1. CandNo:130505
Digital Media and Education:
A Critical Study of Learning in the Information Age
Overview:
1

2. CandNo:130505
"Knowledge, in the sense of information, means the working capital, the
indispensable resources, of further inquiry; of finding out, or learning, more things.” 1
Almost 100 years after he published Democracy and Education, Dewey's words
have never been truer. As the information and communication technologies have
sparked the information age, in which the powers of computing, digital storage, and
communication have been increasing impressively so as to allow an ever-growing
amount of information to be distributed quickly and widely, the amount of
information available to us explodes, as well as our access to it.
Cognitive skills such as conducting independent research, assessing information
for credibility, applying concepts to new situations, and self-critiquing one's own
abilities are central to our success in today's society. The use of new media
technologies in teaching and learning have an overwhelming impact on our skills and
abilities, and these technologies allow education to be customized, individualized and
universally accessible. Digital media and information technology is therefore slowly
becoming a part of schools and learning institutions. As Will Richardson states, “we
have begun crafting a new narrative around learning”2
. Education has begun to change
in this social context and inevitably the future of education will be digital.
To better understand both new media and how education might move forward
with it into an age of information, this essay looks at the future of education with
regards to the impact which digital media and technology has had on the sector as a
1
John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York, Macmillan, 1916)
2
Will Richardson, Why School? How Education Must Change When Learning and Information Are Everywhere
(TED Conferences, 2012), p38
2

3. CandNo:130505
whole. I’d like to outline and critically explore this issue with reference to the work of
Manuel Castells and Ian Bogost, but also more widely in academic aspect and social
significance.
In the first chapter I will briefly introduce the background, while in chapter two and
chapter three I offer two case studies. In chapter four I will draw these strands
together to discuss how digital media and new technologies impact on our
contemporary education and learning institutions in both expected and unexpected
ways.
3

4. CandNo:130505
Chapter 1 Introduction
Over the last twenty years the declining cost of computation is making digital
technologies accessible to nearly all ages over the world from international cities in
the developed countries to rural villages in developing nations. These digital
technologies have the potential to fundamentally reshape people's mode of cognition,
transform how and what people learn and think throughout their lives.
As technology reforms people’s social, emotional and physical development
though quick and easy access to information and experience, the three foundational
learning theories: Behaviorism, Cognitivism, and Constructivism in the instructional
environments have been altered too. In the new information age, Behaviorism states
that observable behavior is more important than understanding internal activities and
learning is about behavior change; Cognitivism often takes a computer information-
processing model while learning is viewed as a process of inputs and outputs,
managed in short-term memory, and coded for long-term recall; Constructivism
suggests that learners create knowledge as they attempt to understand their
experiences.3
There are some significant trends in learning in this context: Learning
now occurs in a variety of ways ， through information and communication
technology, personal networks, and through completion of work-related tasks;
technology is altering our brains sustainability and learners will move into a variety of
3
Manuel Castells, Critical Education in the New Information Age (Rowman & Littlefield, 1999), p65-75
4

5. CandNo:130505
different fields over the disciplines instead a simple discipline. The tools we use are
now defining and shaping our thinking.
One can clearly see that this continuing change has had an enormous impact on
the ways learning in education institutions are undertaken. Similar to advances in
other fields, new digital technologies make possible a “learning revolution” in
contemporary education and digital media will play a vital role in the multifaceted
educational applications around the world. This educational ‘revolution’ is different to
all previous paradigm changes in education because of the universality and specificity
of digital media and information technology4
(in particular 3D technologies, Internet,
Web 2.0 platforms, mobile devices, computers and virtual realities), which have
become a standard part of how today’s society functions.
Castells said: “Increasingly, as computer use is ever less a lifestyle option, ever
more an everyday necessity, inability to use computers or find information on the web
is a matter of stigma, of social exclusion; revealing not only changing social norms
but also the growing centrality of computers to work, education and politics”5
. Digital
media and information technologies are shaping what kind of skills and knowledge
students bring into the classroom, and, in this fashion, determine how teachers and
educators perceive these students. With these technologies, students are no longer
restricted to traditional learning environments but increasingly they are offered an
individualized and adaptive form of education that can be accessed from anywhere
and at any time. This change in the learning experience could not have come at a
4
Manuel Castells, Critical Education in the New Information Age (Rowman & Littlefield, 1999), p65-75
5
Manuel Castells, The Internet Galaxy: Reflections of the Internet, Business, and Society. (Oxford University
Press, 2002), p6
5

