labor force

5
as well as plentiful water resources. Its proximity to Mid-
dle Eastern markets benefits imports of fruits and vegeta-
bles. As a result, concentrating on agriculture in Ethiopia
necessitates both political and economic commitment
from all parties involved.
2.3 Agricultural Research and Development
Despite the availability of several improved agri-
cultural technologies developed by Ethiopia’s research
system over the last four decades, smallholder farmers
have adopted these innovations at a very low rate. As a
result, agricultural productivity has stagnated and, crop
yields have been low, exposing the country to recurring
food shortages and national food insecurity [29]
. Agricul-
tural research in the country focused on developing new
technologies, primarily through on-station research, to
reach farmers through the public-sector extension system.
Despite several research centers and more than 40 public
universities in the country, the small-scale farmer still
uses traditional production tools. The government put a
large amount of money into agricultural research activi-
ties. However, most researches had done for the sake of
benefiting researchers. As a result, scientists should assess
how applicable their research findings are and how much
they contribute to agricultural development. Furthermore,
research activities should be directed toward farmer de-
mand rather than quality.
Ethiopia’s agricultural sector can be transformed if the
government implements a triangle system that includes in-
teractions between farmers, extension, and research. The
government prioritized extension and committed funding.
In 1994, the government implemented the Agricultural De-
velopment Led Industrialization Strategy (ADLI). In 1995,
a new extension approach, Participatory Demonstration
and Training Extension System (PADETES) had adopted
within the framework of ADLI. The strategy enabled
the establishment of nearly 12,500 farmer training cent-
ers across Ethiopia, and approximately 83,000 DAs had
trained in total, with a reported 56,000 staffed on-site [33]
.
According to Berhane et al. [33]
, an extension system
promotes modern inputs such as chemical fertilizers, im-
proved seeds, herbicides, and irrigation. However, it has
an indirect effect on increasing productivity levels. Fur-
thermore, the authors argue that agricultural productivity
increases in Ethiopia are not yet knowledge-driven. There-
fore, the agricultural extension system should change to
become more knowledge-driven and problem-solving.
The government also has a responsibility to enhance
the number of extension workers. There are 21 develop-
ment agents (DAs) per 10,000 farmers, with even more in
high-potential areas [33]
. A ratio of around one worker for
every 476 farmers. Despite these efforts to improve the
extension system’s effectiveness and efficiency, the sys-
tem is not yielding the desired results. Many technologies
for increasing yield and quality have been developed in
agriculture, but they are not reaching smallholder farmers.
Similarly, the agricultural sector is underutilized in food
self-sufficiency and poverty reduction. It is due to inef-
fective implementation and, lack of strategic intervention.
Agricultural extension workers are frequently used as a
political tool to deal with the nation’s majority population.
There will be a change in the sector if there is a genuine
golden triangle model of interaction between research, ex-
tension, and farmers.
2.4 Food Safety and Food Security
Hunger and malnutrition are today’s main concerns,
with 960 million people either hungry or undernour-
ished. Food insecurity is a persistent and significant issue
in Ethiopia. Natural calamities such as severe drought,
floods, instability, and conflict are the leading causes of
food shortages in Ethiopia. These factors have deteriorat-
ed, resulting in large-scale displacement along the borders
of Somalia, Oromia, and SNNPR [34]
. Ethiopia’s govern-
ment is taking a significant leadership role in addressing
the problem of food insecurity by implementing programs
that serve the diverse needs of disadvantaged families. It
is making substantial investments and achievements, nota-
bly through its productive safety net program [35]
.
Food insecurity has traditionally had regarded as an
issue primarily impacting rural populations. As a result,
most research on food insecurity excludes urban inhabit-
ants. Recent findings indicate that, however, have begun
to recognize the necessity to include food insecurity as
a problem affecting the urban population [36]
. Inflation
had a significant factor in the rise of food insecurity in
Ethiopia’s cities. Since mid-2005, the country has been
experiencing a spiral of price increases, with grain prices
increasing by more than 100%. To address the issue, the
Ethiopian government and humanitarian groups establish
an initiative to assist urban poor food insecure families
in improving their nutritional quality and addressing the
underlying causes of food insecurity by giving them food
and cash. However, it had a negative impact on the popu-
lation as the trend made the people to wait for the aid and
create dependency.
Food safety, public health, and sustainability must all
be considered while developing instruments and strategies
to attain food security because food chains are compli-
cated and opaque [28]
. Furthermore, the regulation of food
fraud is a new issue that needs attention. Food security
has been jeopardized when there are insufficient supplies

6
of healthy and safe foods or when customers’ purchasing
power is constrained [38]
. Food safety and food security are
unavoidably complementary goals in the pursuit of hunger
abolition. One of the tenets is that unsafe food does not
help food security issues. Food safety and quality controls,
on the other hand, can occasionally restrict the amount of
food available, exacerbating food scarcity [39]
.
The cultivation of biofuel crops is another issue concern-
ing food security. Biofuel is gaining popularity in most
regions of the world, particularly in developed nations, due
to its sustainability. However, it has become a difficult topic
because of rising commodity costs, a negative impact on
food security, and, eventually, the issue of climate change.
Biofuel consumption is predicted to rise in the coming years.
However, there are significant worries about the impact of
growing biofuel production on food security. Biofuel demand
has the highest impact on food security by rising food costs
and increasing import reliance [40]
. Others argue that grow-
ing demand for sustainable biofuels would drive investment
in agricultural production and that there may be synergies
between biofuel and food production by bringing investment
into relatively underdeveloped areas with limited access to
input and output markets. According to Han et al. [41]
, the use
of maize as a biofuel crop in China could lead to shortages of
feed, growth in imports, and price increases. In addition, the
price effects on maize have also been reflected in food grain
prices through substitution effects and livestock prices.
Food safety is an umbrella phrase that incorporates vari-
ous aspects of food handling, preparation, and storage to
avoid disease and harm. Foods can become contaminated at
any stage during the manufacturing process. The Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN)
defines food security as “food security exists when all peo-
ple, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access
to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary
needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” [42]
.
Food security, on the other hand, is dependent not only on
the availability of food but also on the ability of the home to
prepare and store food, as well as the families’ access to the
available food. Climate change will also have an influence on
people’s capacity to use food successfully by raising the po-
tential of water and food-related infections (Figure 1). Access
to food refers to the capacity to access a sufficient amount
and quality of food, whether through purchase or production.
Climate change, food prices, COVID-19, productivity, and
the value chain all have an impact on the food supply. Cli-
mate prediction models indicate that agricultural productivity
will be greatly impacted in the future. The anticipated rise in
average global temperature caused by increasing greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions into the atmosphere, as well as higher
depletion of water resources owing to increased climatic var-
iability, would pose a severe danger to global food security [43]
.
Aside from the effects of climate change, agricultural output
is being limited by rising input costs such as labor and ferti-
lizer. While the primary cause for increased fertilizer costs is
the high cost of coal and natural gas, trade policies are also
to blame. High fertilizer prices may impose inflationary pres-
sures on food prices, exacerbating food security issues at a
time when the COVID-19 epidemic and climate change are
making food availability more difficult. The scarcity and high
cost of fertilizers will impact African food systems shortly.
Millions will face starvation as a result of low productivity.
Reduced yields, followed by increasing food costs, will be
a significant cause of inflation and a severe danger to food
security and political stability in many Sub-Saharan African
nations.
Figure 1. Overview of the Interrelationship Between Food Safety and Food Security [44]

