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Chapter 1
Philosophy of Science:
An Introduction
Introduction
• Philosophy of science is the perspective the
nurse utilizes in every patient, family, or group
encounter.
• Each individual has his or her own philosophy
that determines the ideas he or she is or is not
open to.
• It is important for nurses to examine their
philosophy and question the assumptions they
make.
What Is Science?
• Science is from the Latin word scientia, which
means “knowledge.”
• It refers to both processes and outcomes of
processes, such as general laws and
observations.
• Laws are utilized in systematic ways to create
a body of knowledge about a topic.
Natural Hard Sciences
• Physics, mathematics, and chemistry are examples of
natural sciences.
• Considered “pure,” or stand alone, unique bodies of
knowledge.
• Based on the assumption that reality is objective and,
therefore, reproducible and reliable.
• Explanations are reasonable, constant and consistent,
accurate, objective, discoverable, and understandable
• In medicine, they assume a disease focus rather than a
person focus.
Soft Applied Sciences
• Sociology, psychology, and anthropology are
examples of applied sciences.
• Focus is on the application of bodies of knowledge to
meet human needs.
• Rely on inherent assumptions of natural sciences but
do not assume that reality is objective.
• In medicine, soft applied sciences are found in social
work, psychotherapy and examination of healthcare
disparities.
Human Science
• Emphasizes the importance of individual scientists on
the scientific process.
• Posits that the nature of science and role of the
scientist are different when a subject is viewed as
human science rather than natural or applied
science.
• The scientist and the subject cannot be separated
from each other
• In medicine, human science is the nurse’s
recognition of himself or herself as a scientist
involved in providing care.
Scientific Method: Physical Science
• Natural science relies on a linear problem solving
process, or the scientific method.
• Method is base on the assumption that observation
is universal.
• The goal is accurate, reproducible events that do not
take researcher individuality or consciousness into
account (control through prediction).
• Decisions scientists make impact results, which
introduces a subjective element.
The Aim of Science
• Natural sciences aim to develop knowledge
for the sake of developing knowledge and
search for truth.
• Applied sciences aim to utilize knowledge by
applying it to a specific purpose.
• Human science aims to improve quality of life
and highlight individual importance by
understanding what helps people maximize
their functional abilities.
Scientific Method: Human Science
• Due to its concrete rather than abstract
nature, human science utilizes different
methods than natural sciences.
• Scientists and subjects are treated as parts of
the same whole and methods are dynamic
while still being rigorous.
• Contextual consistency, purposive sampling,
question validity, and message validation are
emphasized.
Criteria for Science (1 of 2)
• Science must differentiate itself from non-
science or pseudoscience; this is particularly
true of natural sciences and relies on five
criteria:
– Intersubjective testing: Two people observing the
same entity the same way should obtain the same
results
– Reliability: The same result is achieved time and
again under the same conditions
Criteria for Science (2 of 2)
– Definiteness and precision: Creating identical
circumstances for repeat experiments leads to the
same results.
– Coherence: A focus on the connectedness of the
parts of an experiment and their relation to one
another.
– Comprehensiveness and scope: The ability of an
outcome to be used for something other than its
intended purpose.
Questions for the Practitioner
• Is nursing pure or applied science?
• Is care provided for the purpose of prediction and
control?
• Are there universals in patient care provision?
• Does an external world independent of human
consciousness color patient care?
• Does nursing satisfy the five science criteria?
• Is nursing practice objective?
Philosophy
• Philosophy comes from the Greek philosophia which
means “love of wisdom.”
• Involves the search for meaning and represents a
perspective and its set of beliefs.
• Is both a process and an outcome.
• It is the application of a belief to situations known
and unknown.
• Relies on epistemology and ontology in the
application of a belief to situations.
Philosophy of Science
• Philosophy of science is where the two disciplines
meet to examine a body of knowledge and the
approaches used to study it.
• In nursing, it is an examination of concepts, theories,
and laws as they relate to practice, understanding,
deliberate thought, and evolution of praxis.
• Requires mindfulness of objective and individual
perspectives and comfort with the assumptions and
underpinnings of the various philosophical
perspectives.
How Do We Know?