6. CandNo:130505
better time, because the new generation of ‘digital natives’6
students, who born during
or after the introduction of digital technology, have grown up with technology and
view technology as a non-remarkable feature of daily-life.
A new term has appeared in response to this new media culture: the new media
literacies, means a set of cultural competencies and social skills that young people
need in the new media landscape.7
Different from the traditional social skills built on
the foundation of traditional literacy and collaboration skills taught in the classroom,
these social skills are developed through technology adoption and networking. The
new skills include: the ability to interpret and construct dynamic models of real-world
processes, the ability to meaningfully sample and remix media content, the ability to
interact energetically with tools that expand mental capacities, the ability to follow the
flow of stories and information across multiple modalities and the ability to search
for, synthesize, and disseminate information8
. Contemporary students with these
abilities can easily adjust to new situations, quickly understand information input and
output, and thus interact with diverse environments and the development of these new
abilities are closely connected with the popularity of new technologies.
Media technologies in education (instructional media) have been classified into
linear and non-linear media by some well- studied9
cases. Linear media is designed to
be used in a predetermined, structured order, with little interactive and user flexibility
6
Marc Prensky, Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants, (MCB University Press, Vol. 9 No. 5,2001)
7
New London Group, “A Pedagogy of Multiliteracies: Designing Social Futures,” in Multiliteracies: Literacy
Learning and the Design of Social Futures, (New York: Routledge, 2000) p.9-38.
8
Kress, G., Literacy in the New Media Age (New York: Routledge, 2003)
9
Hsu, Y, Ho, H. N. J, TSAI, C. Hwang, G. Chun, H, Wang, C, Chen, N. Research Trends in Technology-based
Learning from 2000 to 2009: A content Analysis of Publications in Selected Journals (Educational Technology &
Society, 2012)
6

7. CandNo:130505
(books and lectures associated with traditional teaching methods). Non-linear media
such as hypertext, on the other hand, provide multidimensional access to information,
individualized and customized learning. This electronic interactive communication
technology can offer the opposite to non-participatory instruction by providing users
access to a virtual reality, in which to seek information in exchange for active
involvement with the medium. Therefore, if we apply such an electronic interactive
media in an instructional environment, it will make interactive between students and
information and will make students participation unavoidable.
In addition, because non-linear media process and deliver amounts of
information far greater than human performance allows, through the use of non-linear
media in teaching activities, student can expand their analytical capabilities in terms
of processing volume. Enormous data banks can be compared, analyzed, paired, and
structured allowing individuals to conduct studies of previously unthinkable
magnitude with relatively little effort10
. This shift in processing abilities has redefined
the context in which humankind structures knowledge; modern technologies provide
us with far more information than is reasonable to retain.
In the information age, education will not only be more accessible, it will be highly
adaptive and customized. Technologies such as cloud computing; 3D printing and
learning analytics will transform the norms of education. With these technologies,
students will be more independent from their educational institutions; education will
10
Perraton, H Choosing technologies for education (Journal of Educational Media, 25(1), 2000) p. 31-38
7

8. CandNo:130505
be more interactive and engaging, and educators will be capable of monitoring and
providing individualized feedback on an unprecedented level.
Emerging media technologies and technological advancements are bringing
innovation, offering new ways to provide education, and challenging the education-
industry’s landscape. However, in many places, the paradigms of education have not
changed for nearly a century. Currently education has largely been restricted to the
physical world. Digital media technologies are still not widely utilized around the
globe. This is often due to financial and budgetary constraints. In general, the
utilization of digital learning media in educational institutions still has big room for
improvement11
.
Chapter 2 3D Learning Environment
Maker Club is an educational technology company who designs and distributes
three-dimensional printed robots and other products that teach coding and electrical
11
Schofield, D., Noond, J., & Burton, A. Reconstructing accidents: Simulating accidents using virtual reality
(Proceedings of APCOM XXX Symposium 2002, Phoenix, Arizona, 2002))
8