7
3. Potential Benefits of Underutilized Root
and Tuber Crops Production
Natural calamities had a significant impact on Ethio-
pian agricultural production. The agricultural sector’s
success or failure is heavily influenced by the country’s
topographic settings, degree of human interference, and
underlying biophysical features. Farming practices in the
country disrupted entire ecosystems, particularly soils, re-
sulting in rapid nutrient depletion in the soil. In addition,
environmental sustainability issue also becomes a serious
agenda because of rapid industrialization, urbanization,
and population growth. As a result, farmers would have
better necessity accessibility to other crops that use new,
environmentally sustainable technology to ensure food
security and environmental sustainability. Crops that can
withstand climate change and provide higher productivity
are needed to address the food security problem. Reviews
of crop susceptibility to climate change show that root
crops like cassava may be best suited to withstand climat-
ic variation than most major tropical staple crops, making
it a crucial food security crop for the future [45]
.
Kusse [46]
identifies four plausible reasons for increas-
ing and encouraging root and tuber crop production and
productivity in Ethiopia. They are one of the most and
highly adaptable crops to harsh environments; they are
nutritionally rich staple foods crops; they are suitable for
double cropping to overcome food security issues; and
they can be a year-round food source. The major root and
tuber crops found entirely in Ethiopia include; enset, po-
tato, taro, yams, cassava, and sweet potato [47]
. Ethiopia
has diverse agro-ecological zones that are suitable for
the production of a wide range of food crops. However,
the area allocated for root crop production is limited. The
significant root and tuber crops contribute the most to the
traditional food system of many Ethiopians [48]
.
Different findings reveal that the high yield gaps be-
tween potential and actual yield in rainfed agriculture in
Africa show that there is still enormous potential for in-
tensification. Along with cereals, highland banana, false
banana, root and tuber crops (e.g., cassava, sweet potato,
yam, and Irish potato), and aroids (e.g., taro and cocoyam)
are important staple crops in Ethiopia. However, root
crops such as potatoes, sweet potatoes, taro, and cassava
accounted for 2% of Ethiopia’s total cropping area [49]
.
For instance, cassava is among the most widely cultivated
crops in some districts of the Wolaita zone, southern
Ethiopia [50]
. According to Tafesse et al. [51]
, cassava has
the potential to yield 80 t/ha of the fresh root within a
12-month growing season, compared to averages of 22.4
t/ha in the main cassava producing area. It indicates that
if the Ethiopian agriculture revolution considers neglected
crops, they can contribute to attaining the food security of
millions of small-scale farmers in Ethiopia.
Cassava is one of the most extensively produced car-
bohydrate crops in the globe. It can be a cash crop and
a source of industrial raw material. It is the fourth most
important food crop in the developing countries after rice,
wheat and maize [52]
. It is an important source of food
calories in Sub-Saharan Africa, fulfilling a critical role as
a food security crop [53]
. Its roots are also one of the most
important sources of commercial starch. In fact, the crop
is the second most important source of starch worldwide
after maize [54]
. Despite the growing importance of cas-
sava as a food security and income generating crop for
smallholder farmers in Ethiopia, as well as for its potential
to contribute to national economic, cassava production and
productivity in Ethiopia are low compared to other crops [55]
.
However, taking a look at some of the possible benefits
of cassava production in Ethiopia will show why the gov-
ernment should prioritize root and tuber crop cultivation.
3.1 Flour Production
Cereal prices have risen significantly in the last two
decades as cereal production has leveled off [56,57]
. Inflation
has aggravated food insecurity in Ethiopian cities. Thus,
the potential of root crops such as cassava to strengthen
food security deserves attention. Several countries are
interested in promoting local flour sources as a partial
substitute for wheat flour in food products [58]
. The use
of cassava flour as a composite in various food products
could reduce costs and increase local production [59]
. Fur-
thermore, gluten-free non-wheat flour made from root and
tuber crops like cassava has helped to avoid the combined
impact of growing food prices and wheat allergy.
3.2 Starch Production
According to Desta and Tigabu [60]
, starch production
in Ethiopia is low, and only two private limited compa-
nies provide close to 40% of the total starch demand in
the country. The remaining balance is filled dominantly
from abroad with high foreign currency. Presently, maize,
wheat, cassava, and potato are the dominant crops widely
starch extraction.
Cassava crop will probably have the potential to be cul-
tivated and valued over other root crops due to their low
input requirements, pest resistance, and ability to mitigate
the harmful effects of climate change [60]
. Cassava starch
is superior to other starch source crops such as maize,
wheat, sweet potato, and rice because of its high grade,
excellent thickening, neutral taste, desirable texture, and