• Key Question in philosophy of science
• Tradition
• Authorities (institution, police, professor, church)
• Doctrine
• Reason
• Common sense
• Science
– Knowledge derived from methods that may be linear or
complex (chaotic) depending on the view and approach
Analytic Philosophy (1 of 3)
• Focuses more on the use of the process of logic and
rational discourse than on the subject itself.
• Focuses on the search for a single truth through
scientific process.
• Closely associated with logical positivism, rigid
adherence to the scientific method, and the belief in
external world structure.
• Based on the belief that a statement is meaningful
only if it is proven true or false through
experimentation.
Analytic Philosophy: Logical Positivism (2 of 3)
• Four rules of logical positivism
– Phenomenalism
– Nominalism,
– The denial of cognitive value in value judgments and
normative statements
– The essential unity of the scientific method
• Requires a rigid adherence to the scientific method,
a belief in cause and effect, replicability, and an
unwavering belief in an external world structure that
remains independent of self.
• Belief in verifiability principle.
Analytic Philosophy (2 of 3)
• Criticized as too rigid, too deductive, and lacking
recognition of the human experience.
• Logical positivism segued into empiricism.
• The scientific method is paramount, but truths must be
generated by experience
• Both logical positivism and empiricism were
incorporated into the received view (realism).
• Theories are either right or wrong and must be formalized
and axiomized
• Based on the search for a single truth
Continental Philosophy (1 of 3)
• Focuses on the connection of an idea to the
world and historical context around that idea.
• About the relationships among people, ideas,
meaning, and historical connectedness rather
than theories or truths.
• Human science is dominated by continental
philosophy and is based on connectedness, not
cause and effect.
• It examines lived experiences in the past as well
as the present and historical context.
• Phenomenology: There is value in universal experience.
– Focus on examining phenomena that appear in the consciousness of the
subjects
– From an examination of personal experience, the essences of the
phenomena are drawn
• Hermeneutics: deals with the interpretation of a message that
is being delivered.
– Meaning and understanding are the aims of philosophical inquiry
– Assumes that people are social and dialogical beings; that culture,
language, skills, and experiences create shared understandings; that
there is a continual circle of connectedness and understanding; that
understanding precedes interpretation; and that the interpreter and the
interpreted are seen as one
Continental Philosophy (2 of 3)
Continental Philosophy(3 of 3)
• Post-structuralism: The message’s meaning is determined
by the recipient’s perception and the vehicle for delivery is
not significant to the message.
– The study of structures is a cultural phenomenon open to
interpretations/ misinterpretations
– Equalizes the imbalance of power between providers and patients
• All varieties evolve around context, meaning, and the
knowing of the subject.
• Collectively, continental philosophies may also be called
the perceived view, antirealism, or idealism.
Perceived View
• A continental philosophy suggesting that theories are
neither right nor wrong and that observation leads to
value-laden theories.
• Observation involves utilization of the senses and the
mind and is subjective due to the physical and
mental components involved.
• Many different methods and kinds of theories must
be used to obtain either truth or understanding.
• Use methods appropriate to the question which may
be either quantitative, qualitative, or both.
Chaos and Complexity
• Contemporary philosophers synthesize analytic and
continental philosophy into a new and emerging philosophy
of science.
• This philosophy incorporates chaos and complexity science to
bring together truth and understanding in a dynamic way.
• Posits that the universe is a whole made of interrelated parts.
– Complex adaptive, dynamic systems are connected to the
environment and influenced both by what comes before and what
comes after
• Assumptions include embeddedness, distributed control,
multi-directionality, coexistence of order and disorder, and
unpredictable outcomes.
Question the Assumptions
• Philosophy of science is complex and many schools of
thought exist.
• When reflecting on your philosophy, it is important to
consider several questions:
– What are the assumptions of each philosophy?
– Do you aim to control or understand?
– Is there only one way to resolve a problem?
– What is your praxis wedded to?
– How can you be the best practitioner possible?
– What do patients, families, and communities need?
– Are you the nurse you want to be?
Conclusion
• Science and philosophy require examination of
both knowledge and understanding.
• It is important to understand the ideological
differences of different scientific and
philosophical schools and incorporate portions of
each in your individual philosophy.