9. CandNo:130505
engineering skills. Engaging with a virtual world via computer, multi-faced
technology in education can still be regarded as a passive activity, but three-
dimensional learning tools from Maker Club have the potential to change this
situation. Maker Club explores the progress from designing 3D images to producing
3D objects and continues to open up new learning possibilities. New products they
designed encourage interactive demonstrations and increased participation generally.
This UK based company is working towards getting a 3D printer in every UK school
and firmly believe that 3D printing can change education.
3D learning tools emphasize active, formal and informal learning in an
unparalleled manner for all levels of education12
. In the Maker Club’s learning
environment, three-dimensional learning tools are being used in a variety of ways.
Students with access to 3D printing can make and interact with robotic parts and
artistic thoughts. Based on the needs of today’s society, education is increasingly
focused on integrating soft skills, such as creativity and data processing. With a
stronger focus on these soft skills, Maker Club makes their students create their own
pieces by using 3D printer and other equipment. Often, by creating these objects
themselves, and then being able to interact with them, the students are much more
eager to participate in a lesson that would otherwise be regarded as inadequate
response. This style of learning environment emphasizes the skills necessary to
complete all aspects of the process from design to creation.
Combine with Raspberry Pi (a credit-card sized single board computer developed
12
ASH, K. Digital Education (Ed-Tech Tactics, 2013)
9

10. CandNo:130505
by the Raspberry Pi foundation, Python is utilized as its main programming language)
and Arduino; all the platforms of Maker Club’s products are open source. For
example, a product called Carduino, it is a 3D printing toy controlled by an Arduino
chip, and students need to print the body by themselves via 3D printer and thus allows
for a huge level of customization. This product also can be controlled by smartphone
with their Maker Connect app, which is based on an open source platform. The
technologies they use not only fantastic 3D learning tools, but also provide access to
open source software and programming tools, which facilitates easier learning and
creativity among students. Thus, the Maker Club is a prime example of a 3D Learning
institution which is giving students an unprecedented hands on and kinesthetic
approach to understanding both the hardware and software aspects of knowledge in
the information age. Therefore Maker Club’s 3D learning tools, particularly 3D
printing, are unique in their ability to engage their students, teach them knowledge
and also train them in more vocationally focused skills.
Our culture is largely dominated by visual and there are many academic
disciplines (critical theory, psychology, media studies and art history) help explain
how people interpret visual imagery. The most significant innovation of 3D
technologies is the return to a visually based representation of reality and the digital
visualization of information aids the understanding of abstract concepts while
simultaneously increasing conceptual abstraction13
. Since people simply take what
they see to be the world to a large extend, visual and tactile learning improves people’
13
PERRATON, H Choosing technologies for education, (Journal of Educational Media, 2000), p38
10

11. CandNo:130505
s understanding, as they are able to comprehend how the parts make the whole of
things. 3D technologies thus have the potential to make learning resources more
accessible and to make the learning process a more active one because 3D images
reflect exactly how humans view the world. Besides, children without the ability for
abstract thought find it especially difficult to understand what is not visible so
visualization is a powerful teaching method. This more physical and visual method of
learning provided by 3D technologies makes complex concepts more easily to be
understood. In addition, a 3D environment can provide a level of visual realism and
interactivity consistent with the real world, it is possible that ideas learned within the
environment will be more readily recalled and applied within the corresponding real-
world environment14
, this is a logical corollary to the theory that knowledge can be
internally anchored to experience. 3D learning environment are shattering the
passivity of traditional education. These technologies (particularly 3D printing)
encourage an interactive, engaging and dynamic learning environment where
students’ experiences can go beyond the pages of a textbook.
Advanced 3D technology has existed since the 1990s. In recent years, scholars
have already begun to make greater use of 3D technologies in the education fields.
For instance, advanced 3D computer graphics and virtual environment technology,
similar to that used by the film and computer games industry, has been used to
generate interactive learning environments that will allow learners to undertake a
range of simulated experiences, also allow educational developers to rapidly create
14
Bell, et al., Educational implications of the digital fabrication revolution, (Tech Trends 54 (5) 2010))
11