8
relatively low cost. According to Nuwamanya et al. [61]
findings the ash, fat and protein contents were high among
cereal starches than root and tuber crops especially for
cassava (Table 1). Low associated compounds composi-
tions in cassava starch shows the high purity displayed
and the ease of extraction. Cassava starch also character-
izes by high amylose content which determine properties
and uses of starch. In addition, high paste clarity observed
for cassava makes it a better option for application in food
and industry textile where high clarity is required. Accord-
ing to Zhang et al. [62]
high past clarity is easily achieved
with chemical modification, but starches such as cassava,
such modification procedures may not necessarily make it
cheaper and better than most other starches.
Cassava starch extraction is also a simple process that
makes it suitable for developing countries like Ethiopia [63]
.
Furthermore, the market for starch products may grow as
the demand for environmentally friendly products such
as biodegradable packaging material grows as the globe
becomes more concerned about the environment. Cassava
is the most widely grown crop globally for producing a
sustainable and affordable source of starch [64]
. As a result,
replacing non-biodegradable goods could be a big market
in the world market, and cassava-producing countries
could benefit from it.
3.3 Ethanol Production
Ethiopia is one of the fastest-growing nations in Af-
rica and aims to reach lower-middle-income status in the
coming few years. Maintaining the nation’s energy stabil-
ity is essential for the country’s continuing development
program [65]
. Ethiopia additionally spends $billion on im-
ported petroleum products each year, accounting for 20%
of the country’s foreign exchange earnings [66]
. To address
the issues and achieve energy sustainability, it is critical to
expand the production and use of locally produced fuels
such as bio-ethanol. Bioethanol production in Ethiopia is
a realistic option; as well as supply expense and value will
have a significant impact on its feasibility and competi-
tiveness [65]
. There are different potential crops for ethanol
use in Ethiopia; these include sugar cane, maize, jatropha,
castor, cassava, cottonseed, and sweet sorghum.
Cassava has an advantage over other potential biofuel
crops in that it requires less input and is more resistant
to harsh environmental conditions. Its roots are also less
bulky than those of other biofuel crops like sugar cane
and sorghum, making transportation cheaper [67]
. Cassava
has also proven to be the most cost-effective bio-crop [68]
.
According to Pérez et al. [69]
findings production costs of
fuel ethanol from cassava is lower than the sugar cane in
Colombia (Table 2) and it is higher compared with other
countries as Thailand (0.18 USD/L. This disparity may be
related to the market price of cassava in countries such as
Thailand, where productivity surpasses demand, allowing
for a reduction in raw material prices while simultane-
ously decreasing the cost of fuel ethanol production. Ger-
emew et al. [65]
reported that 34 percent of the country’s
area land suitable for bioethanol crop cultivation. Hence,
it can reduce the energy security burden by cultivating dif-
ferent potential feedstock crops.
Table 1. Comparison of physiochemical properties of starches from root, tuber and cereal crops
Crop MC (%) R.S.C (%) Ash (%) Protein (%) Total amylose SP80 (o
C) SOL80 (o
C) PC
cassava 16.50 0.255 0.31 0.52 0.476 8.575 1.230 50.55
Potato 13.67 0.200 0.26 1.82 0.355 8.440 0.770 42.16
Sweet potato 9.331 0.581 0.28 1.13 0.417 6.88 0.577 22.75
Maize 13.65 0.555 0.54 2.20 0.285 3.96 0.997 19.49
Wheat 10.0 0.246 0.60 6.44 0.468 6.31 0.247 13.47
Sorghum 9.20 0.563 0.63 4.14 0.306 5.25 0.803 21.90
Millet 9.30 0.178 0.70 4.98 0.383 5.16 0.205 5.03
MC: Moisture content; R.S.C.: reducing sugar content; SP: Swelling power; SOL: solubility; PC: paste clarity

9
4. The Potential Benefits of Orphan Crops
4.1 Enset
Enset (Ensete ventricosum) is a perennial herbaceous
plant in the Musaceae family, which also includes bananas
and plantain. It is a versatile crop in which all portions
are used for a variety of applications [70]
. Its production is
mostly utilized for human food, animal feed, fiber, build-
ing materials, medicine, and cultural rituals. Kocho, bulla,
and amicho are the most common foods obtained from
Enset [71]
. Furthermore, because of its high demands on
soil fertility and soil structure, enset agriculture enhances
soil through persistent soil tillage. The crop is well-known
for its drought tolerance, high production, gender equity,
and environmental sustainability [70]
.
In Ethiopia, E. ventricosum is perhaps the most sig-
nificant crop, contributing to food security and rural live-
lihoods for around one-quarter (20 million people) [72]
.
According to research, “those who rely on enset have
never suffered from hunger, even throughout Ethiopia’s
awful drought and famine-prone decades of the 1970s and
1980s” [73]
. It is an indigenous food security plant that pro-
vides sustenance for over 15 million people in Southern
and Central Ethiopia [70]
.
It is a vital economic and socio-cultural significant
crop for a large spectrum of smallholder families in the
country’s population as a staple and co-staple food, and
it is also utilized as traditional medicine. Because of its
tolerance to variable rainfall patterns after establishment,
Enset has been known to serve as a food shortfall barrier
for humans and feed for animals during dry spells and
recurring droughts. It possesses numerous essential food
security characteristics. It thrives in a variety of settings,
is drought-tolerant, and may be harvested at any time of
year for several years. It is a significant source of dietary
starch, textiles, pharmaceuticals, animal feed, roofing,
and packaging. It has cultural significance and helps to
stabilize soils and microclimates [74]
. According to recent
research, enset, an Ethiopian plant related to the banana,
has the potential to feed more than 100 million people in
warmer climates if its production has extended [75]
.
4.2 Ethiopian Potato (Plectranthus edulis)
Plectranthus edulis (Vatke) is an indigenous tuber crop
distributed in Ethiopia as cultivated and wild species. It
is a tuber-bearing member of the Labiatae family. It is a
diploid, dicotyledonous plant that grows in the wild. It can
be cultivated at mid to high altitudes in Ethiopia’s south,
north, and south-west. P. edulis is a high-energy food
crop, and the tubers are rich in micro and macronutrients.
In comparison to the Irish potato (Solanum tuberosum) [76]
.
It has more dietary energy and twice as much fat and cal-
cium [77]
. After cooking, it has roughly the same amount
of protein as Irish potato and nearly doubles the amount
of protein as sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) [77]
. The leaf
is also prepared and consumed as a vegetable in some
western regions of Ethiopia, notably in the Kaffa districts [78]
,
and is used as a traditional medicine to treat a variety of
diseases. Furthermore, farmers value P. edulis and believe
it fills hunger better than other tuber crops. They feel
that this tuber is vital because it gives them energy and
encourages them to have more children [79]
. Furthermore,
Table 2. Fuel ethanol production cost from cassava and sugarcane bagasse case
Items
Cassava case Sugarcane bagasse case
USD/L Share of total cost (%) USD/L Share of total cost (%)
Raw materials 0.272 62.91 0.309 47.7
Utilities 0.027 6.34 0.178 27.4
Operating labor 0.008 1.80 0.008 1.2
Maintenance 0.005 1.13 0.007 1.0
Operating charge 0.002 0.45 0.002 0.3
Plant overhead 0.006 1.46 0.007 1.1
General and administrative 0.026 5.93 0.041 6.3
Depreciation of capital 0.086 19.99 0.097 15.0
Production cost (total) 0.432 100.00 0.649 100.00
Profit margin (%) 65.16 47.66