• Utilizing a philosophy that constantly questions
assumptions will help you evolve as a nurse.

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Chapter 1 philosophy of science

  • 1. Chapter 1 Philosophy of Science: An Introduction
  • 2. Introduction • Philosophy of science is the perspective the nurse utilizes in every patient, family, or group encounter. • Each individual has his or her own philosophy that determines the ideas he or she is or is not open to. • It is important for nurses to examine their philosophy and question the assumptions they make.
  • 3. What Is Science? • Science is from the Latin word scientia, which means “knowledge.” • It refers to both processes and outcomes of processes, such as general laws and observations. • Laws are utilized in systematic ways to create a body of knowledge about a topic.
  • 4. Natural Hard Sciences • Physics, mathematics, and chemistry are examples of natural sciences. • Considered “pure,” or stand alone, unique bodies of knowledge. • Based on the assumption that reality is objective and, therefore, reproducible and reliable. • Explanations are reasonable, constant and consistent, accurate, objective, discoverable, and understandable • In medicine, they assume a disease focus rather than a person focus.
  • 5. Soft Applied Sciences • Sociology, psychology, and anthropology are examples of applied sciences. • Focus is on the application of bodies of knowledge to meet human needs. • Rely on inherent assumptions of natural sciences but do not assume that reality is objective. • In medicine, soft applied sciences are found in social work, psychotherapy and examination of healthcare disparities.
  • 6. Human Science • Emphasizes the importance of individual scientists on the scientific process. • Posits that the nature of science and role of the scientist are different when a subject is viewed as human science rather than natural or applied science. • The scientist and the subject cannot be separated from each other • In medicine, human science is the nurse’s recognition of himself or herself as a scientist involved in providing care.
  • 7. Scientific Method: Physical Science • Natural science relies on a linear problem solving process, or the scientific method. • Method is base on the assumption that observation is universal. • The goal is accurate, reproducible events that do not take researcher individuality or consciousness into account (control through prediction). • Decisions scientists make impact results, which introduces a subjective element.
  • 8. The Aim of Science • Natural sciences aim to develop knowledge for the sake of developing knowledge and search for truth. • Applied sciences aim to utilize knowledge by applying it to a specific purpose. • Human science aims to improve quality of life and highlight individual importance by understanding what helps people maximize their functional abilities.
  • 9. Scientific Method: Human Science • Due to its concrete rather than abstract nature, human science utilizes different methods than natural sciences. • Scientists and subjects are treated as parts of the same whole and methods are dynamic while still being rigorous. • Contextual consistency, purposive sampling, question validity, and message validation are emphasized.
  • 10. Criteria for Science (1 of 2) • Science must differentiate itself from non- science or pseudoscience; this is particularly true of natural sciences and relies on five criteria: – Intersubjective testing: Two people observing the same entity the same way should obtain the same results – Reliability: The same result is achieved time and again under the same conditions
  • 11. Criteria for Science (2 of 2) – Definiteness and precision: Creating identical circumstances for repeat experiments leads to the same results. – Coherence: A focus on the connectedness of the parts of an experiment and their relation to one another. – Comprehensiveness and scope: The ability of an outcome to be used for something other than its intended purpose.
  • 12. Questions for the Practitioner • Is nursing pure or applied science? • Is care provided for the purpose of prediction and control? • Are there universals in patient care provision? • Does an external world independent of human consciousness color patient care? • Does nursing satisfy the five science criteria? • Is nursing practice objective?
  • 13. Philosophy • Philosophy comes from the Greek philosophia which means “love of wisdom.” • Involves the search for meaning and represents a perspective and its set of beliefs. • Is both a process and an outcome. • It is the application of a belief to situations known and unknown. • Relies on epistemology and ontology in the application of a belief to situations.
  • 14. Philosophy of Science • Philosophy of science is where the two disciplines meet to examine a body of knowledge and the approaches used to study it. • In nursing, it is an examination of concepts, theories, and laws as they relate to practice, understanding, deliberate thought, and evolution of praxis. • Requires mindfulness of objective and individual perspectives and comfort with the assumptions and underpinnings of the various philosophical perspectives.