12. CandNo:130505
realistic online virtual environments. As Winn and Jackson15
suggest, 3D environments
“are most useful when they embody concepts and principles that are not normally
accessible to the senses”.
3D learning tools extend beyond 3D printing; for example, web platforms such
as 123D Catch allow users to create 3D images from their own photographs16
. The
introduction of this 3D learning tools in schools will allow students to learn more
complex concepts like computer-aided 3D design and 3D mathematical modeling.
These applications of 3D learning, beyond 3D printing, are particularly new for
educators and institutions; however, this is not a problem as most of the technologies
being implemented are already used and understood by “digital natives”, they can
easily adapt the traditional teaching method and be new teaching tools. 3D learning
tools beyond 3D printing will therefore be more adaptable to our pre-existing
curriculums than 3D printing which requires a new syllabus altogether.
Other virtual teaching and training applications from a range of industries have
also demonstrated the value of digital media. It is particularly appropriate to use 3D
environments in situations where the tasks being learned are very expensive or very
dangerous to undertake (etc. flight, surgery, and driving). For example, 3D
environments have been used to train nuclear power plant workers in Japan17
. Another
example is the use of such environments to train astronauts in how to repair a space
15
Jackson, R., Taylor, W., & Winn, W. D. Peer collaboration in virtual environments: An investigation of multi-
participant virtual reality applied in primary science education (American Educational Research Association, 1999)
16
JACKSON, A. Grand Rapids high school students of technology behind holograms (M Live 2012)
17
BRAMFORD, A. The 3D in Education White Paper (Gaia Technologies, DLP Texas Instruments, 2013)
12

13. CandNo:130505
telescope18
. 3D environments may be of value for any tasks that cannot be
conveniently carried out by learners as often as they need to or at a convenient time.
As 3D technology becomes cheaper and more readily available, students’
learning experiences will change dramatically. In the future three-dimensional,
interactive, multi-user, collaborative virtual environments are going to be increasingly
used to generate educational experiences around the world. Learning will no longer be
restricted to understanding the theory of something, it will become about experiencing
the object itself. The era of affordable 3D learning environment is clearly underway.
Although the potential of 3D environments as learning resources is clear, there is
still a great deal of work to be carried out before scholars and educators can sure
about where 3D environments should appropriately be used and about how best to
design them. Additionally, if such educational environments are to become
widespread, they need to be easier for people to use. But certainly, educational 3D
environments have attracted much attention.
Chapter 3 Video Game in Education
After witnessing how his teenage son solved problems on his own, developed a
deep understanding in the and accelerated his reading and writing skills just to play
Minecraft, a popular sandbox software game, Will Richardson describes the joys but
also the implied perils of this narrative in his book Why School?: "In this new story,
18
L. Kelion, 3D Printer Makers’Rival Versions of Future (Rapid Prototyping Journal 13 2007)
13

14. CandNo:130505
real learning happens anywhere, anytime, with anyone we like - not just with a
teacher and some same-age peers, in a classroom, from September to June. More
important, it happens around things we learners choose to learn, not what someone
else tells us to learn."
There are already many scholars and educators that see Minecraft as a good
learning tool. For gamers, Minecraft is both a fun and addicting video game in which
students can interactive with others. For educators, it’s a learning environment, design
tool, and activity that can develop grit, resourcefulness, and other meaningful life
skills. In fact, not only Minecraft, many other video games are seen as ways to teach,
learn and inspire.
Electronic games are growing rapidly as a cultural norm, a set of media
technologies, and a global industry.19
Now just over thirty years old, video games
have quickly become one of the most pervasive, profitable, and influential forms of
entertainment in the world. Given the pervasive influence of video games on our
culture, many scholars have taken an interest in what the effects these games have on
players, and how some of the motivating aspects of video games might be harnessed
to facilitate learning. While some of them give a deep concern about the possibility
that video games might foster violence, aggression, negative imagery of women, or
social isolation20
, others see video games as powerfully motivating digital
environments and study video games in order to determine how motivational
19
Ian Bogost, Videogames and the future of education (On the Horizon, Vol. 13, 2005)
20
R. F. Bowman, A `Pac-Man' theory of motivation: tactical implications for classroom instruction (Educational
Technology, 1982) p14
14