10
when wood is scarce, the dried stems of the crop are used
as firewood. As a result, it may minimize the number of
trees chopped down for firewood. Despite this promise,
relatively little study has been conducted to boost P. edulis
output [80]
.
Despite its importance in ensuring family food security,
crop output has been dropping. Some of the major causes
that have contributed to the decline include the introduc-
tion of new species of root crops, recurring droughts, and
land scarcity, research focus of the country that mainly
targets cereals and commercial crops, a long maturity time
paired with a short shelf life [79]
. The decline in cultiva-
tion of the crop may result in erosion of the genetic base
preventing the use of distinctive useful traits that are used
for crop adaptation and improvement [81]
. As a result, in-
creasing agro-biodiversity to improve food and nutrition
security is a critical component of long-term development.
As a result, the government and policymakers should
prioritize such a spectacular but underutilized crop to be
exploited and used to alleviate food poverty.
4.3 Anchote (Coccinia abyssinica)
Anchote (Coccinia abyssinica) (Lam.) Cogn.] is a tu-
ber crop in the Cucurbitaceae family. The genus Coccinia
has around 30 species, 10 of which are found in Ethiopia;
however, only Coccinia abyssinica is cultivated for hu-
man consumption [83]
. Despite being a key traditional food
crop in the region, it is unknown in the rest of the globe.
Anchote grows at elevations ranging from 1300 to 2800
meters above sea level, with annual rainfall ranging from
762 to 1016 mm. Anchote is widely grown in Ethiopia,
particularly in the country’s western and southwestern re-
gions.
Its tubers are rich in macro-and micronutrients (for
example, Ca = 7.78 mg, Fe = 5.23 mg, and Zn = 2.05
mg/100 g tuber). Anchote tubers and leaves have long
been used in traditional medicine to treat a variety of
diseases. It has a high concentration of nutrients such as
crude fiber, protein, calcium, iron, zinc, and magnesium,
which are uncommon in tuber crops. Local farmers claim
that it aids in the rapid healing of fractured bones and mis-
placed joints. Anchote eating may also minimize the prob-
lem of vitamin A deficiency because of its high vitamin A
content. Traditionally, breastfeeding moms are thought to
be healthier and stronger when given anchote. The flour is
also used as a supplement for newborns and young chil-
dren. In addition, anchote tuber juice contains saponin,
which is used to treat gonorrhea, tuberculosis, and malig-
nancies [84]
.
Girma and Dereje reported that Anchote could be culti-
vated with minimal inputs and provide an acceptable yield
under poor soil fertility, acidic soil, and drought condi-
tions. The crop can be planted as a backup crop in case of
crop failure. Although the crop has considerable value in
achieving food security due to its drought resilience and
capacity to stay in the soil for a longer period, there is in-
sufficient agronomic knowledge. Despite its long history
of cultivation and use, anchote has not been subjected to
systematic study to comprehend the genetic architecture
and manipulate it in an improvement program. Because of
the lack of attention paid to anchote research and develop-
ment, no variety has been produced or marketed thus far [85]
.
Although it has received little attention, genetic diversity
in anchote may lead to the identification of new genes for
combating agricultural production challenges. Anchote is
suited to a variety of climates and provides a nutritious
food supply if other crops fail. Anchote is a promising
perspective crop for achieving household food security
due to its varied feature.
5. Conclusions
The world’s population is anticipated to reach 9.8 bil-
lion by 2050. However, the circumstances do not favor
completing such a task. Climate change, population
growth, a scarcity of farmland, and conflicts were the
primary impediments to achieving food security. Chronic
and transitory food insecurity has afflicted a consider-
able proportion of Ethiopia’s population. The number of
persons who are chronically food insecure is significant.
Ethiopia’s food security status had related to severe, re-
peated food shortages and famine, which have a direct re-
lation to persistent drought. Currently, more than 17% of
the overall population, the vast majority of whom live in
rural regions, requires food assistance. As a result, farmers
would have better necessity accessibility to other crops
that use new, environmentally sustainable technology to
ensure food security and environmental sustainability. De-
spite this, the current agricultural policies mainly focus on
national or regionally significant crops without considera-
tion for indigenous crop production. However, this does
not seem realistic, especially for subsistence farmers in
developing countries like Ethiopia, who prefer to increase
their options by diversifying their small plots of land rath-
er than homogenizing them with high external inputs and
varieties. One opportunity to support food security is by
employing crop diversification with greater inclusion of
orphan crops. These crops could be utilized as a drought
reserve crop since they give high productivity even in
conditions that are generally considered unfavorable for
other crops. These merits are paramount to meet food
and nutrition security in these challenging climate change
times. As a result, significant institutional and operational

11
reforms are necessary to improve the constraints and utili-
zation of underutilized indigenous crops in Ethiopia.
Availability of Data and Material
Not applicable.
Author Contributions
The corresponding Author conceived of the paper,
gathered the appropriate literature review articles, and
wrote the first draft of the manuscript. Finally, the author
read and approved the final manuscript.
Conflict of Interest
There is no conflict of interest associated with this pub-
lication.
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15
https://ojs.nassg.org/index.php/rwae
Copyright © 2022 by the author(s). Published by NanYang Academy of Sciences Pte. Ltd. This is an open access article under the Creative
Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).
*Corresponding Author:
Ryan Mark A. Ambong,
Research, Development and Extension Unit, Occidental Mindoro State College, Philippines;
Email: ryanmark.ambong2017@gmail.com
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v3i2.513
Received: 1 April 2022; Received in revised form: 26 April 2022; Accepted: 6 May 2022; Published: 16 May 2022
Citation: Ambong, R.M.A., 2022. Methods of Rice Technology Adoption Studies in the Philippines and Other Asian
Countries:ASystematic Review. Research on World Agricultural Economy. 3(2), 513. http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v3i2.513
REVIEW ARTICLE
Methods of Rice Technology Adoption Studies in the Philippines and
Other Asian Countries: A Systematic Review
Ryan Mark A. Ambong*
Research, Development and Extension Unit, Occidental Mindoro State College, Philippines
Abstract: Agricultural researchers in developing countries were not able to give much attention to the adoption studies
of agricultural technologies until the period of the Green Revolution. These technologies are disseminated in the rural
farming community by agricultural extension professionals to boost farm efficiencies and productivity. This paper
presents a systematic review of methods employed by previous researchers in studying agricultural technology adoption
with special reference to rice. The review focuses on the study of rice technologies adoption in the Philippines and
other related studies conducted by a Filipino author in other countries in the Asian Region. From 391 adoption studies
identified, 22 papers were selected and included in the review. These papers were retrieved from the Scopus database.
This review revealed that papers focused on studying the adoption of rice cultivation practices employed quantitative
techniques. Institutional factors were found to critically influence the decision-making of the farmers to adopt
production technologies.
Keywords: Adoption studies; Agricultural extension; Rice; Technology dissemination; Philippines
1. Introduction
Agricultural research institutions develop new tech-
nologies which are disseminated through effective exten-
sion and mass media channels. Moreover, these technolo-
gies must reach the farms for effective adoption to realize
desired benefits [1]
. Nevertheless, adoption rate of tech-
nologies related to agriculture is very low in developing
countries despite the availability of numerous public inter-
ventions [2]
. The low uptake of technology among small-
holder farmers is due to lack of information and credit [3]
while the lack of knowledge explains low adoption rate of
technologies [4]
. This implies that lack of knowledge criti-
cally explains low adoption rate of profitable technologies
among the farmers [2]
. Similarly, adoption is not abrupt due
to the presence of significant gap between the market pro-
motion of technology and the actual use of the farmers [5]
.
Rural farmers decide on the sustainability of their busi-
ness and their complex decision-making process is influ-
enced by the existence of agricultural operational methods