  • 15. How Do We Know? • Key Question in philosophy of science • Tradition • Authorities (institution, police, professor, church) • Doctrine • Reason • Common sense • Science – Knowledge derived from methods that may be linear or complex (chaotic) depending on the view and approach
  • 16. Analytic Philosophy (1 of 3) • Focuses more on the use of the process of logic and rational discourse than on the subject itself. • Focuses on the search for a single truth through scientific process. • Closely associated with logical positivism, rigid adherence to the scientific method, and the belief in external world structure. • Based on the belief that a statement is meaningful only if it is proven true or false through experimentation.
  • 17. Analytic Philosophy: Logical Positivism (2 of 3) • Four rules of logical positivism – Phenomenalism – Nominalism, – The denial of cognitive value in value judgments and normative statements – The essential unity of the scientific method • Requires a rigid adherence to the scientific method, a belief in cause and effect, replicability, and an unwavering belief in an external world structure that remains independent of self. • Belief in verifiability principle.
  • 18. Analytic Philosophy (2 of 3) • Criticized as too rigid, too deductive, and lacking recognition of the human experience. • Logical positivism segued into empiricism. • The scientific method is paramount, but truths must be generated by experience • Both logical positivism and empiricism were incorporated into the received view (realism). • Theories are either right or wrong and must be formalized and axiomized • Based on the search for a single truth
  • 19. Continental Philosophy (1 of 3) • Focuses on the connection of an idea to the world and historical context around that idea. • About the relationships among people, ideas, meaning, and historical connectedness rather than theories or truths. • Human science is dominated by continental philosophy and is based on connectedness, not cause and effect. • It examines lived experiences in the past as well as the present and historical context.
  • 20. • Phenomenology: There is value in universal experience. – Focus on examining phenomena that appear in the consciousness of the subjects – From an examination of personal experience, the essences of the phenomena are drawn • Hermeneutics: deals with the interpretation of a message that is being delivered. – Meaning and understanding are the aims of philosophical inquiry – Assumes that people are social and dialogical beings; that culture, language, skills, and experiences create shared understandings; that there is a continual circle of connectedness and understanding; that understanding precedes interpretation; and that the interpreter and the interpreted are seen as one Continental Philosophy (2 of 3)
  • 21. Continental Philosophy(3 of 3) • Post-structuralism: The message’s meaning is determined by the recipient’s perception and the vehicle for delivery is not significant to the message. – The study of structures is a cultural phenomenon open to interpretations/ misinterpretations – Equalizes the imbalance of power between providers and patients • All varieties evolve around context, meaning, and the knowing of the subject. • Collectively, continental philosophies may also be called the perceived view, antirealism, or idealism.
  • 22. Perceived View • A continental philosophy suggesting that theories are neither right nor wrong and that observation leads to value-laden theories. • Observation involves utilization of the senses and the mind and is subjective due to the physical and mental components involved. • Many different methods and kinds of theories must be used to obtain either truth or understanding. • Use methods appropriate to the question which may be either quantitative, qualitative, or both.
  • 23. Chaos and Complexity • Contemporary philosophers synthesize analytic and continental philosophy into a new and emerging philosophy of science. • This philosophy incorporates chaos and complexity science to bring together truth and understanding in a dynamic way. • Posits that the universe is a whole made of interrelated parts. – Complex adaptive, dynamic systems are connected to the environment and influenced both by what comes before and what comes after • Assumptions include embeddedness, distributed control, multi-directionality, coexistence of order and disorder, and unpredictable outcomes.
  • 24. Question the Assumptions • Philosophy of science is complex and many schools of thought exist. • When reflecting on your philosophy, it is important to consider several questions: – What are the assumptions of each philosophy? – Do you aim to control or understand? – Is there only one way to resolve a problem? – What is your praxis wedded to? – How can you be the best practitioner possible? – What do patients, families, and communities need? – Are you the nurse you want to be?
  • 25. Conclusion • Science and philosophy require examination of both knowledge and understanding. • It is important to understand the ideological differences of different scientific and philosophical schools and incorporate portions of each in your individual philosophy. • Utilizing a philosophy that constantly questions assumptions will help you evolve as a nurse.