15. CandNo:130505
components of popular video games might be integrated into instructional design21
.
For example, by situating his discussion of video games, Bowman gives educators a
theoretical framework for understanding the underlying mechanisms of video games,
and a starting place for designing more engaging learning environments in his
discussion of video games22
. He claims that students in traditional learning
environment (teacher led classes) have little control over what they learn, are passive
receivers of materials chosen by teachers, must conform to the pace and ability level
of the group instruction, and are given surface, inexact, standard feedback on their
work. On the other hand, well-designed video game learning environment can provide
fun as well as passionate involvement, structure, motivation, ego gratification,
adrenaline, creativity and social interaction. Thus he suggests that educators could use
video games as a tool for improving learning environments, by providing clear goals,
challenging students, allowing for collaboration, using criterion based assessments,
giving students more control over the learning process and incorporating novelty into
the environment.
Instead of just for entertainment, now one should consider video games as
distinct medium or mode of conveying information. What distinguishes the games
designed for education from other common educational media is the degree of
interactivity. The core of a video game is a computational model of a simulated world;
they require spontaneous response to stimulations occurring in a simulated world. The
players' actions then affect the way that the simulation and event unfolds. This
21
Ian Bogost, Videogames and the future of education (On the Horizon, Vol. 13, 2005)
22
R. F. Bowman, A `Pac-Man' theory of motivation: tactical implications for classroom instruction (Educational
Technology, 1982) p14
15

16. CandNo:130505
computational model, however, does much more than determine the physics of the
video game world23
. A video game model provides a series of challenges to test and to
stimulate the player; the progression of these challenges is often embedded in a
storyline that has multi-element information. Thus the computational model defines
what it means to succeed or to fail in the logic of the game. When video game
designers or game-based learning environment designers put these elements together
in compelling ways, they are able to effectively leverage the extra dimensions of
engagement within the medium.
The purpose of video game designers has always been to engage players24
. In the
game-based learning environment, video games have the potential of placing students
in simulated environments where they face real and unlimited challenges similar in
nature to those faced by real-world professionals. Because it is a simulated
environment, the level of the game or the difficulty in learning can be tailored either
easy or hard for students and gradually into the roles of professionals. The
consequences of failure are relatively lowered. Students have the freedom to
experiment with multiple approaches and learn from their relative success, which is
specified by the rules of the video game. By defining the rules carefully and
elaborately, creative strategies are rewarded over formulaic ones, one may foster a
system of semantics that requires students to think, value, and act like professionals，
then to achieve the teaching purposes though these video games.
23
D. W. Shaffer, How Computer Games Help Children Learn, (Palgrave Macmillan, 2006).
24
Ian Bogost, Persuasive Games (The MIT Press, 2007)
16