16
and technologies [6]
. Hence, measuring and interpreting its
impact is difficult [7]
.
Awareness is an important prerequisite for adoption,
however, exposure to technology is usually not random
and is prone to selection bias. The exposure of an individ-
ual to technology may be due to the result of the research-
ers’ or extension workers’ selection with high possibility
of being biased [8]
. Likewise, there exists a lot of scientific
researches aimed at addressing determinants of adoption
of agricultural technologies. However, the way these re-
searches are carried out is indefinite and non-cohesive [6]
.
Nevertheless, studies conducted in different countries and
cultures are the same and they only vary on complexity
and number of variables studied [5]
. Therefore, this review
aims to explore the different methods used by previous
authors to study the adoption of various technologies for
rice. Specifically, this review wants to determine the type
of technologies studied by agricultural researchers, their
method of analyses, and their major findings of their papers.
2. Methods
2.1 Selection of Studies for Review
The systematic review of papers related to the farmers’
adoption of rice technologies is focused on agricultural prac-
tices regardless of its type. Journal articles published and in-
dexed at Scopus database were searched using the key words
that include “farmers’ adoption of rice technologies” limited
to year of publication, subject area, and language.
The combination of the key words such as “farmers’
adoption of rice technologies and rice innovations” were
used to obtain an array of information about adoption of
agricultural innovations but is limited only to rice as the
main subject of interest. Initially, the database has gener-
ated 391 documents that were subjected to screening.
2.2 Screening of Papers
The systematic review of agricultural technologies for
rice is in accordance with the inclusion criteria set such
as: 1) The research focus on rice production intervention
and technology between 2010-2018 authored by at least
one Filipino researcher (if there is co-authorship) or done
in the Philippines, 2) Focus on the adoption of rice tech-
nology by farmers or farming households; or technology/
knowledge transferred to farming communities, 3) Re-
search methods such as qualitative, quantitative or mixed
in English language published as primary journal article
in the database of Scopus Elsevier, 4) The research paper
reports innovation in rice production and post-harvest ac-
tivity with clear methodology and analytical procedure, 5)
The study is focused on the adoption of agricultural prac-
tices or technologies for rice.
Rice production and post-harvest practices being stud-
ied are the agricultural innovations which are regarded as
modern technologies that aim to improve farm productiv-
ity and farmer socio-economics to alleviate poverty and
hunger among rice farmers. Papers that deal with tradi-
tional farm practices without innovative components were
not included in the systematic review. The systematic re-
view looks at the studies only focused on innovative agri-
cultural practices but excluded impact and adoption inten-
sity [9]
. From the total of 391 documents initially obtained,
166 papers were removed following the restrictions on
the year of publication and is furthered narrowed down to
157 after removing duplicates. Moreover, only 126 papers
are published as primary journal article in which 26 are
either authored by at least one Filipino researcher or the
researches were conducted in the Philippines. The remain-
ing 26 articles were screened and evaluated if they qualify
for review. Finally, another four articles were excluded
following the Population, Intervention, Comparator, Out-
come and Study Design (PICOS) format [9]
(see Table 1).
A total of 22 articles were used in the systematic review
following the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for
Systematic Reviews and Meta- Analyses) 2009 flow dia-
gram [10]
(Figure 1).
Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria for the systematic review.
PICOS Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria
Population Rice farmers/Rice farming households
Consumers, Traders, Agents, Processors,
Extension workers
Intervention Innovative rice practices/technologies/interventions at farm level
Off-farm/Non-farm level interventions (i.e.
marketing and off-farm processing)
Comparator Traditional practices/Indigenous Knowledge None
Outcome Adoption rate, Productivity, Yield None
Study Design Statistical techniques/models in assessing adoption and its determinants None

17
2.3 Acquisition of Data
From the screened papers used in the systematic re-
view, important data were obtained from each journal arti-
cles consistent with the purpose of the review. These data
include the type of technology or intervention, the method
of research and statistical analysis or model and the major
findings of the research paper.
2.4 Attributes of the Pre-selected Papers in the
Review
The succeeding tables present the attributes of 391
papers that were pre-selected for systematic review. Fol-
lowing the format provided by the Elsevier’s Scopus
database, documents were categorized in terms of access
type, year of publication, subject area, document type,
source type, origin, and language. From Table 2, major-
ity of the papers (88.49%) searched from the data base
are not open access and require permission or payment.
From these selections, most (42.45%) of the papers were
published prior to the year 2010 as presented in Table 3.
In terms of subject area, majority or 65.73% belong to the
discipline of Agricultural and Biological Sciences. In the
data base, it is possible for a document to have duplicates
wherein one research paper is categorized to multiple dis-
ciplines or subject area (Table 4). Majority of the papers’
document and source type are articles (81.33%) from
journals (88.75%) (Table 5). Moreover, Table 6 shows
that majority of these publications are journal that may
consist of original articles or reviews. In Table 7, the ori-
gin of the papers was identified according to the country
or territory where it was published. Based on the result of
pre-selection, most of the documents were published in
India and the Philippines (24.04 percent and 17.14 per-
cent, respectively). With that, it can be inferred that most
adoption studies in rice technologies originate from these
countries given also that their economies are dependent to
agriculture, specifically in rice production. Finally, major-
ity (97.70%) the documents searched from the data base
were written and published in English language (Table 8).
Table 2. Access type of pre-selected papers.
Access Type Number of Documents Percentage
Open Access 45 11.51
Other 346 88.49
Figure 1. Process of paper screening using PRISMA.
2.3 Acquisition of data
From the screened papers used in the systematic review, important data were obtained from
each journal articles consistent with the purpose of the review. These data include the type of
technology or intervention, the method of research and statistical analysis or model and the major
findings of the research paper.
2.4 Attributes of the pre-selected papers in the review
The succeeding tables present the attributes of 391 papers that were pre-selected for
systematic review. Following the format provided by the Elsevier’s Scopus database, documents
were categorized in terms of access type, year of publication, subject area, document type, source
type, origin, and language. From Table 2, majority of the papers (88.49%) searched from the data
base are not open access and require permission or payment. From these selections, most
(42.45%) of the papers were published prior to year 2010 as presented in Table 3. In terms of
subject area, majority or 65.73% belong to the discipline of Agricultural and Biological Sciences.
Research removed (n= 4)
Not primary journal article
Did not qualify in PICOS
Abstracts screened (n= 126)
Research removed (n= 100)
<1 Author not Filipino/
Research not conducted in the
Philippines
Research title screened after
removal of duplicates (n= 157)
Research title screened
following year of publication
(n= 166)
Primary journal articles
included in the systematic
review (n= 22)
Primary journal articles for
eligibility and quality (n=26)
Exclusion/Inclusion
Screening
Papers identified from the
database (n= 391)
Identification
Figure 1. Process of paper screening using PRISMA.

18
Table 3. Year of publication of pre-selected papers.
Year of Publication Number of Documents Percentage
2018 39 9.97
2017 35 8.95
2016 40 10.23
2015 24 6.14
2014 13 3.32
2013 15 3.84
2012 23 5.88
2011 20 5.12
2010 16 4.09
Prior to 2010 166 42.45
Table 4. Subject area of pre-selected papers.
Subject Area Number of Documents Percentage
Agricultural and Biological Sciences 257 65.73
Social Sciences 110 28.13
Environmental Science 99 25.32
Econometrics, Economics and Finance 51 13.04
Earth and Planetary Sciences 28 7.16
Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology 22 5.63
Engineering 16 4.09
Business, Management and Accounting 11 2.81
Energy 11 2.81
Arts and Humanities 6 1.53
Table 5. Document type of pre-selected papers.
Document Type Number of Documents Percentage
Article 318 81.33
Review 25 6.39
Book Chapter 24 6.14
Conference Paper 19 4.86
Short Survey 2 0.51
Book 1 0.26
Article in Press 1 0.26
Note 1 0.26
Table 6. Source type of pre-selected papers.
Source Type Number of Documents Percentage
Journals 347 88.75
Books 27 6.91
Book Series 12 3.07
Conference Proceedings 3 0.77
Trade Publications 2 0.51

19
2.5 Attributes of Included Papers in the Review
Out of 391 primary documents compiled for review,
only 22 primary journal articles that reported rice tech-
nologies and rice innovations adoption conform with the
inclusion criteria. Table 9 summarizes the journal articles
included in the systematic review. After the selection of
articles for the systematic review, the type of technologies
studied, and the method of analyses were evaluated.
Table 7. Origin of pre-selected papers.
Country/Territory Number of Documents Percentage
India 94 24.04
Philippines 67 17.14
United States 50 12.79
Australia 32 8.18
Japan 31 7.93
Netherlands 21 5.37
Nigeria 21 5.37
China 20 5.12
United Kingdom 19 4.86
Indonesia 16 4.09
Others 20 5.12
Table 8. Language of pre-selected papers.
Language Number of Documents Percentage
English 382 97.70
Chinese 3 0.77
Japanese 2 0.51
French 1 0.26
Portuguese 1 0.26
Spanish 1 0.26
Thai 1 0.26
Table 9. Journal articles subjected to systematic review.
Document Title Author/s Year Source
On-farm assessment of different rice crop management
practices in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam, using sustain-
ability performance indicators
Stuart, A.M., Devkota, K.P., Sato, T., (...),
Beebout, S., Singleton, G.R.
2018
Field Crops Research 229, pp.
103-114
Is farmer-to-farmer extension effective? The impact of
training on technology adoption and rice farming pro-
ductivity in Tanzania
Nakano, Y., Tsusaka, T.W., Aida, T., Pede,
V.O.
2018
World Development 105, pp.
336-351
The application of best management practices increases
the profitability and sustainability of rice farming in the
central plains of Thailand
Stuart, A.M., Pame, A.R.P., Vithoonjit, D.,
(...), Singleton, G.R., Lampayan, R.M.
2018
78-87
On-farm assessment of a new early-maturing
drought-tolerant rice cultivar for dry direct seeding in
rainfed lowlands
Ohno, H., Banayo, N.P.M.C., Bueno, C., (...),
Garcia, R., Kato, Y.
2018
222-228
Recognizing farmers’ practices and constraints for
intensifying rice production at Riparian Wetlands in
Indonesia
Lakitan, B., Hadi, B., Herlinda, S., (...), Yun-
indyawati, Y., Meihana, M.
2018
NJAS - Wageningen Journal
of Life Sciences
85, pp. 10-20