17. CandNo:130505
Actually, educators and scholars have already applied games and simulations to
learning for decades (Skinner’s teaching machine in the 1960s), and many are already
used in essential practices. In the military for example, commercial games have been
used to measure learners’ eye-to-hand abilities, simulators are used to train pilots, and
simulator technology is sold to commercial developers to be implemented into flight
or tank simulators25
.
While video games and simulations are becoming more and more widespread in
education, many people have expressed concern about the side effects of video games
on learners. Certainly, some of these concerns are justified, as the contents of many
video games are still no more than “kill or be killed” and many others with
inappropriate themes. However, these concerns about video games effects in
education are largely unfounded, in fact, recent developments in video game design
are beginning to reverse these trends; video games are increasing in complexity and
profound their stories, characters development, and collaboration.
In addition, as mentioned before, game-based learning is much more engaging
than traditional methods of teaching. Students are generally attracted to video games
because they are both fun and challenging. Nowadays game-based learning is being
used through multidisciplinary partnership, from mathematics and science to history
and languages, designers for this media learning environment are trying “to tap into
that quite committed effort that kids put into gaming”26
, but to progress through the
levels of knowledge that students must get through to understand a particular
25
J. P. Gee, What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy, (Palgrave Macmillan, 2003).
26
Vasagar, J. Technological innovations could revolutionise classroom learning (The Guardian, 2012))
17

18. CandNo:130505
discipline. However, these games are not designed to replace the teacher; they are
designed to highlight students’ weakness and difficulties within the game, and
therefore particular concepts of a subject. Teachers’ workloads can be reduced as well,
as they can focus more attention on the remedial students and without holding back
the overall progress of the whole class. Also game-based learning will allow teachers
to deliver a more attractive, customized and adaptive education to their students.
In general, game-based learning not only delivers education in a very different
manner to traditional learning mechanisms, it also delivers a distinctive type of
education. As video games often engage the players through a narrative or storyline
that can reward players’ progress, these narratives can also allow students to engage in
social, civic and political contexts that mimic real-life complexities and experiences in
a risk-free environment. Thus Game-based learning is able to give students an
understanding of continuity and integration. The journey of progress within a video
game, as a result of ceaselessly learning new concepts and rules, rewards the students
for their achievement, whilst also encouraging them to explore new aspects of life.
This problem-solving environment offered by most games can encourages students to
be creative with what are often real-world challenges, therefore, game-based learning
provides students with the opportunity to acquire knowledge, experiment with
implementing this knowledge, and then receive feedback in a safe virtual world27
.
This safe virtual world provides students with an incredibly interactive experience,
whilst also providing teachers with necessary information about students’ progress.
27
PIVEC, P. 2009. Game-based Learning or Game-based Teaching? (EDUCATION, D. F. (ed.). UK: Becta:
leading next generation learning, 2009)
18

19. CandNo:130505
Game-based learning, therefore, provides educators with the possibility of offering
students a very diverse and exciting educational experience and give a new hope to
the future education.
Chapter 4 Conclusion
During the last thirty years, a plenty of epoch-making inventions in the realm of
digital media has reshaped teaching and learning in society significantly. Along with
19

20. CandNo:130505
being easy to use, Digital media and technology shine a light on weaknesses in
traditional education, for example, they make the basic content incredibly easy to
access, which are used to be defined as hard to understand. With a better
understanding, students can learn the deeper frameworks and concepts and apply
these understandings to any content they encounter in the future. The skills that they
learn from this learning environment become the enduring understandings of their
education. Thus, technologies such as Web 2.0 platforms, Massive Open Online
Courses (MOOCs), cloud computing, mobile learning devices, 3D learning tools,
game-based learning are causing a shift in the landscape of education and digital
technologies make possible a “learning revolution” in education.
Many of these technologies have become non-remarkable features of daily-life
and this has largely been seen as a consequence of the Internet. The Internet has
fundamentally changed how society interacts, communicates and presents information
and has made digital literacy a fundamental skill of the modern age. Through Internet
and these technologies, education is moving into the virtual world and is becoming
universal as they allow education to be delivered cheaply beyond the classroom and
via great distances. As the physical world increasingly merges with the virtual world,
it will be increasingly imperative that education will be more and more
individualized, customized, interactive, adaptable and accessible for every student.
The challenge faced by new technologies in education, however, is to develop
leadership both in shaping the future of technological innovations as well as in
20