20
Receiving information about rice seeds on mobile
phones in eastern India
Pede, V., Yamano, T., Chellattanveettil, P.,
Gupta, I.
2018
Development in Practice
28(1), pp. 95-106
Incorporating gender into low-emission development:
A case study from Vietnam
Farnworth, C.R., Ha, T.T., Sander, B.O., (...),
De Haan, N.C., McGuire, S.
2017
Gender, Technology
and Development 21(1-2), pp.
5-30
A multi-stakeholder partnership for the dissemination
of alternate wetting and drying water-saving technolo-
gy for rice farmers in the Philippines
Palis, F.G., Lampayan, R.M., Flor, R.J., Si-
bayan, E.
2017
AIMS Agriculture and Food
2(3), pp. 290-309
Yield and income effects of rice varieties with tolerance
of multiple abiotic stresses: The case of green super
rice (GSR) and flooding in the Philippines
Yorobe, J.M., Ali, J., Pede, V.O., (...), Ve-
larde, O.P., Wang, H.
2016
Agricultural Economics (Unit-
ed Kingdom) 47(3), pp. 261-
271
Farmers, institutions and technology in agricultural
change processes: outcomes from Adaptive Research
on rice production in Sulawesi, Indonesia
Flor, R.J., Singleton, G., Casimero, M., (...),
Maat, H., Leeuwis, C.
2016
International Journal of Agri-
cultural Sustainability
14(2), pp. 166-186
Indigenous knowledge and practices for the sustainable
management of Ifugao forests in Cordillera, Philippines
Camacho, L.D., Gevaña, D.T., Carandang,
A.P., Camacho, S.C.
2016
International Journal of Bio-
diversity Science, Ecosystem
Services and Management
12(1-2), pp. 5-13
Development and evaluation of the Turbo Happy Seed-
er for sowing wheat into heavy rice residues in NW
India
Sidhu, H.S., Singh, M., Singh, Y., (...), Singh,
V., Singh, S.
2015
201-212
Dissemination of Natural Resource Management tech-
nology for irrigated rice in the Philippines: On-farm
validation to national extension
Corales, A.M., Sibayan, E.B., Palis, F.G. 2015
Pertanika Journal of Tropical
Agricultural Science 38(2),
pp. 219-233
Determinants of herbicide use in rice production in the
Philippines
Beltran, J.C., White, B., Burton, M., Doole,
G.J., Pannell, D.J.
2013
Agricultural Economics (Unit-
ed Kingdom) 44(1), pp. 45-55
Factors influencing farmers’ adoption of modern rice
technologies and good management practices in the
Philippines
Mariano, M.J., Villano, R., Fleming, E. 2012
Agricultural Systems 110, pp.
41-53
Review and analysis of documented patterns of agricul-
tural research impacts in Southeast Asia
Maredia, M.K., Raitzer, D.A. 2012
Agricultural Systems 106(1),
pp. 46-58
Farmers’ experiences with the use of location-specific
technologies in Cabanatuan City, Nueva Ecija, Philip-
pines
Pascual, J.V., Bumatay, E.L. 2012
Asia Life Sciences 21(1), pp.
299-315
Rice yields and yield gaps in Southeast Asia: Past
trends and future outlook
Laborte, A.G., de Bie, K.C.A.J.M., Smaling,
E.M.A., (...), Boling, A.A., Van Ittersum,
M.K.
2012
European Journal of Agrono-
my 36(1), pp. 9-20
Can humans outsmart rodents?
Learning to work collectively and strategically
Palis, F.G., Singleton, G.R., Brown, P.R., (...),
Umali, C., Nga, N.T.D.
2011
Wildlife Research 38(7), pp.
568-578
Are irrigated farming ecosystems more productive than
rainfed farming systems in rice production in the Phil-
ippines?
Mariano, M.J., Villano, R., Fleming, E. 2010
Agriculture, Ecosystems and
Environment 139(4), pp. 603-
610
Farmers’ adoption of improved upland rice technolo-
gies for sustainable mountain development in Southern
Yunnan
Wang, H., Pandey, S., Hu, F., (...), Ding, S.,
Tao, D.
2010
Mountain Research and De-
velopment 30(4), pp. 373-380
Assessing the impact of agricultural technology adop-
tion on farmers’ well-being using propensity-score
matching analysis in rural china
Wu, H., Ding, S., Pandey, S., Tao, D. 2010
Asian Economic Journal
24(2), pp. 141-160
Table 9 continued

21
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Type of Technology Studied
The papers included in the review mostly discussed on
the rice cultivation technologies and practices (40.9%), ir-
rigation and water technologies (27.27%), improved seed
varieties (18.18%), and integrated pest management (IPM)
(13.64%). The widespread progress of these technologies
in the Philippines was prompted by the establishment of
two rice research and development (R&D) institutions
in the country namely Philippine Rice Research Institute
(PhilRice) and the International Rice Research Institute
(IRRI) [11-13]
.
3.2 Methods Used
Generally, the articles focused on the technologies for
rice production specifically on crop management practices
and have diversity in terms of the methods used. Major-
ity or 54.54% applied quantitative methods specifically
regression analysis, on-farm/field experiment, and techni-
cal efficiency and economic analyses. On the other hand,
qualitative and mixed method both comprise the 22.72%
of the papers. These studies mostly applied participatory
action research (household surveys, focus group discus-
sions, key informant interview), case study, and impact
assessment.
3.3 Major Findings
The result of the systematic review shows that rice
technologies have mostly positive effects to farmers. Nev-
ertheless, the systematic review reveals that the institu-
tional factors are the most critical factors affecting farmer
decisions to adopt which includes education, access to
extension services, and access to technological informa-
tion. Technology acceptance can be distressing to farmers
especially when its relevance and expected outcomes are
not properly demonstrated to them. Finally, low level of
knowledge about the technology leads to resistance and
poor decision-making. Below are the specific outcomes
or impact of the adoption of rice cultivation practices and
technology ranked according to their significance:
1) Improved crop management practices
2) Enhanced farmers’ capacity and capability
3) Increased net income/profit and benefit-cost ratio
4) Addressed issues on food security and sustainable
food production
5) Increased yield and productivity
6) Decreased production cost
Table 10. Type of technology, method, and major finding of rice technology adoption studies reviewed.
Author/s Technology Method Major finding
Stuart et al., 2018
Good Agriculture Practice (GAP);
Small Farmer, Large Field (SFLF)
Household survey Eight
Sustainable Rice Platform
(SRP) performance
indicators, Bonferroni Test,
Linear Regression
Mean total production cost per season decreased
while mean net income and benefit-cost
ratio increased. GAP and SFLF management
approaches improved rice farming practices and
was sustainable than conventional farmers.
Nakano et al., 2018
Farmer-to-farmer extension program
on rice cultivation technologies
Panel survey Descriptive
and Regression Analysis
New technologies were first adopted by the trained
key and intermediate farmers
thus, yield gap initially widened between the
trained
farmers and the non-trained ordinary famers.
Stuart et al., 2018
Cost Reduction Operating Principles
(CROP), Alternate Wetting and
Drying (AWD), Drum Seeder (DS)
Technology
Farmer Participatory Field
Trials, Experiment
Linear Mixed Models with
Maximum Likelihood
Estimation, Rank
Transformation, Bonferroni
Test
Fertilizer, seed, and pesticide use can be reduced
in
intensive lowland irrigated rice growing areas by
following best management practices with no yield
penalty. The improved practices were found
to reduce costs and increase profit.
Ohno et al., 2018
Dry direct seeding of rice (DDSR) in
drought-prone lowland areas
On-farm Experiment T-test,
ANOVA
Crop establishment using DDSR is affected by
erratic rainfall at the onset of wet season followed
by weed infestation. On the other hand, there
is greater establishment rate for newly released
drought-tolerant cultivar resulting to less weed
infestation and higher yield.

22
Lakitan et al., 2018 Crop cultivation practices
Two-staged mixed
qualitative method
(Grounded theory and
Questionnaire-guided
Survey)
Technology development must be based on the
needs, preference, and absorptive capacity of
targeted smallholder farmers
Pede et al., 2018
Use mobile phones to obtain
information about rice varieties
Quantitative Study
Regression Analysis
Farmers located farther away from the market
were more likely to pay for the calls.
Paying charges to receive rice varietal information
is
associated with varietal replacement
Farnworth et al., 2017
Low-emission development (LED),
Alternative Wetting and Drying
(AWD) water-saving technology
Conceptual Model
Development Case Study
Improved benefits for Overall contribution on
GHG emission was lowered while improving
farmer benefit. Women have higher access to
AWD technology.
Palis et al., 2017 AWD Technology
Qualitative and Quantitative
(FGD, KII, Survey)
Descriptive Analysis
The adoption of AWD by farmers has not reduced
their yields. Thus, it has implications on food
security through addressing issues around water,
while sustaining
food production.
Yorobe et al., 2016
High-yielding Green Super Rice
(GSR) cultivars
Matched samples from a
propensity score matching
method (two- year panel
data)
Ordinary least squares
and DID fixed‐effects
regressions
Yield benefits from GSR varieties could improve
rice food security and help alleviate poverty in the
country
Flor et al., 2016 Adaptive Research (AR) project
Monitoring data
examination
Complementary qualitative
analysis
New approaches in agricultural research require
a different type of monitoring as a complement
to conventional approaches that tend to favor a
quantitative assessment of
adoption and impact at the farm level.
Camacho et al., 2016
Indigenous knowledge and practices
(Muyong
system)
Focus group discussions
(FGDs)
and key informant
interviews, Survey Mixed
Method
The proliferation of inorganic farming
technologies replaces
the traditional ones, and the
abandonment of rice fields and muyongs as
farmers go elsewhere seeking other
employment opportunities.
Sidhu et al., 2015
Rice–wheat (RW) cropping systems,
Turbo Happy Seeder for sowing
wheat into heavy rice residues
Development, Field
Testing and Evaluation
(Experiment) Quantitative
Analysis
The Turbo Happy Seeder offers a practical and
economic solution to the problem of rice straw
burning in the rice–wheat systems.
Corales, Sibayan & Palis,
2015
Natural Resource Management
(NRM) technologies, such as Site-
Specific Nutrient Management
(SSNM), Ecologically Based Rodent
Management (EBRM) and Alternate
Wetting and Drying (AWD)
On-farm evaluation Cost
and yield analysis
PhilRice-IRRI partnership has been proven to be
a powerful instrument in facilitating delivery and
adoption of NRM technologies.
Beltran et al., 2013
Adoption of herbicides and the level
of herbicide use
Panel DataAssessment
Heckman’s two‐step
method (estimation
of a random‐effects
double‐hurdle model for
unbalanced panel
data)
Determinants of both adoption and level are land
ownership, farm area, and the method of crop
establishment.
Table 10 continued

23
Mariano, Villano &
Fleming, 2012
Certified Seed Technology (CSs)
and Integrated Crop Management
Practices (ICMPs)
Probabilistic Binary logit
and Poisson model
Extension-related variables have the most
significant impact on technology adoption. On-
farm demonstration trials has the highest effect
on the adoption of certified seeds technology.
However, constraints to the adoption of
CSs and ICMPs are soil and nutrient deficiencies.
Maredia & Raitzer, 2012 Impact of Agricultural research
Comprehensive search and
review of the literature, In-
depth review, and analysis
of documented impacts of
agricultural research
Systematic- Quantitative
Analysis
Evidence of impacts in other areas and other
commodities is minor. Impacts of research on long-
term developmental goals remain undocumented.
There is declining trend in total documented net
benefits from agricultural research.
Pascual & Bumatay, 2012
Location-
Specific Technology Development
(LSTD)
Impact Assessment Case
Study
LSTD Project was found effective in technology
transfer process as manifested by the adoption of
the technology by the farmer- participants. All the
interventions were effective.
Laborte et al., 2012 Production technology (cultivars)
Yield-Gap analysis method
Trend Analysis
Best-yielding farmers were generally more
educated than average farmers and they used
production inputs more efficiently than average
farmers.
Palis et al., 2011
Ecologically Based Rodent
Management (EBRM)
Participatory action
research (household
surveys, focus group
discussions and key
informant interviews)
Quantitative-
Qualitative
The adoption of EBRM meant better rice yields,
higher economic returns for farmers, and reduced
human health and environmental risks
Mariano, Villano &
Fleming, 2010
Irrigated farming ecosystems and
Rainfed farming systems in rice
production
Stochastic meta- frontier
Productivity-Technical
Efficiency Analysis
Farms in the rainfed farming ecosystem achieve
productivity levels only slightly different from
those of farms in the irrigated farming ecosystem.
Some farms in both ecosystems were able to
achieve the highest possible output with respect to
the meta-frontier in
all the seasons studied.
Wang et al., 2010
Improved upland rice varieties and
terraces
Household Survey Case
Study
Farmers who have adopted both technology
components have been able to increase the
upland rice yield substantially. Income from rice
production was similarly found to be higher for
adopters than for nonadopters.
Wu et al., 2010 Improved upland rice technology
Impact Assessment
Propensity score matching
analysis
Improved upland rice technology has a robust and
positive effect on farmers’ well-being, as measured
by income levels and the incidence of poverty
Table 10 continued
4. Conclusions
This paper reports the systematic review on the meth-
ods used by agricultural researchers in studying rice
technology adoption in the Philippines and other Asian
countries. It focused on the specific type of technology
studied, the method of analyses, and the major findings
of the researches. Papers were focused on studying the
adoption of rice cultivation practices and technologies us-
ing quantitative method. The review highlights the role
of institutional factors which is found to mostly influence
the decision-making of the farmers to adopt technology.
Hence, the findings of this review can serve as the basis
of agricultural extension professionals in the academe,
local government, and the private sector to strengthen the
strategies of technology dissemination to the rural rice
farmers. Rice cultivation technologies and practices are

Research on World Agricultural Economy | Vol.3,Iss.2 June 2022

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