21. CandNo:130505
adapting to the implications of those developments. In most places where new
technologies are being used in education today, the technologies are used simply to
reinforce outdated approaches to learning. Even as scientific and technological
advances are transforming agriculture, medicine, and industry, ideas about and
approaches to teaching and learning remain largely unchanged.
To take full advantage of new technologies, we need to fundamentally rethink
our approaches to learning and education and our ideas of how new technologies can
support them. As new technologies also have disadvantages, for example, they may
cause unhealthy study habits and developing a lazy attitude toward their education. So
it’s educator and learning environment designer’s responsibility to make right use of
some these technologies and bring us a more bright future.
Bibliography
[1] Manuel Castells, Communication, Power and Counter-power in the Network
Society. In: International Journal of Communication Volume 1 (2007)
21

22. CandNo:130505
[2] Manuel Castells, Materials for an exploratory theory of the network society. In:
British Journal of Sociology Vol. No. 51 Issue No. 1 (2000)
[3] Manuel Castells, The Rise of the Network Society: Economy, Society and Culture
v.1: The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture Volume 1 (Information Age
Series)(2012)
[4] Manuel Castells, Critical Education in the New Information Age (Rowman &
Littlefield, 1999)
[5] Manuel Castells, The Internet Galaxy: Reflections of the Internet, Business, and
Society. (Oxford University Press, 2002)
[6] Ian Bogost, How to Do Things with Videogames (University of Minnesota Press,
2011).
[7] Ian Bogost, Persuasive Games: The Expressive Power of Videogames Paperback
(MIT Press Cambridge 2007)
[8] Ian Bogost, Videogames and the future of education (On the Horizon, Vol. 13,
2005)
[9] John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York, Macmillan, 1916)
[10] Will Richardson, Why School? How Education Must Change When Learning
and Information Are Everywhere (TED Conferences, 2012)
[11] Marc Prensky, Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants, (MCB University Press, Vol.
9 No. 5,2001)
22

23. CandNo:130505
[12] New London Group, “A Pedagogy of Multiliteracies: Designing Social Futures,”
in Multiliteracies: Literacy Learning and the Design of Social Futures, (New York:
Routledge, 2000)
[13] Kress, G., Literacy in the New Media Age (New York: Routledge, 2003)
[14] Hsu, Y, Ho, H. N. J, TSAI, C. Hwang, G. Chun, H, Wang, C, Chen, N. Research
Trends in Technology-based Learning from 2000 to 2009: A content Analysis of
Publications in Selected Journals (Educational Technology & Society, 2012)
[15] Perraton, H Choosing technologies for education (Journal of Educational Media,
25(1), 2000)
[16] Schofield, D., Noond, J., & Burton, A. Reconstructing accidents: Simulating
accidents using virtual reality (Proceedings of APCOM XXX Symposium 2002,
Phoenix, Arizona, 2002))
[17] Ash, K. Digital Education (Ed-Tech Tactics, 2013)
[18] Bearne, E. and Wolstencroft, H. (2006) Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing:
Multimodality 5–11. London: Sage.
[19] Bell, et al., Educational implications of the digital fabrication revolution, (Tech
Trends 54 (5) 2010))
[20] Jackson, R., Taylor, W., & Winn, W. D. Peer collaboration in virtual
environments: An investigation of multi-participant virtual reality applied in primary
science education (American Educational Research Association, 1999)
[21] Jackson, A. Grand Rapids high school students of technology behind holograms
(MLive 2012)
23

24. CandNo:130505
[22] Bramford, A. The 3D in Education White Paper (Gaia Technologies, DLP Texas
Instruments, 2013)
[23] L. Kelion, 3D Printer Makers’ Rival Versions of Future (Rapid Prototyping
Journal 13 2007)
[24] R. F. Bowman, A “Pac-Man” theory of motivation: tactical implications for
classroom instruction (Educational Technology, 1982) p14
[25] J. P. Gee, What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy,
(Palgrave Macmillan, 2003).
[26] D. W. Shaffer, How Computer Games Help Children Learn (Palgrave Macmillan,
2006).
[27] Vasagar, J. Technological innovations could revolutionise classroom learning
(The Guardian, 2012))
[28] Pivec, P. 2009. Game-based Learning or Game-based Teaching? (EDUCATION,
D. F. (ed.). UK: Becta: leading next generation learning, 2009)
24